Targeting cell signaling in allergic asthma

Acupoint Catgut-Embedding Therapy Inhibits NF-κB/COX-2 Pathway in an Ovalbumin-Induced Mouse Model of Allergic Asthma

Allergic asthma is associated with T helper (Th) 2 cell-biased immune responses and characterized by the airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). Studies have shown that the acupoint catgut-embedding therapy (ACE) has a therapeutic effect on allergic asthma. However, the relevant mechanism is poorly understood. In present study, female BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA) to establish a model of allergic asthma. AHR was evaluated by using airway resistance ( $R_L$ ) and lung dynamic compliance (Cdyn). Airway inflammation and mucus hypersecretion were observed by HE and PAS staining. Inflammatory cells were counted, and related cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Pulmonary group 2 innate lymphoid cell (ILC2s) proportions were analyzed by flow cytometry. The expression of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) was detected by immunostaining. Our results showed that OVA induction resulted in a significant increase in $R_L$ , accompanied by a significant decrease in Cdyn. The levels of interleukin- (IL-) 4, IL-13, OVA-specific IgE in BALF, and the percentage of ILC2 in the lungs were markedly increased accompanied by a significant decreased in interferon-γ (IFN-γ). Furthermore, the expressions of p-NF-κB p65 and COX-2 in airways were significantly upregulated. After ACE treatment, the indicators above were significantly reversed. In conclusion, ACE treatment inhibited the secretion of Th2 cytokines and the proliferation of ILC2s in the lungs, thereby dampening the inflammatory activity in allergic asthma. The underlying mechanism might be related to the inhibition of NF-κB/COX-2 pathway.

Mitochondria signaling pathways in allergic asthma

Mitochondria, as the powerhouse organelle of cells, are greatly involved in regulating cell signaling pathways, including those related to the innate and acquired immune systems, cellular differentiation, growth, death, apoptosis, and autophagy as well as hypoxic stress responses in various diseases. Asthma is a chronic complicated airway disease characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilic inflammation, mucus hypersecretion, and remodeling of airway. The asthma mortality and morbidity rates have increased worldwide, so understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying asthma progression is necessary for new anti-asthma drug development. The lung is an oxygen-rich organ, and mitochondria, by sensing and processing O₂, contribute to the generation of ROS and activation of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. Asthma pathophysiology has been tightly associated with mitochondrial dysfunction leading to reduced ATP synthase activity, increased oxidative stress, apoptosis induction, and abnormal calcium homeostasis. Defects of the mitochondrial play an essential role in the pro-remodeling mechanisms of lung fibrosis and airway cells’ apoptosis. Identification of mitochondrial therapeutic targets can help repair mitochondrial biogenesis and dysfunction and reverse related pathological changes and lung structural remodeling in asthma. Therefore, we here overviewed the relationship between mitochondrial signaling pathways and asthma pathogenic mechanisms.

PTPRH Alleviates Airway Obstruction and Th2 Inflammation in Asthma as a Protective Factor

Purpose

PTPRH inhibits EGFR activity directly in cancer patients and activated EGFR induces goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion in asthma. However, the function of PTPRH in asthma remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to access the association of PTPRH with asthma and its underlying mechanism.

Patients and Methods

We examined the PTPRH level in asthma patients (n = 108) and healthy controls (n = 35), and analyzed the correlations between PTPRH and asthma-related indicators. Human bronchial epithelial cell (HBECs) transfected with PTPRH and asthma mouse model were set up to investigate the function of PTPRH.

Results

The expression of PTPRH was significantly increased and correlated with pulmonary function parameters, including airway obstruction, and T-helper2 (Th2) associated markers in asthma patients. PTPRH increased in the house dust mite (HDM)-induced asthmatic mice, while Th2 airway inflammation and Muc5ac suppressed when treated with PTPRH. Accordingly, PTPRH expression was markedly increased in IL-13-stimulated HBECs but PTPRH over-expression suppressed MUC5AC. Moreover, HBECs transfected with over-expressed PTPRH inhibited the phosphorylation of EGFR, ERK1/2 and AKT, while induced against PTPRH in HBECs dephosphorylated of EGFR, ERK1/2 and AKT.

Conclusion

PTPRH reduces MUC5AC secretion to alleviate airway obstruction in asthma via potential phosphorylating of EGFR/ERK1/2/AKT signaling pathway, which may provide possible therapeutic implications for asthma.

Effects of Therapeutic Antibodies on Gene and Protein Signatures in Asthma Patients: A Comparative Systematic Review

Several biologic therapies that target inflammatory modulators are now used for treating patients with uncontrolled, severe asthma. Knowledge about how this type of treatment modifies the molecular milieu is rapidly increasing. Thus, this systematic review aimed to compile the reported effects of therapeutic antibodies on the transcriptome or proteome of asthma patients. Studies of asthmatic patients under biological treatment describing transcriptomic or proteomic changes upon treatment were included. Preclinical or single gene/protein studies were not considered. PubMed and Scopus search was performed in August and September 2021. Following PRISMA guidelines and GRADE recommendations, we selected 12 studies on gene or protein expression changes in patients treated with the antibodies currently approved by EMA and the FDA. All studies were at low risk of bias as per the RoB2 tool. Different gene clusters have been identified to change upon omalizumab treatment, found a reduction in eosinophil-associated gene signatures after benralizumab treatment, and protein profiles were different in patients treated with mepolizumab and in those treated with benralizumab. The main potential biomarkers proposed by the selected studies are shown. These results may contribute to discovering biomarkers of response and selecting the best therapy for each patient.

Distinct Secretion of MUC5AC and MUC5B in Upper and Lower Chronic Airway Diseases

The human airway is protected by a defensive mucus barrier. The most prominent components of mucus are the mucin glycoproteins MUC5AC and MUC5B. They are produced by goblet cells and submucosal gland cells in the upper and lower airways. Hyperplasia of these cells and hypersecretion of MUC5AC and MUC5B characterize chronic inflammatory diseases of the upper and lower airways. Recent studies have revealed that MUC5AC and MUC5B are expressed at specific sites in the respiratory tract through different molecular mechanisms and have distinct functions. Morphometric and histochemical studies have also examined the roles of goblet cells, submucosal gland cells, MUC5AC, and MUC5B in different chronic airway diseases individually. The individual study of goblet cells, submucosal gland cells, MUC5AC, and MUC5B in airway diseases would be helpful for precisely diagnosing chronic inflammatory diseases of the airway and establishing optimal treatments. This review focuses on the distinct secretion of MUC5AC and MUC5B and their producing cells in chronic inflammatory diseases of the upper and lower airway.

Small Proline-Rich Protein 3 Regulates IL-33/ILC2 Axis to Promote Allergic Airway Inflammation

Small proline-rich proteins (SPRRs), components of cornified cell envelope precursors, have recently been found to participate in airway diseases. However, their role in allergic airway inflammatory conditions remains unknown. Here, we explored the expression of SPRR3 in house dust mite (HDM)-sensitized/challenged mice and attempted to elucidate the regulatory role of SPRR3 in allergic airway inflammation. SPRR3 was identified via bioinformatics analysis of Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases and further confirmed to be upregulated in the lungs of asthmatic mice. Knockdown of SPRR3 via the intratracheal route significantly inhibited eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and suppressed the expressions of type 2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13) in BALF and lung tissues. Further, SPRR3 knockdown reduced the expression of IL-33 and further attenuated the activation of the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway in the recruitment of group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) to inhibit allergic airway inflammation. In vitro, SPRR3 siRNA could alleviate HDM-induced inflammatory responses in BEAS-2B cells. This study reveals the regulatory role of SPRR3 in allergic airway inflammation, identifying this protein as a potential novel therapeutic target for asthma.

An exopolysaccharide from Bacillus subtilis alleviates airway inflammatory responses via the NF-κB and STAT6 pathways in asthmatic mice

Bacillus subtilis is an intestinal probiotic for immune homeostasis and its exopolysaccharide (EPS) is known to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The underlying mechanisms are not yet fully understood. In the present study, we investigated the effects of the EPS (50, 100, 200 mg/kg) on airway inflammation in asthmatic mice. Our results showed that EPS treatment of asthmatic mice significantly alleviated pathological damage in the lungs, remarkably decreased the counts of total inflammatory cells including lymphocytes, and eosinophils in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and reduced indexes of oxidative damage. Moreover, the expression of type II T-helper cell (Th2) cytokines (interleukin- (IL)4 and -5) subsequent to EPS treatment was found to be dramatically down-regulated in a concentration-dependent manner. Additionally, the EPS treatment reduced JAK1, STAT6 and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) expression in the lungs of asthmatic mice. Taken together, these results suggest that the EPS from B. subtilis alleviates asthmatic airway inflammation, which involves the reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the down-regulation of the STAT6 and NF-κB inflammatory pathways, which can further reduce Th2 cytokine expression and eosinophilic inflammation. Thus, our findings provide a potential mechanism through which the EPS mitigates asthma, suggesting that the EPS could be a potential source of an anti-asthmatic drug.

Ganoderma Modulates Allergic Asthma Pathologic Features via Anti-inflammatory Effects

Ganoderma, a fungal genus, is a traditional medicine with immuno-modulating effects. Asthma is an inflammatory disease of airways, and the main trigger of asthma is allergic inflammation. In this study, the effects of Ganoderma (an anti-inflammatory agent) given via oral administration (G/O) or intraperitoneal injection (G/IP) on asthma was evaluated. Forty BALB/c mice were divided into four groups, including the control, OVA-challenge, OVA-challenge + G/O, and OVA-challenge + G/IP. To determine AHR, the MCh challenge test was done. The levels of IL-1β, -4, -5, -6, -8, -10, -12, -13, -17, -25, -33, -38, Cys-LT, LTB4, and hydroxyproline were measured. Finally, lung histopathology was evaluated to determine eosinophilic inflammation, goblet cell hyperplasia, and mucus hyper-secretion. Treatment with G/O and G/IP could significantly reduce the levels of IL-1β, -5, -6, -8, -17, -25, -33, and -38; the levels of IL-4 and IL-13 had no significant changes, but the levels of IL-10 and IL-12 were enhanced. The mice treated with G/O and G/IP showed decreased levels of Cys-LT, LTB4, peribronchial and perivascular inflammation, but no significant changes were observed in AHR, hydroxyproline level, goblet cell hyperplasia, and mucus hyper-secretion. Ganoderma can be applied as an immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory agent for managing asthma.

Morning Versus Evening Dosing of Sublingual Immunotherapy in Allergic Asthma: A Prospective Study

BACKGROUND

Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) has been proved to be an effective and safe treatment for allergic asthma (AS) in children. Nonetheless, several issues regarding SLIT remain to be resolved, including the information about optimal administration timing.

METHODS

A total of 163 AS children aged 4-13 years were enrolled and randomized into the morning dosing (MD) group and the evening dosing (ED) group. Participants received SLIT with Dermatophagoides farinae drops between 7:00 a. m. and 9:00 a.m. (for the MD group) or between 8:00 p. m. and 10:00 p.m. (for the ED group). The total asthma symptom score (TASS), total asthma medicine score (TAMS), Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁), FEV₁/forced volume vital capacity (FVC), fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and adverse events (AEs) were assessed at baseline, 0.5 and 1 year during the 1-year SLIT.

RESULTS

After 1 year, 62 patients in the MD group and 63 patients in the ED group completed the entire study. The clinical efficacy, pulmonary function and FeNO in both groups improved significantly at 0.5 and 1 year (p < 0.001). Compared to the MD group, the ED group showed significant lower ACQ score at 0.5 year (p < 0.001) and lower FeNO at 1 year (p < 0.05). No significant difference between two groups was observed in AE rate (p > 0.05). All AEs occurred in the first month, with no systemic AEs reported.

CONCLUSION

1-year house dust mite (HDM) SLIT is effective and well-tolerated in AS children regardless of administration time. SLIT dosing in the evening might enhance the asthma control level and reduce FeNO level compared with SLIT dosing in the morning.

Packaging and Delivery of Asthma Therapeutics

Asthma is a life-altering, chronic disease of heterogenous origin that features a complex interplay of immune and environmental signaling. Although very little progress has been made in prevention, diverse types of medications and delivery systems, including nanoscale systems, have been or are currently being developed to control airway inflammation and prevent exacerbations and fibrosis. These medications are delivered through mechanical methods, with various inhalers (with benefits and drawbacks) existing, and new types offering some variety in delivery. Of particular interest is the progress being made in nanosized materials for efficient penetration into the epithelial mucus layer and delivery into the deepest parts of the lungs. Liposomes, nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles, both natural and synthetic, have been explored in animal models of asthma and have produced promising results. This review will summarize and synthesize the latest developments in both macro-(inhaler) and micro-sized delivery systems for the purpose of treating asthma patients.

The Role of Secreted Frizzled Related Protein-1 in Allergic Asthma

Although allergic asthma is a highly prevalent chronic inflammatory condition, the underlying pathogenesis driving Th2 type inflammation is not well understood. Wnt/β-catenin signaling has been implicated, but the influence of individual members of the pathway is not clear. We hypothesized that Secreted Frizzled Related Protein-1 (SFRP-1), a Wnt signaling modulator, plays an important role in the development of allergic inflammation in asthma. Using an in vivo house dust mite asthma model, SFRP-1-/- mice were sensitized, and their bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was collected for evaluation of airway inflammation. SFRP-1-/- mice exhibited less inflammation, with reduced cellular infiltration and concentration of IL-5 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, compared to wild type (WT) mice. Similar findings were observed in WT mice treated with SFRP-1 inhibitor, WAY316606. Alveolar macrophages from sensitized SFRP-1-/- mice demonstrated reduced alternative polarization compared to wild WT, indicating that macrophages could mediate the alteration in inflammation seen in these mice. These findings suggest that SFRP-1 is an important potentiator of asthmatic airway inflammation.

Structure-Based Virtual Screening for Ligands of G Protein-Coupled Receptors: What Can Molecular Docking Do for You?

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of membrane proteins in the human genome and are important therapeutic targets. During the last decade, the number of atomic-resolution structures of GPCRs has increased rapidly, providing insights into drug binding at the molecular level. These breakthroughs have created excitement regarding the potential of using structural information in ligand design and initiated a new era of rational drug discovery for GPCRs. The molecular docking method is now widely applied to model the three-dimensional structures of GPCR-ligand complexes and screen for chemical probes in large compound libraries. In this review article, we first summarize the current structural coverage of the GPCR superfamily and the understanding of receptor-ligand interactions at atomic resolution. We then present the general workflow of structure-based virtual screening and strategies to discover GPCR ligands in chemical libraries. We assess the state of the art of this research field by summarizing prospective applications of virtual screening based on experimental structures. Strategies to identify compounds with specific efficacy and selectivity profiles are discussed, illustrating the opportunities and limitations of the molecular docking method. Our overview shows that structure-based virtual screening can discover novel leads and will be essential in pursuing the next generation of GPCR drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Extraordinary advances in the structural biology of G protein-coupled receptors have revealed the molecular details of ligand recognition by this large family of therapeutic targets, providing novel avenues for rational drug design. Structure-based docking is an efficient computational approach to identify novel chemical probes from large compound libraries, which has the potential to accelerate the development of drug candidates.

Regulation and Function of Interferon-Lambda (IFNλ) and Its Receptor in Asthma

Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease affecting people of all ages, especially children, worldwide. Origins of asthma are suggested to be placed in early life with heterogeneous clinical presentation, severity and pathophysiology. Exacerbations of asthma disease can be triggered by many factors, including viral respiratory tract infections. Rhinovirus (RV) induced respiratory infections are the predominant cause of the common cold and also play a crucial role in asthma development and exacerbations. Rhinovirus mainly replicates in epithelial cells lining the upper and lower respiratory tract. Type III interferons, also known as interferon-lambda (IFNλ), are potent immune mediators of resolution of infectious diseases but they are known to be involved in autoimmune diseases as well. The protective role of type III IFNs in antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antiprotozoal functions is of major importance for our innate immune system. The IFNλ receptor (IFNλR) is expressed in selected types of cells like epithelial cells, thus orchestrating a specific immune response at the site of viruses and bacteria entry into the body. In asthma, IFNλ restricts the development of TH2 cells, which are induced in the airways of asthmatic patients. Several studies described type III IFNs as the predominant type of interferon increased after infection caused by respiratory viruses. It efficiently reduces viral replication, viral spread into the lungs and viral transmission from infected to naive individuals. Several reports showed that bronchial epithelial cells from asthmatic subjects have a deficient response of type III interferon after RV infection ex vivo. Toll like Receptors (TLRs) recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) expressed on infectious agents, and induce the development of antiviral and antibacterial immunity. We recently discovered that activation of TLR7/8 resulted in enhanced IFNλ receptor mRNA expression in PBMCs of healthy and asthmatic children, opening new therapeutic frontiers for rhinovirus-induced asthma. This article reviews the recent advances of the literature on the regulated expression of type III Interferons and their receptor in association with rhinovirus infection in asthmatic subjects.

CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides Attenuate OVA-Induced Allergic Airway Inflammation via Suppressing JNK-Mediated Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Purpose

CpG-ODN has been found to attenuate allergic airway inflammation in our previous study. Here, we aimed to further investigate whether CpG-ODN exerts such effect via regulating endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and revealed the underlying mechanism.

Methods

Five-week-old C57BL/6 mice were randomly grouped and treated with or without CpG-ODN or/and SP600125. Meantime, RAW264.7 cells were used to investigate the effect of CpG-ODN on OVA-induced ER stress in vitro. The cellularity of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was classified and counted after Wright-Giemsa staining. HE and PAS staining methods were applied to analyze airway inflammation. The protein levels of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, p-JNK, JNK, CHOP, XBP1, ATF6α and GRP78 in lung tissues were detected by Western blotting. Correspondingly, the ER stress markers were detected by Western blotting and immunofluorescence in RAW264.7 cells.

Results

In OVA-induced allergic airway inflammation, CpG-ODN significantly suppressed inflammatory cells infiltration, goblet cell hyperplasia and the protein expression of Th2 cytokines. Moreover, OVA exposure strongly increased the activation of ER stress with higher protein expressions of CHOP, XBP1, ATF6α and GRP78. However, these OVA-induced increase of ER stress markers were markedly suppressed by CpG-ODN treatment. In addition, exposure to OVA significantly increased the phosphorylation of JNK, which was significantly reduced by CpG-ODN treatment. Remarkably, single treatment of SP600125, an antagonist of JNK, functioned similarly as CpG-ODN in mitigating allergic airway inflammation and suppressing OVA-induced activation of ER stress; however, no significant synergistic effect was evidenced by combined treatment of SP600125 and CpG-ODN. Furthermore, in OVA-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, we also found that OVA stimulation increased the expressions of ER stress markers, and CpG-ODN significantly reduced their expression levels via suppressing the phosphorylation of JNK.

Conclusion

These results indicated that CpG-ODN mitigates allergic airway inflammation via suppressing the activation of JNK-medicated ER stress.

Pulmonary macrophages and their different roles in health and disease

Macrophages are a heterogeneous population of myeloid cells with phenotype and function modulated according to the microenvironment in which they are found. The lung resident macrophages known as Alveolar Macrophages (AM) and Interstitial Macrophages (IM) are localized in two different compartments. During lung homeostasis, macrophages can remove inhaled particulates, cellular debris and contribute to some metabolic processes. Macrophages may assume a pro-inflammatory phenotype after being classically activated (M1) or anti-inflammatory when being alternatively activated (M2). M1 and M2 have different transcription profiles and act by eliminating bacteria, viruses and fungi from the host or repairing the damage triggered by inflammation, respectively. Nevertheless, macrophages also may contribute to lung damage during persistent inflammation or continuous exposure to antigens. In this review, we discuss the origin and function of pulmonary macrophages in the context of homeostasis, infectious and non-infectious lung diseases.

Cimicifugae Rhizoma Extract Attenuates Oxidative Stress and Airway Inflammation via the Upregulation of Nrf2/HO-1/NQO1 and Downregulation of NF-κB Phosphorylation in Ovalbumin-Induced Asthma

Cimicifugae Rhizoma has been used as a medicinal herb for fever, pain, and inflammation in East Asia. We conducted this study because the effect of Cimicifugae Rhizoma extract (CRE) on allergic asthma has not yet been evaluated. To induce allergic airway inflammation, we intraperitoneally injected ovalbumin (OVA) mixed with aluminum hydroxide into mice twice at intervals of 2 weeks (Days 0 and 14) and then inhaled them thrice with 1% OVA solution using a nebulizer (Days 21 to 23). CRE (30 and 100 mg/kg) was administered orally daily for 6 days (Days 18 to 23). The mice showed remarkable reduction in allergic inflammation at 100 mg/kg of CRE, as evidenced by decreased inflammatory cell counts, pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, OVA-specific immunoglobulin E level, airway hyperresponsiveness, and production of mucus. Additionally, these effects were involved with the enhancement of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression and reduction of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) phosphorylation and matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression. Our findings indicated that CRE effectively protected against OVA-induced inflammation and oxidative stress via upregulation of the Nrf2/HO-1/NQO1 signaling and downregulation of NF-κB phosphorylation in asthma caused by OVA.

Different Phenotypes in Asthma: Clinical Findings and Experimental Animal Models

Asthma is a respiratory allergic disease presenting a high prevalence worldwide, and it is responsible for several complications throughout life, including death. Fortunately, asthma is no longer recognized as a unique manifestation but as a very heterogenic manifestation. Its phenotypes and endotypes are known, respectively, as pathologic and molecular features that might not be directly associated with each other. The increasing number of studies covering this issue has brought significant insights and knowledge that are constantly expanding. In this review, we intended to summarize this new information obtained from clinical studies, which not only allowed for the creation of patient clusters by means of personalized medicine and a deeper molecular evaluation, but also created a connection with data obtained from experimental models, especially murine models. We gathered information regarding sensitization and trigger and emphasizing the most relevant phenotypes and endotypes, such as Th2-^high asthma and Th2-^low asthma, which included smoking and obesity-related asthma and mixed and paucigranulocytic asthma, not only in physiopathology and the clinic but also in how these phenotypes can be determined with relative similarity using murine models. We also further investigated how clinical studies have been treating patients using newly developed drugs focusing on specific biomarkers that are more relevant according to the patient's clinical manifestation of the disease.

Biochemical and immunological changes in obesity

Obesity is a syndemia that promotes high expenditures for public health, and is defined by the excess of adipose tissue that is classified according to its function and anatomical distribution. In obese people, this tissue generates oxidative stress associated with a chronic inflammatory response, in which there is an imbalance in relation to the release of hormones and adipokines that cause loss of body homeostasis and predisposition to the development of some comorbidities. The purpose of this review is to summarize the main events that occur during the onset and progression of obesity with a special focus on biochemical and immunological changes. Hypertrophied and hyperplasia adipocytes have biomarkers and release adipokines capable of regulating pathways and expressing genes that culminate in the development of metabolic changes, such as changes in energy balance and intestinal microbiota, and the development of some comorbidities, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemias, arterial hypertension, liver disease, cancer, allergies, osteoporosis, sarcopenia and obstructive sleep apnea. Thus, it is necessary to treat and/or prevent pathology, using traditional methods based on healthy eating, and regular physical and leisure activities.

Distinct Proteomic Profiling of Plasma Extracellular Vesicles from Moderate-to-Severe Atopic Dermatitis Patients

Background

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic, inflammatory cutaneous disorder characterized by a T helper 2 (Th2) immune response phenotype. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous family of cell-derived membranous structures, which transport cellular components such as DNA and proteins, and are involved in multiple physiological and pathological processes. Increasing evidence has shown that EVs secretion took part in the pathogenesis of AD. However, the proteomic studies of plasma-derived EVs in AD patients have not been reported.

Objective

In this study, we investigated the diversity of plasma EVs collected from AD patients and healthy individuals and suggested that the candidates for uniquely or differentially expressed proteins in plasma EVs could be a diagnostic marker in AD.

Methods

The plasma EVs were collected from 12 patients with moderate-to-severe AD and 13 healthy subjects. Proteomic analysis was performed by using a comprehensive nanoLC‑MS/MS method.

Results

Proteomic analysis revealed that a total of 1478 proteins in plasma EVs were found to be common proteins in AD, whereas a total of 1597 proteins in plasma EVs were found to be common proteins in HC. Eighty-six proteins in plasma EVs showed more than 2.5-fold up-regulation, while a total of 225 proteins in plasma EVs showed less than 1/2.5-fold down-regulation with a significant difference (p < 0.05) among AD compared with HC. The candidates for differentially expressed proteins in plasma EVs have been described as a connectivity PPI network related to several KEGG pathways, including pathways in platelet activation, complement, and so on.

Conclusion

SLP-76 tyrosine phosphoprotein (SLP76) involved in platelet activation may significantly contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. We will further verify the role of SLP67 in AD via animal and cell experiments to provide a promising therapeutic or diagnostic target.

ADeditome provides the genomic landscape of A-to-I RNA editing in Alzheimer's disease

A-to-I RNA editing, contributing to nearly 90% of all editing events in human, has been reported to involve in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) due to its roles in brain development and immune regulation, such as the deficient editing of GluA2 Q/R related to cell death and memory loss. Currently, there are urgent needs for the systematic annotations of A-to-I RNA editing events in AD. Here, we built ADeditome, the annotation database of A-to-I RNA editing in AD available at https://ccsm.uth.edu/ADeditome, aiming to provide a resource and reference for functional annotation of A-to-I RNA editing in AD to identify therapeutically targetable genes in an individual. We detected 1676 363 editing sites in 1524 samples across nine brain regions from ROSMAP, MayoRNAseq and MSBB. For these editing events, we performed multiple functional annotations including identification of specific and disease stage associated editing events and the influence of editing events on gene expression, protein recoding, alternative splicing and miRNA regulation for all the genes, especially for AD-related genes in order to explore the pathology of AD. Combing all the analysis results, we found 108 010 and 26 168 editing events which may promote or inhibit AD progression, respectively. We also found 5582 brain region-specific editing events with potentially dual roles in AD across different brain regions. ADeditome will be a unique resource for AD and drug research communities to identify therapeutically targetable editing events. Significance: ADeditome is the first comprehensive resource of the functional genomics of individual A-to-I RNA editing events in AD, which will be useful for many researchers in the fields of AD pathology, precision medicine, and therapeutic researches.

Recent advances in human respiratory epithelium models for drug discovery

The respiratory epithelium is intimately associated with the pathophysiologies of highly infectious viral contagions and chronic illnesses such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, presently the third leading cause of death worldwide with a projected economic burden of £1.7 trillion by 2030. Preclinical studies of respiratory physiology have almost exclusively utilised non-humanised animal models, alongside reductionistic cell line-based models, and primary epithelial cell models cultured at an air-liquid interface (ALI). Despite their utility, these model systems have been limited by their poor correlation to the human condition. This has undermined the ability to identify novel therapeutics, evidenced by a 15% chance of success for medicinal respiratory compounds entering clinical trials in 2018. Consequently, preclinical studies require new translational efficacy models to address the problem of respiratory drug attrition. This review describes the utility of the current in vivo (rodent), ex vivo (isolated perfused lungs and precision cut lung slices), two-dimensional in vitro cell-line (A549, BEAS-2B, Calu-3) and three-dimensional in vitro ALI (gold-standard and co-culture) and organoid respiratory epithelium models. The limitations to the application of these model systems in drug discovery research are discussed, in addition to perspectives of the future innovations required to facilitate the next generation of human-relevant respiratory models.

FNF-12, a novel benzylidene-chromanone derivative, attenuates inflammatory response in in vitro and in vivo asthma models mediated by M2-related Th2 cytokines via MAPK and NF-kB signaling

BACKGROUND AND AIM

This study evaluates a novel benzylidene-chromanone derivative, FNF-12, for efficacy in in vitro and in vivo asthma models.

METHODS

Rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) and acute monocytic leukemia (THP-1)-derived M2 macrophages were used. Human whole blood-derived neutrophils and basophils were employed. Flow cytometry was used for studying key signalling proteins. Platelet activation factor (PAF)-induced asthma model in guinea pigs was used for in vivo studies.

RESULTS

The chemical structure of FNF-12 was confirmed with proton-nuclear mass resonance (NMR) and mass spectroscopy. FNF-12 controlled degranulation in RBL-2H3 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 123.7 nM and inhibited TNF-α release from these cells in a dose-responsive way. The compound effectively controlled the migration and elastase release in activated neutrophils. IC₅₀ value in the FcεRI-basophil activation assay was found to be 205 nM. FNF-12 controlled the release of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced interleukin-10, I-309/CCL1 and MDC/CCL22 in THP-1 derived M2 macrophages. The compound suppressed LPS-induced mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK)-p-p38 and nuclear factor kappa B(NF-kB)-p-p65 expression in these cells. A dose-dependent decrease in the accumulation of total leucocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils and macrophages was observed in PAF-induced animal models.

CONCLUSION

FNF-12 was able to control the inflammatory responses in in vitro and in vivo asthma models, which may be driven by controlling M2-related Th2 cytokines via MAPK and NF-kB signaling.

TIPE2 inhibits PDGF-BB-induced phenotype switching in airway smooth muscle cells through the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Background

Childhood asthma is a common respiratory disease characterized by airway inflammation. Tumor necrosis factor-α-induced protein 8-like 2 (TIPE2) has been found to be involved in the progression of asthma. This study aimed to explore the role of TIPE2 in the regulation of airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs), which are one of the main effector cells in the development of asthma.

Materials and methods

ASMCs were transfected with pcDNA3.0-TIPE2 or si-TIPE2 for 48 h and then treated with platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB. Cell proliferation of ASMCs was measured using the MTT assay. Cell migration of ASMCs was determined by a transwell assay. The mRNA expression levels of calponin and smooth muscle protein 22α (SM22α) were measured using qRT-PCR. The levels of TIPE2, calponin, SM22α, PI3K, p-PI3K, Akt, and p-Akt were detected by Western blotting.

Results

Our results showed that PDGF-BB treatment significantly reduced TIPE2 expression at both the mRNA and protein levels in ASMCs. Overexpression of TIPE2 inhibited PDGF-BB-induced ASMC proliferation and migration. In addition, overexpression of TIPE2 increased the expression of calponin and SM22α in PDGF-BB-stimulated ASMCs. However, an opposite effect was observed with TIPE2 knockdown. Furthermore, TIPE2 overexpression blocked PDGF-BB-induced phosphorylation of PI3K and Akt, whereas the expression of p-PI3K and p-Akt were aggravated by TIPE2 knockdown. Additionally, the effects of TIPE2 overexpression and TIPE2 knockdown were altered by IGF-1 and LY294002 treatments, respectively.

Conclusions

Our findings demonstrate that TIPE2 inhibits PDGF-BB-induced ASMC proliferation, migration, and phenotype switching via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Thus, TIPE2 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of asthma.

Systems level insights into the impact of airborne exposure on SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and COVID-19 outcome - A multi-omics big data study

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a viral pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that led to more than 800,00 deaths and continues to be a major threat worldwide. The scientific community has been studying the risk factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathogenesis. Recent studies highlight the possible contribution of atmospheric air pollution, specifically particulate matter (PM) exposure as a co-factor in COVID-19 severity. Hence, meaningful translation of suitable omics datasets of SARS-CoV-2 infection and PM exposure is warranted to understand the possible involvement of airborne exposome on COVID-19 outcome. Publicly available transcriptomic data (microarray and RNA-Seq) related to COVID-19 lung biopsy, SARS-CoV-2 infection in epithelial cells and PM exposure (lung tissue, epithelial and endothelial cells) were obtained in addition with proteome and interactome datasets. System-wide pathway/network analysis was done through appropriate software tools and data resources. The primary findings are; 1. There is no robust difference in the expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry factors upon particulate exposure, 2. The upstream pathways associated with upregulated genes during SARS-CoV-2 infection considerably overlap with that of PM exposure, 3. Similar pathways were differentially expressed during SARS-CoV-2 infection and PM exposure, 4. SARS-CoV-2 interacting host factors were predicted to be associated with the molecular impact of PM exposure and 5. Differentially expressed pathways during PM exposure may increase COVID-19 severity. Based on the observed molecular mechanisms (direct and indirect effects) the current study suggests that airborne PM exposure has to be considered as an additional co-factor in the outcome of COVID-19.

Anti-Viral and Immunomodulatory Properties of Propolis: Chemical Diversity, Pharmacological Properties, Preclinical and Clinical Applications, and In Silico Potential against SARS-CoV-2

Propolis, a resin produced by honeybees, has long been used as a dietary supplement and folk remedy, and more recent preclinical investigations have demonstrated a large spectrum of potential therapeutic bioactivities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anticancer, and antiviral properties. As an antiviral agent, propolis and various constituents have shown promising preclinical efficacy against adenoviruses, influenza viruses, respiratory tract viruses, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Over 300 chemical components have been identified in propolis, including terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, with the specific constituent profile varying widely according to geographic origin and regional flora. Propolis and its constituents have demonstrated potential efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 by modulating multiple pathogenic and antiviral pathways. Molecular docking studies have demonstrated high binding affinities of propolis derivatives to multiple SARS-CoV-2 proteins, including 3C-like protease (3CLpro), papain-like protease (PLpro), RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein (S-protein), and helicase (NSP13), as well as to the viral target angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Among these compounds, retusapurpurin A has shown high affinity to 3CLpro (ΔG = -9.4 kcal/mol), RdRp (-7.5), RBD (-7.2), NSP13 (-9.4), and ACE2 (-10.4) and potent inhibition of viral entry by forming hydrogen bonds with amino acid residues within viral and human target proteins. In addition, propolis-derived baccharin demonstrated even higher binding affinity towards PLpro (-8.2 kcal/mol). Measures of drug-likeness parameters, including metabolism, distribution, absorption, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) characteristics, also support the potential of propolis as an effective agent to combat COVID-19.

Blockade of GITRL/GITR signaling pathway attenuates house dust mite-induced allergic asthma in mice through inhibition of MAPKs and NF-κB signaling

GITRL/GITR signaling pathway plays an important role in allergy, inflammation, transplantation and autoimmunity. However, its role in asthma remains unclear. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate changes in this pathway and observe the therapeutic effect of its blocking on asthma. By using house dust mite-induced asthma model, changes of GITRL/GITR and its downstream molecules MAPKs (e.g., p38 MAPK, JNK and Erk) and NF-κB were observed. After that, GITRL in lung of mice was knocked down by recombinant adeno-associated virus to observe the impact on its downstream molecules and assess the therapeutic effect on asthma. These results showed that GITRL/GITR and its downstream molecules MAPKs/NF-κB were activated in asthmatic mice. This activation was suppressed after GITRL knockdown, and allergic airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness were alleviated. These results demonstrate that GITRL/GITR-MAPKs/NF-κB signaling pathway participates in the pathogenesis of asthma. Blockade of GITRL/GITR signaling pathway exhibits protective effects in a mouse model of house dust mite-induced allergic asthma.

Seasonal Variation in miR-328-3p and let-7d-3p Are Associated With Seasonal Allergies and Asthma Symptoms in Children

OBJECTIVE

MicroRNAs (miRs) are small non-coding RNA molecules of around 18-22 nucleotides that are key regulators of many biologic processes, particularly inflammation. The purpose of this study was to determine the association of circulating miRs from asthmatic children with seasonal variation in allergic inflammation and asthma symptoms.

METHODS

We used available small RNA sequencing on blood serum from 398 children with mild-to-moderate asthma from the Childhood Asthma Management Program. We used seasonal asthma symptom data at the study baseline and allergen affection status from baseline skin prick tests as primary outcomes. We identified differentially expressed (DE) miRs between pairs of seasons using DESeq2. Regression analysis was used to identify associations between allergy status to specific seasonal allergens and DE miRs in 4 seasons and between seasonal asthma symptom data and DE miRs. We performed pathway enrichment analysis for target genes of the DE miRs using DAVID.

RESULTS

After quality control, 398 samples underwent differential analysis between the 4 seasons. We found 52 unique miRs from a total of 81 DE miRs across seasons. Further investigation of the association between these miRs and sensitization to seasonal allergens using skin prick tests revealed that 26 unique miRs from a total of 38 miRs were significantly associated with a same-season allergen. Comparison between seasonal asthma symptom data revealed that 2 of these 26 miRs also had significant associations with asthma symptoms in the same seasons: miR-328-3p (P < 0.03) and let-7d-3p (P < 0.05). Enrichment analysis showed that the most enriched pathway clusters were Rap1, Ras, and MAPK signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

Our results show seasonal variation in miR-328-3p and let-7d-3p are significantly associated with seasonal asthma symptoms and seasonal allergies. These indicate a potentially protective role for let-7d-3p and a deleterious role for miR-328-3p in asthmatics sensitized to mulberry. Further work will determine whether these miRs are drivers or results of the allergic response.

Employing Drug Delivery Strategies to Overcome Challenges Using TLR7/8 Agonists for Cancer Immunotherapy

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a potential target for cancer immunotherapy due to their role in the activation of the innate immune system. More specifically, TLR7 and TLR8, two structurally similar pattern recognition receptors that trigger interferon and cytokine responses, have proven to be therapeutically relevant targets for cancer in numerous preclinical and clinical studies. When triggered by an agonist, such as imiquimod or resiquimod, the TLR7/8 activation pathway induces cellular and humoral immune responses that can kill cancer cells with high specificity. Unfortunately, TLR7/8 agonists also present a number of issues that must be overcome prior to broad clinical implementation, such as poor drug solubility and systemic toxic effects. To overcome the key limitations of TLR7/8 agonists as a cancer therapy, biomaterial-based drug delivery systems have been developed. These delivery devices are highly diverse in their design and include systems that can be directly administered to the tumor, passively accumulated in relevant cancerous and lymph tissues, triggered by environmental stimuli, or actively targeted to specific physiological areas and cellular populations. In addition to improved delivery systems, recent studies have also demonstrated the potential benefits of TLR7/8 agonist co-delivery with other types of therapies, particularly checkpoint inhibitors, cancer vaccines, and chemotherapeutics, which can yield impressive anti-cancer effects. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the development of TLR7/8 agonist delivery systems and provide perspective on promising future directions.

iTRAQ-Based Proteomics Reveals Gu-Ben-Fang-Xiao Decoction Alleviates Airway Remodeling via Reducing Extracellular Matrix Deposition in a Murine Model of Chronic Remission Asthma

Airway remodeling is a primary pathological feature of asthma. The current therapy for asthma mainly targets reducing inflammation but not particularly airway remodeling. Therefore, it is worthwhile to develop alternative and more effective therapies to attenuate remodeling. Gu-Ben-Fang-Xiao Decoction (GBFXD) has been used to effectively and safely treat asthma for decades. In this study, GBFXD regulated airway inflammation, collagen deposition, and the molecules relevant to airway remodeling such as Vimentin, α-SMA, hydroxyproline, and E-cadherin in chronic remission asthma (CRA) murine model. Proteomic analysis indicated that the overlapping differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) (Model/Control and GBFXD/Model) were mainly collagens and laminins, which were extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. In addition, the KEGG analysis showed that GBFXD could regulate pathways related to airway remodeling including ECM-receptor interactions, focal adhesion, and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, which were the top three significantly enriched pathways containing the most DEPs for both Model/Control and GBFXD/Model. Further validation research showed that GBFXD regulated reticulon-4 (RTN4) and suppressed the activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway to alleviate ECM proteins deposition. In conclusion, our findings indicate that GBFXD possibly regulate the PI3K/AKT pathway via RTN4 to improve airway remodeling, which provides a new insight into the molecular mechanism of GBFXD for the treatment of CRA.

IL-17 Is a Key Regulator of Mucin-Galectin-3 Interactions in Asthma

Mucus hypersecretion and chronic airway inflammation are standard characteristics of several airway diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Increased mucus secretion from increased mucin gene expression in the airway epithelium is associated with poor prognosis and mortality. We previously showed that the absence of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) enhances lung inflammation, airway hyperreactivity, and lung remodeling in asthma in an ovalbumin (OVA) asthma model of TIMP-1 knockout (TIMPKO) mice as compared to wild-type (WT) controls and mediated by increased galectin-3 (Gal-3) levels. Additionally, we have shown that in the lung epithelial cell line A549, Gal-3 inhibition increases interleukin-17 (IL-17) levels, leading to increased mucin expression in the airway epithelium. Therefore, in the current study, we further examined the relationship between Gal-3 and the production of IL-17-axis cytokines and critical members of the mucin family in the murine TIMPKO asthma model and the lung epithelium cell line A549. While Gal-3 may regulate a Th₁/Th₂ response, IL-17 could stimulate the mucin genes, MUC5B and MUC5AC. Gal-3 and IL-17 interactions induce mucus expression in OVA-sensitized mice. We conclude that Gal-3 may play an essential role in the pathogenesis of asthma, and modulation of Gal-3 may prove helpful in the treatment of this disease.

Targeting Airway Smooth Muscle Hypertrophy in Asthma: An Approach Whose Time Has Come

Airway smooth muscle (ASM) cell dysfunction is an important component of several obstructive pulmonary diseases, particularly asthma. External stimuli such as allergens, dust, air pollutants, and change in environmental temperatures provoke ASM cell hypertrophy, proliferation, and migration without adequate mechanistic controls. ASM cells can switch between quiescent, migratory, and proliferative phenotypes in response to extracellular matrix proteins, growth factors, and other soluble mediators. While some aspects of airway hypertrophy and remodeling could have beneficial effects, in many cases these contribute to a clinical phenotype of difficult to control asthma. In this review, we discuss the factors responsible for ASM hypertrophy and proliferation in asthma, focusing on cytokines, growth factors, and ion transporters, and discuss existing and potential approaches that specifically target ASM hypertrophy to reduce the ASM mass and improve asthma symptoms. The goal of this review is to highlight strategies that appear ready for translational investigations to improve asthma therapy.

Biomarkers in Different Asthma Phenotypes

Asthma is the most common respiratory disease. It has multiple phenotypes thatcan be partially differentiated by measuring the disease’s specific characteristics—biomarkers. The pathogenetic mechanisms are complex, and it is still a challenge to choose suitable biomarkers to adequately stratify patients, which became especially important with the introduction of biologicals in asthma treatment. Usage of biomarkers and an understanding of the underlying pathobiological mechanisms lead to the definition of endotypes. Asthma can be broadly divided into two endotypes, T2-high and T2-low. The right combination of various biomarkers in different phenotypes is under investigation, hoping to help researchers and clinicians in better disease evaluation since theindividual approach and personalized medicine are imperative. Multiple biomarkers are superior to a single biomarker.

Lipopolysaccharide-Activated Bone Marrow-Derived Dendritic Cells Suppress Allergic Airway Inflammation by Ameliorating the Immune Microenvironment

Background

Previous studies have shown that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DClps) might induce tolerance in autoimmune and cancer models in vivo, whereas it remains unclear whether DClps could play a role in allergic disease model. Herein, we aimed to elucidate the potential effects of DClps on OVA-sensitized/challenged airway inflammation in a mouse model, which may help facilitate the application of specific tolerogenic dendritic cells (tolDC) in allergic asthma in the future.

Methods

The phenotype and function of immature DC (DCia), DClps or IL-10-activated-DC (DC10) were determined. OVA-sensitized/challenged mice were treated with OVA-pulsed DCia or DClps or DC10. We assessed the changes of histopathology, serum total IgE level, pulmonary signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT), pulmonary regulatory T cells (Tregs), and airway recall responses to OVA rechallenge, including proliferation and cytokine secretory function of pulmonary memory CD4⁺ T cells in the treated mice.

Results

DClps exhibited low levels of CD80 and MHCII and increased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-β. Additionally, DClps treatment dramatically diminished infiltration of inflammatory cells, eosinophilia, serum IgE and STAT6 phosphorylation level, increased the number of pulmonary Tregs. In addition, DClps treatment decreased the proliferation of pulmonary memory CD4⁺ T cells, which further rendered the downregulation of Th2 cytokines in vitro.

Conclusion

LPS stimulation may lead to a tolerogenic phenotype on DC, and thereby alleviated the Th2 immune response of asthmatic mice, possibly by secreting anti-inflammatory cytokines, inhibiting pulmonary memory CD4⁺ T cells, downregulating pulmonary STAT6 phosphorylation level and increasing pulmonary Tregs.

Role of intracellular signaling pathways and their inhibitors in the treatment of inflammation

Inflammation is not only a defense mechanism of the innate immune system against invaders, but it is also involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases such as atherosclerosis, thrombosis, diabetes, epilepsy, and many neurodegenerative disorders. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports worldwide estimates of people (9.6% in males and 18.0% in females) aged over 60 years, suffering from symptomatic osteoarthritis, and around 339 million suffering from asthma. Other chronic inflammatory diseases, such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease are also highly prevalent. The existing anti-inflammatory agents, both non-steroidal and steroidal, are highly effective; however, their prolonged use is marred by the severity of associated side effects. A holistic approach to ensure patient compliance requires understanding the pathophysiology of inflammation and exploring new targets for drug development. In this regard, various intracellular cell signaling pathways and their signaling molecules have been identified to be associated with inflammation. Therefore, chemical inhibitors of these pathways may be potential candidates for novel anti-inflammatory drug approaches. This review focuses on the anti-inflammatory effect of these inhibitors (for JAK/STAT, MAPK, and mTOR pathways) describing their mechanism of action through literature search, current patents, and molecules under clinical trials.

Scutellaria baicalensis and Their Natural Flavone Compounds as Potential Medicinal Drugs for the Treatment of Nicotine-Induced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer and Asthma

Flavonoids as the largest group of natural phytochemical compounds have received significant attention, as demonstrated by clinical trials, due to their chemotherapeutic and/or pharmacological effects against non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and asthma. Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis), known as one of the most popular medicinal plants and used in several countries, contains natural active flavone constituents, with the major compounds of the roots being baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, wogonoside and oroxylin A. S. baicalensis and their compounds are proven to have inhibitory effects on NSCLC cells when used at different concentrations. However, the exact mechanisms by which these compounds exert their therapeutic effects against asthma remain unexplored. Indeed, the mechanisms by which S. baicalensis and its flavone compounds exert a protective effect against nicotine-induced NSCLC and asthma are not yet fully understood. Therefore, this review explores the mechanisms involved in the therapeutic potential of flavone-rich extracts from S. baicalensis in nicotine-induced NSCLC and asthma.

Vitex negundo Linn. extract alleviates inflammatory aggravation and lung injury by modulating AMPK/PI3K/Akt/p38-NF-κB and TGF-β/Smad/Bcl2/caspase/LC3 cascade and macrophages activation in murine model of OVA-LPS induced allergic asthma

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

There is growing inclination towards developing bioactive molecule-based strategies for the management of allergic airway inflammation associated respiratory diseases. Vitex negundo Linn., also known as Nirgundi, is one such medicinal plant enriched with phytochemicals and used for inflammatory and respiratory disorders including asthma in traditional system of medicine. Preliminary studies have claimed anti-tussive and bronchodilator potential of V. negundo Linn. However, its attributes as well as molecular mechanism (s) in modulation of asthma mediated by allergic inflammation are yet to be delineated scientifically.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Present study attempted to assess the effectiveness of Vitex negundo leaf extract (VNLE) in mitigation of allergen induced inflammation associated asthmatic lung damage with emphasis to delineate its molecular mechanism (s).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Allergic lung inflammation was established in Balb/c mice using Ovalbumin-lipopolysaccharide (OVA-LPS). Several allergic inflammatory parameters, histopathological changes, alveolar macrophage activation and signalling pathways were assessed to examine protective effects of VNLE. UHPLC-DAD-QTOF-ESI-IMS was used to characterize VLNE.

RESULTS

VNLE administration effectively attenuated LPS-induced oxi-inflammatory stress in macrophages suggesting its anti-inflammatory potential. Further, VNLE showed protective effect in mitigating asthmatic lung damage as evident by reversal of pathological changes including inflammatory cell influx, congestion, fibrosis, bronchial thickness and alveolar collapse observed in allergen group. VNLE suppressed expressions of inflammatory Th1/Th2 cytokines, chemokines, endopeptidases (MMPs), oxidative effector enzyme (iNOS), adhesion molecules, IL-4/IFN-γ release with simultaneous enhancement in levels of IL-10, IFN-γ, MUC3 and tight junction proteins. Subsequent mechanistic investigation revealed that OVA-LPS concomitantly enhanced phosphorylation of NF-κB, PI3K, Akt and p38MAPKs and downregulated AMPK which was categorically counteracted by VNLE treatment. VNLE also suppressed OVA-LPS induced fibrosis, apoptosis, autophagy and gap junction proteins which were affirmed by reduction in TGF-β, Smad2/3/4, Caspase9/3, Bax, LC3A/B, connexin 50, connexin 43 and enhancement in Bcl2 expression. Additionally, suppression of alveolar macrophage activation, inflammatory cells in blood and elevation of splenic CD8+T cells was demonstrated. UHPLC-DAD-QTOF-ESI-IMS revealed presence of iridoids glycoside and phenolics which might contribute these findings.

CONCLUSION

These findings confer protective effect of VNLE in attenuation of allergic lung inflammation and suggest that it could be considered as valuable medicinal source for developing safe natural therapeutics for mitigation of allergic inflammation during asthma.

Naturally Occurring Genetic Alterations in Proximal TCR Signaling and Implications for Cancer Immunotherapy

T cell-based immunotherapies including genetically engineered T cells, adoptive transfer of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and immune checkpoint blockade highlight the impressive anti-tumor effects of T cells. These successes have provided new hope to many cancer patients with otherwise poor prognoses. However, only a fraction of patients demonstrates durable responses to these forms of therapies and many develop significant immune-mediated toxicity. These heterogeneous clinical responses suggest that underlying nuances in T cell genetics, phenotypes, and activation states likely modulate the therapeutic impact of these approaches. To better characterize known genetic variations that may impact T cell function, we 1) review the function of early T cell receptor-specific signaling mediators, 2) offer a synopsis of known mutations and genetic alterations within the associated molecules, 3) discuss the link between these mutations and human disease and 4) review therapeutic strategies under development or in clinical testing that target each of these molecules for enhancing anti-tumor T cell activity. Finally, we discuss novel engineering approaches that could be designed based on our understanding of the function of these molecules in health and disease.

Advancing of Cellular Signaling Pathways in Respiratory Diseases Using Nanocarrier Based Drug Delivery Systems

Cell Signaling pathways form an integral part of our existence that allows the cells to comprehend a stimulus and respond back. Such reactions to external cues from the environment are required and are essential to regulate the normal functioning of our body. Abnormalities in the system arise when there are errors developed in these signals, resulting in a complication or a disease. Presently, respiratory diseases contribute to being the third leading cause of morbidity worldwide. According to the current statistics, over 339 million people are asthmatic, 65 million are suffering from COPD, 2.3 million are lung cancer patients and 10 million are tuberculosis patients. This toll of statistics with chronic respiratory diseases leaves a heavy burden on society and the nation's annual health expenditure. Hence, a better understanding of the processes governing these cellular pathways will enable us to treat and manage these deadly respiratory diseases effectively. Moreover, it is important to comprehend the synergy and interplay of the cellular signaling pathways in respiratory diseases, which will enable us to explore and develop suitable strategies for targeted drug delivery. This review, in particular, focuses on the major respiratory diseases and further provides an in-depth discussion on the various cell signaling pathways that are involved in the pathophysiology of respiratory diseases. Moreover, the review also analyses the defining concepts about advanced nano-drug delivery systems involving various nanocarriers and propose newer prospects to minimize the current challenges faced by researchers and formulation scientists.

A Decade of Organs-on-a-Chip Emulating Human Physiology at the Microscale: A Critical Status Report on Progress in Toxicology and Pharmacology

Organ-on-a-chip technology has the potential to accelerate pharmaceutical drug development, improve the clinical translation of basic research, and provide personalized intervention strategies. In the last decade, big pharma has engaged in many academic research cooperations to develop organ-on-a-chip systems for future drug discoveries. Although most organ-on-a-chip systems present proof-of-concept studies, miniaturized organ systems still need to demonstrate translational relevance and predictive power in clinical and pharmaceutical settings. This review explores whether microfluidic technology succeeded in paving the way for developing physiologically relevant human in vitro models for pharmacology and toxicology in biomedical research within the last decade. Individual organ-on-a-chip systems are discussed, focusing on relevant applications and highlighting their ability to tackle current challenges in pharmacological research.

PI3K/AKT/mTOR and TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB Signaling Inhibitors Attenuate Pathological Mechanisms of Allergic Asthma

Asthma is an inflammatory airway disease wherein bronchoconstriction, airway inflammation, and airway obstruction during asthma attacks are the main problems. It is recognized that imbalance of Th1/Th2 and Th17/Treg is a critical factor in asthma pathogenesis. Manipulation of these with signaling molecules such as mTOR, PI3K, Akt, and MyD88 can control asthma. Mouse model of allergic asthma was produced and treated with ketamine, metformin, metformin and ketamine, triciribine, LY294002, and torin2. MCh challenge test, BALf's Eos Count, the IL-4, 5, INF-γ, eicosanoid, total IgE levels were determined. The MUC5a, Foxp3, RORγt, PI3K, mTOR, Akt, PU.1, and MyD88 gene expressions and histopathology study were done. Asthma groups that were treated with all six components had reduced Penh value, total IgE, IL-4 and IL-5 levels, MUC5a, RORγt, MyD88 and mTOR expression, goblet cell hyperplasia, and mucus hyper-secretion. The eosinophil percentage and Cys-LT level were decreased by metformin and ketamine, triciribine, LY294002, and torin2. The level of IFN-γ was increased in triciribine, LY294002, and torin2. Metformin, metformin and ketamine, triciribine, LY294002, and torin2 reduced Akt and PI3K expression, peribronchial and perivascular inflammation, and increased expression of Foxp3. Torin2 had an effect on PU.1 expression. Inhibition of PI3K/AKT/mTOR and TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling with targeted molecules can attenuate asthma pathology and play an important role in airways protection.

Anti-inflammatory effect of herbal traditional medicine extract on molecular regulation in allergic asthma

Asthma is an important global health problem, and the main cause of asthma is allergic reaction and immune system dysregulation. Airway inflammation causes bronchial narrowing, and goblet cell hyperplasia leads to mucus hypersecretion that leads to airflow obstruction and difficulty breathing. The Th2 cytokines can induce allergic asthma. Camellia, Adhatoda, and Glycyrrhiza are the traditional medicines that are used in some countries. In the current study, we evaluated three herbal extracts on airway inflammatory responses in asthmatic mice. The asthma model was induced in mice that were divided into 6 groups: Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) group, ovalbumin (OVA) group, OVA-budesonide group, OVA-Glycyrrhiza group, OVA-Camellia group, and OVA-Adhatoda group. Measurements of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT), glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT), IgE, histamine, percentages of eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALf), gene expression of COX-2, CCL24, CCL11, eotaxin, and histopathological study of lung were done. Adhatoda significantly attenuated the IL-4, IgE, and histamine levels. Glycyrrhiza attenuated the levels of IL-5, IL-13, GTP, GOT (on day 51), mRNA expression of eotaxin, CCL24, CCL11, and COX-2, eosinophil infiltration, mucus secretion, and goblet cell hyperplasia. Camellia decreased IL-13, GTP, COX-2 mRNA expression, mucus secretion, and goblet cell hyperplasia on day 31 and 51. We evaluated effect of three plants on allergic bio-factors. Glycyrrhiza as main anti-inflammatory treatment, Adhatoda as anti-allergic, and Camellia as anti-mucus releasing treatment can be used in attacks of allergic asthma.

The Role of Macrophages in the Development of Acute and Chronic Inflammatory Lung Diseases

Macrophages play an important role in the innate and adaptive immune responses of organ systems, including the lungs, to particles and pathogens. Cumulative results show that macrophages contribute to the development and progression of acute or chronic inflammatory responses through the secretion of inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and the activation of transcription factors in the pathogenesis of inflammatory lung diseases, such as acute lung injury (ALI), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), ARDS related to COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)), allergic asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). This review summarizes the functions of macrophages and their associated underlying mechanisms in the development of ALI, ARDS, COVID-19-related ARDS, allergic asthma, COPD, and IPF and briefly introduces the acute and chronic experimental animal models. Thus, this review suggests an effective therapeutic approach that focuses on the regulation of macrophage function in the context of inflammatory lung diseases.

Proteome profiling reveals the efficacy and targets of sophocarpine against asthma

Sophocarpine (SPC) as a quinolizidine alkaloid displays powerful effects on inflammatory diseases through regulating multiple targets. Asthma is a complex heterogeneous and inflammatory disease with an increasing incidence worldwide. Here we established a mice asthma model and investigated the effect of SPC. Mice induced by ovalbumin (OVA) exhibits exacerbated Th1/Th2 immune imbalance and allergic lung inflammation. SPC treatment regulated Th1/Th2 cytokines production (IL-4, IL-5 and INF-γ) in BALF, reduced IgE level in serum, inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration, and improved the lung tissue pathology. Proteomic results showed that 5064 proteins in lung tissue were detected and among them 223 preliminary therapeutic targets of SPC were selected. Subsequently, excluding non-human genes, 109 targets with established crystal structures were harvested. Meanwhile, the molecular docking results showed that the binding energy of 87 targets with SPC was varied from -9.72 kcal/mol to 227.16 kcal/mol. Further, SPC suppressed arrb2, anxa1, myd88 and sphk1 expression and activated p-stat1. All of the five targets based on the screened results of proteomics and molecular docking are critical in allergic asthma. Thus, our data revealed that SPC alleviated bronchial asthma via targeting multi-targets.

The effect of Co-Q10 on allergic rhinitis and allergic asthma

Background

Allergic asthma is an inflammatory disease resulting from continued or intermittent allergen exposure, and allergic rhinitis can be trigger of asthma. The main mechanism of these disease is allergic reaction and immune response dysregulation. Co-Q10 is an enzyme cofactor in mitochondria can control asthma and allergic rhinitis symptoms. In the present study, we determined that the CoQ10-induced anti-allergic effects were mediated by up-regulation of Nrf2.

Methods

Animal models of allergic rhinitis and allergic asthma were produced and treated with Co-Q10, Co-Q10 and O-3, Co-Q10 and Mg-S. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was collected from animal models, and IL-4, 5, 13, INF-y, Eicosanoids, IgE, EPO, and histamine production were measured. Also, COX-2, CCL24, CCL11, Nrf2, Eotaxin, Cytb, COX1 and ND1 genes expressions and histopathology were studied. BALf's cells were collected by tracheostomy and used in slide producing by cytospine. Cytokines, Eicosanoids, IgE, EPO, and histamine were measured by ELISA method. Gene expression was done by Real-time PCR.

Results

Co-Q10 with two supplementation (Mg-S and O-3) modulate MRC, BALf eosinophils, eosinophilic inflammation related genes (eotaxin, CCL11 and CCL24), peribronchial and perivascular inflammation, EPO, type 2 cytokines (IL-4, 5 and 13), IgE, histamine, Cyc-LT and LTB4 as main allergic bio-factors. Importantly, Co-Q10 treatment increased Nrf2 expression and Nrf2 induced antioxidant genes, glutathione redox and inhibited inflammation, oxidative stress injury, Th2 cytokines production and attenuated allergic inflammatory responses.

Conclusion

Nrf2 is activated in response to allergen, induces resistance against the rhinitis and asthma development and plays an essential role in broncho-protection. Co-Q10 increases the Nrf2 expression and the Nrf2 over-expression has strong effect in control of type2 cytokines, allergic mediators and inflammatory factors that lead to harnessing of allergy and asthma.

Graphic abstract

Active ingredients from Chinese medicine plants as therapeutic strategies for asthma: Overview and challenges

Although considerable advance has been made in diagnosing and treating, asthma is still a serious public health challenge. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an effective therapy of complementary and alternative medicine. More and more scientific evidences support the use of TCM for asthma treatment, and active ingredients from Chinese medicine plants are becoming a hot issue.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To summarize the frontier knowledge on the function and underlying mechanisms of the active ingredients in asthma treatments and provide a fully integrated, reliable reference for exploring innovative treatments for asthma.

METHODS

The cited literature was obtained from the PubMed and CNIK databases (up to September 2020). Experimental studies on the active ingredients of Chinese medicine and their therapeutic mechanisms were identified. The key words used in the literature retrieval were "asthma" and "traditional Chinese medicine" or "Chinese herbal medicine". The literature on the active ingredients was then screened manually.

RESULTS

We summarized the effect of these active ingredients on asthma, primarily including the effect through which these ingredients can regulate the immunologic equilibrium mechanism by acting on a number of signalling pathways, such as Notch, JAK-STAT-MAPK, adiponectin-iNOS-NF-κB, PGD2-CRTH2, PI3K/AKT, Keap1-Nrf2/HO-1, T-bet/Gata-3 and Foxp3-RORγt, thereby regulating the progression of asthma.

CONCLUSION

The active ingredients from Chinese medicine have multilevel effects on asthma by regulating the immunologic equilibrium mechanism or signalling pathways, giving them great clinical value. However, the safety and functional mechanism of these ingredients still must be further determined.

MicroRNAs as Potential Regulators of Immune Response Networks in Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) are an important factor of morbidity and mortality, accounting for approximately 6% of total deaths worldwide. The main CRDs are asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). These complex diseases have different triggers including allergens, pollutants, tobacco smoke, and other risk factors. It is important to highlight that although CRDs are incurable, various forms of treatment improve shortness of breath and quality of life. The search for tools that can ensure accurate diagnosis and treatment is crucial. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs and have been described as promising diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers for CRDs. They are implicated in multiple processes of asthma and COPD, regulating pathways associated with inflammation, thereby showing that miRNAs are critical regulators of the immune response. Indeed, miRNAs have been found to be deregulated in several biofluids (sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage, and serum) and in both structural lung and immune cells of patients in comparison to healthy subjects, showing their potential role as biomarkers. Also, miRNAs play a part in the development or termination of histopathological changes and comorbidities, revealing the complexity of miRNA regulation and opening up new treatment possibilities. Finally, miRNAs have been proposed as prognostic tools in response to both conventional and biologic treatments for asthma or COPD, and miRNA-based treatment has emerged as a potential approach for clinical intervention in these respiratory diseases; however, this field is still in development. The present review applies a systems biology approach to the understanding of miRNA regulatory networks in asthma and COPD, summarizing their roles in pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment.

Deletion of Arno Reduces Eosinophilic Inflammation and Interleukin-5 Expression in a Murine Model of Rhinitis

BACKGROUND

ARF nucleotide-binding site opener (ARNO) is a guanine nucleotide-exchange factor for ADP-ribosylation factor proteins. ARF nucleotide-binding site opener also binds MyD88, and small-molecule inhibition of ARNO reduces inflammation in animal models of inflammatory arthritis and acute inflammation. However, whether genetic deletion of Arno in mice reduces pathologic inflammation has not yet been reported. Furthermore, its role in the nasal cavity has yet to be investigated.

OBJECTIVE

To generate Arno knockout mice and to determine whether genetic loss of ARNO reduces eosinophilic inflammation in the ovalbumin (OVA) murine model of rhinitis.

METHODS

Arno knockout mice were generated and wild type and knockout littermates were subjected to the OVA-induced mouse model of rhinosinutitis. Eosinophilic inflammation was assessed through immunofluorescent quantification of EMBP⁺ eosinophils in the septal mucosa and cytokine expression was assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Arno knockout mice are viable and fertile without any noted deficits. Arno wild type and knockout mice subjected to the OVA-induced model of rhinitis demonstrated an average of 314.5 and 153.8 EMBP⁺ cells per mm² septal tissue, respectively (P < .05). Goblet cells per mm of basal lamina were assessed via Alcian blue and there was no statistically significant difference between Arno wild type and knockout mice. Ovalbumin-induced expression of interleukin-5 (IL-5) was significantly reduced in Arno knockout mice (P < .05). There was no statistically significant reduction in IL-4, IL-13, or eotaxin-1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate that deletion of Arno reduces eosinophilic inflammation and IL-5 expression in an OVA-induced model of rhinitis.

MiR-9-1 Suppresses Cell Proliferation and Promotes Apoptosis by Targeting UHRF1 in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is listed as the most common reason for cancer-related death all over the world despite diagnostic improvements and the development of chemotherapy and targeted therapies. MicroRNAs control both physiological and pathological processes including development and cancer. A microRNA-9 to 1 (miR-9 to 1) overexpression model in lung cancer cell lines was established and miR-9 to 1 was found to significantly suppress the proliferation rate in lung cancer cell lines, colony formation in vitro, and tumorigenicity in nude mice of A549 cells. Ubiquitin-like containing PHD and RING finger domains 1 (UHRF1) was then identified to direct target of miR-9 to 1. The inhibition of UHRF1 by miR-9 to 1 causes G1 arrest and p15, p16, and p21 were re-expressed in miR-9 to 1 group in mRNA level and protein level. Silence of UHRF1 expression in A549 cells resulted in the similar re-expression of p15, p16, p21 which is similar with miR-9 to 1 infection. Therefore, we concluded that UHRF1 is a new target for miR-9 to 1 to suppress cell proliferation by re-expression of tumor suppressors p15, p16, and p21 mediated by UHRF1.

Inflammation-Induced Protein Unfolding in Airway Smooth Muscle Triggers a Homeostatic Response in Mitochondria

The effects of airway inflammation on airway smooth muscle (ASM) are mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα). In this review article, we will provide a unifying hypothesis for a homeostatic response to airway inflammation that mitigates oxidative stress and thereby provides resilience to ASM. Previous studies have shown that acute exposure to TNFα increases ASM force generation in response to muscarinic stimulation (hyper-reactivity) resulting in increased ATP consumption and increased tension cost. To meet this increased energetic demand, mitochondrial O₂ consumption and oxidative phosphorylation increases but at the cost of increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (oxidative stress). TNFα-induced oxidative stress results in the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria of ASM. In the ER, TNFα selectively phosphorylates inositol-requiring enzyme 1 alpha (pIRE1α) triggering downstream splicing of the transcription factor X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1s); thus, activating the pIRE1α/XBP1s ER stress pathway. Protein unfolding in mitochondria also triggers an unfolded protein response (^mtUPR). In our conceptual framework, we hypothesize that activation of these pathways is homeostatically directed towards mitochondrial remodeling via an increase in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC1α) expression, which in turn triggers: (1) mitochondrial fragmentation (increased dynamin-related protein-1 (Drp1) and reduced mitofusin-2 (Mfn2) expression) and mitophagy (activation of the Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1)/Parkin mitophagy pathway) to improve mitochondrial quality; (2) reduced Mfn2 also results in a disruption of mitochondrial tethering to the ER and reduced mitochondrial Ca²⁺ influx; and (3) mitochondrial biogenesis and increased mitochondrial volume density. The homeostatic remodeling of mitochondria results in more efficient O₂ consumption and oxidative phosphorylation and reduced ROS formation by individual mitochondrion, while still meeting the increased ATP demand. Thus, the energetic load of hyper-reactivity is shared across the mitochondrial pool within ASM cells.