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Denton PW, García JV. Humanized mouse models of HIV infection. AIDS Rev 2011; 13:135-148. [PMID: 21799532 PMCID: PMC3741405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Because of the limited tropism of HIV, in vivo modeling of this virus has been almost exclusively limited to other lentiviruses, such as simian immunodeficiency virus, that reproduce many important characteristics of HIV infection. However, there are significant genetic and biological differences among lentiviruses and some HIV-specific interventions are not effective against other lentiviruses in nonhuman hosts. For these reasons, much emphasis has recently been placed on developing alternative animal models that support HIV replication and recapitulate key aspects of HIV infection and pathogenesis in humans. Humanized mice, CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cell transplanted immunodeficient mice, and in particular mice also implanted with human thymus/liver tissue (bone marrow liver thymus mice) that develop a functional human immune system, have been the focus of a great deal of attention as possible models to study virtually all aspects of HIV biology and pathogenesis. Humanized mice are systemically reconstituted with human lymphoid cells, offering rapid, reliable, and reproducible experimental systems for HIV research. Peripheral blood of humanized mice can be readily sampled longitudinally to assess reconstitution with human cells and to monitor HIV replication, permitting the evaluation of multiple parameters of HIV infection such as viral load levels, CD4+ T-cell depletion, immune activation, as well as the effects of therapeutic interventions. Of high relevance to HIV transmission is the extensive characterization and validation of the reconstitution with human lymphoid cells of the female reproductive tract and of the gastrointestinal tract of humanized bone marrow liver thymus mice that renders them susceptible to both vaginal and rectal HIV infection. Other important attributes of all types of humanized mice include: (i) their small size and cost that make them widely accessible; (ii) multiple cohorts of humanized mice can be made from multiple human donors and each cohort has identical human cells, permitting control of intragenetic variables; (iii) continuous de novo production of human immune cells from the transplanted CD34+ cells within each humanized mouse facilitates long-term experiments; (iv) both primary and laboratory HIV isolates can be used for experiments; and (v) in addition to therapeutic interventions, rectal and vaginal HIV prevention approaches can be studied. In summary, humanized mice can have an important role in virtually all aspects of HIV research, including the analysis of HIV replication, the evaluation of HIV restriction factors, the characterization of successful biomedical HIV prevention strategies, the evaluation of new treatment regimens, and the evaluation of novel HIV eradication strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Denton
- Division of Infectious Diseases, UNC Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, USA.
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102
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Humanized Rag1-/- γc-/- mice support multilineage hematopoiesis and are susceptible to HIV-1 infection via systemic and vaginal routes. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20169. [PMID: 21695116 PMCID: PMC3114781 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Several new immunodeficient mouse models for human cell engraftment have recently been introduced that include the Rag2−/−γc−/−, NOD/SCID, NOD/SCIDγc−/− and NOD/SCIDβ2m−/− strains. Transplantation of these mice with CD34+ human hematopoietic stem cells leads to prolonged engraftment, multilineage hematopoiesis and the capacity to generate human immune responses against a variety of antigens. However, the various mouse strains used and different methods of engrafting human cells are beginning to illustrate strain specific variations in engraftment levels, duration and longevity of mouse life span. In these proof-of-concept studies we evaluated the Balb/c-Rag1−/−γ−/− strain for engraftment by human fetal liver derived CD34+ hematopoietic cells using the same protocol found to be effective for Balb/c-Rag2−/−γc−/− mice. We demonstrate that these mice can be efficiently engrafted and show multilineage human hematopoiesis with human cells populating different lymphoid organs. Generation of human cells continues beyond a year and production of human immunoglobulins is noted. Infection with HIV-1 leads to chronic viremia with a resultant CD4 T cell loss. To mimic the predominant sexual viral transmission, we challenged humanized Rag1−/−γc−/− mice with HIV-1 via vaginal route which also resulted in chronic viremia and helper T cell loss. Thus these mice can be further exploited for studying human pathogens that infect the human hematopoietic system in an in vivo setting.
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Neff CP, Kurisu T, Ndolo T, Fox K, Akkina R. A topical microbicide gel formulation of CCR5 antagonist maraviroc prevents HIV-1 vaginal transmission in humanized RAG-hu mice. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20209. [PMID: 21673796 PMCID: PMC3105981 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 04/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
For prevention of HIV infection many currently licensed anti-HIV drugs and new ones in the pipeline show potential as topically applied microbicides. While macaque models have been the gold standard for in vivo microbicide testing, they are expensive and sufficient numbers are not available. Therefore, a small animal model that facilitates rapid evaluation of potential candidates for their preliminary efficacy is urgently needed in the microbicide field. We previously demonstrated that RAG-hu humanized mouse model permits HIV-1 mucosal transmission via both vaginal and rectal routes and that oral pre-exposure chemo-prophylactic strategies could be tested in this system. Here in these proof-of-concept studies, we extended this system for topical microbicide testing using HIV-1 as the challenge virus. Maraviroc, a clinically approved CCR5 inhibitor drug for HIV treatment, was formulated as a microbicide gel at 5 mM concentration in 2.2% hydroxyl ethyl cellulose. Female RAG-hu mice were challenged vaginally with HIV-1 an hour after intravaginal application of the maraviroc gel. Our results showed that maraviroc gel treated mice were fully protected against vaginal HIV-1 challenge in contrast to placebo gel treated mice which all became infected. These findings highlight the utility of the humanized mouse models for microbicide testing and, together with the recent data from macaque studies, suggest that maraviroc is a promising candidate for future microbicide clinical trials in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Preston Neff
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Theresa Kurisu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Thomas Ndolo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Kami Fox
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Ramesh Akkina
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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104
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Breuer S, Schievink SI, Schulte A, Blankenfeldt W, Fackler OT, Geyer M. Molecular design, functional characterization and structural basis of a protein inhibitor against the HIV-1 pathogenicity factor Nef. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20033. [PMID: 21625496 PMCID: PMC3098852 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased spread of HIV-1 and rapid emergence of drug resistance warrants development of novel antiviral strategies. Nef, a critical viral pathogenicity factor that interacts with host cell factors but lacks enzymatic activity, is not targeted by current antiviral measures. Here we inhibit Nef function by simultaneously blocking several highly conserved protein interaction surfaces. This strategy, referred to as “wrapping Nef”, is based on structure-function analyses that led to the identification of four target sites: (i) SH3 domain interaction, (ii) interference with protein transport processes, (iii) CD4 binding and (iv) targeting to lipid membranes. Screening combinations of Nef-interacting domains, we developed a series of small Nef interacting proteins (NIs) composed of an SH3 domain optimized for binding to Nef, fused to a sequence motif of the CD4 cytoplasmic tail and combined with a prenylation signal for membrane association. NIs bind to Nef in the low nM affinity range, associate with Nef in human cells and specifically interfere with key biological activities of Nef. Structure determination of the Nef-inhibitor complex reveals the molecular basis for binding specificity. These results establish Nef-NI interfaces as promising leads for the development of potent Nef inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Breuer
- Abteilung Physikalische Biochemie, Max-Planck-Institut für molekulare Physiologie, Dortmund, Germany
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105
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Danner R, Chaudhari SN, Rosenberger J, Surls J, Richie TL, Brumeanu TD, Casares S. Expression of HLA class II molecules in humanized NOD.Rag1KO.IL2RgcKO mice is critical for development and function of human T and B cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19826. [PMID: 21611197 PMCID: PMC3096643 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Humanized mice able to reconstitute a surrogate human immune system (HIS) can be used for studies on human immunology and may provide a predictive preclinical model for human vaccines prior to clinical trials. However, current humanized mouse models show sub-optimal human T cell reconstitution and limited ability to support immunoglobulin class switching by human B cells. This limitation has been attributed to the lack of expression of Human Leukocyte Antigens (HLA) molecules in mouse lymphoid organs. Recently, humanized mice expressing HLA class I molecules have been generated but showed little improvement in human T cell reconstitution and function of T and B cells. METHODS We have generated NOD.Rag1KO.IL2RγcKO mice expressing HLA class II (HLA-DR4) molecules under the I-E(d) promoter that were infused as adults with HLA-DR-matched human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). Littermates lacking expression of HLA-DR4 molecules were used as control. RESULTS HSC-infused HLA-DR4.NOD.Rag1KO.IL-2RγcKO mice developed a very high reconstitution rate (>90%) with long-lived and functional human T and B cells. Unlike previous humanized mouse models reported in the literature and our control mice, the HLA-DR4 expressing mice reconstituted serum levels (natural antibodies) of human IgM, IgG (all four subclasses), IgA, and IgE comparable to humans, and elicited high titers of specific human IgG antibodies upon tetanus toxoid vaccination. CONCLUSIONS Our study demonstrates the critical role of HLA class II molecules for development of functional human T cells able to support immunoglobulin class switching and efficiently respond to vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Danner
- US Military Malaria Vaccine Program, Naval Medical Research Center/Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Snehal N. Chaudhari
- US Military Malaria Vaccine Program, Naval Medical Research Center/Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - John Rosenberger
- US Military Malaria Vaccine Program, Naval Medical Research Center/Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jacqueline Surls
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Thomas L. Richie
- US Military Malaria Vaccine Program, Naval Medical Research Center/Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Teodor-Doru Brumeanu
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sofia Casares
- US Military Malaria Vaccine Program, Naval Medical Research Center/Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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106
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Kim M, Choi B, Kim SY, Yang JH, Roh CR, Lee KY, Kim SJ. Co-transplantation of fetal bone tissue facilitates the development and reconstitution in human B cells in humanized NOD/SCID/IL-2Rγnull (NSG) mice. J Clin Immunol 2011; 31:699-709. [PMID: 21544592 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-011-9538-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2010] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In terms of the function and reconstitution efficacy of human immune cells, co-transplantation of human fetal tissues, such as thymus and liver, with CD34(+) hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) has potential advantages in the generation of humanized mice. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS To examine the effects of bone tissues in the reconstitution of human immune cells, particularly in B cells, we generated a new humanized mice co-transplanted with human fetal thymus (hFT)/fetal bone (hFB) tissues and human fetal liver-derived CD34(+) cells. RESULTS Humanized mice exhibited effective reconstitution of human immune cells earlier compared to control humanized mice. In terms of quantity, the number of immune cells, such as human T, B, and monocyte/macrophages was significantly increased. Furthermore, significant increase of B cell progenitors and immature/naïve B cells could be detected in the bone marrow and spleen of humanized mice. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate that co-transplantation of hFB tissue may facilitate the reconstitution of human B and T cells, and therefore the humanized model may be used to develop therapeutic human antibodies for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miyoung Kim
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, 440-746, Republic of Korea
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107
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Efficient infection, activation, and impairment of pDCs in the BM and peripheral lymphoid organs during early HIV-1 infection in humanized rag2⁻/⁻γ C⁻/⁻ mice in vivo. Blood 2011; 117:6184-92. [PMID: 21505190 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2011-01-331173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are involved in HIV-1 pathogenesis, the precise mechanism of interaction between pDCs and HIV-1 in vivo is not clear. The conflicting reports in HIV-1-infected patients highlight the importance of studying the interaction between HIV-1 and pDCs in relevant in vivo models. The rag2/γC double knockout (DKO) mouse supports reconstitution of a functional human immune system in central and peripheral lymphoid organs. We report here that functional pDCs were developed in the BM and peripheral lymphoid organs in humanized DKO (DKO-hu) mice. We show that pDCs from both BM and spleen were activated and productively infected during early HIV infection. The activation level of pDCs correlated with that of CD4⁺ T-cell activation and apoptosis. Although CD4⁺ T cells were preferentially depleted, pDCs were maintained but functionally impaired in the BM and spleen of HIV-infected DKO-hu mice. We conclude that HIV-1 can efficiently infect, activate, and impair pDCs in the BM and spleen, in correlation with CD4⁺ T-cell depletion. The humanized mouse will serve as a relevant model to investigate the development and function of pDCs and their role during HIV-1 pathogenesis in vivo.
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108
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Song J, Willinger T, Rongvaux A, Eynon EE, Stevens S, Manz MG, Flavell RA, Galán JE. A mouse model for the human pathogen Salmonella typhi. Cell Host Microbe 2011; 8:369-76. [PMID: 20951970 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2010.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2010] [Revised: 07/11/2010] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) causes typhoid fever, a life-threatening human disease. The lack of animal models due to S. Typhi's strict human host specificity has hindered its study and vaccine development. We find that immunodeficient Rag2(-/-) γc(-/-) mice engrafted with human fetal liver hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells are able to support S. Typhi replication and persistent infection. A S. Typhi mutant in a gene required for virulence in humans was unable to replicate in these mice. Another mutant unable to produce typhoid toxin exhibited increased replication, suggesting a role for this toxin in the establishment of persistent infection. Furthermore, infected animals mounted human innate and adaptive immune responses to S. Typhi, resulting in the production of cytokines and pathogen-specific antibodies. We expect that this mouse model will be a useful resource for understanding S. Typhi pathogenesis and for evaluating potential vaccine candidates against typhoid fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongmin Song
- Section of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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109
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Mice with human immune system components as in vivo models for infections with human pathogens. Immunol Cell Biol 2011; 89:408-16. [PMID: 21301484 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2010.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Many pathogens relevant to human disease do not infect other animal species. Therefore, animal models that reconstitute or harbor human tissues are explored as hosts for these. In this review, we will summarize recent advances to utilize mice with human immune system components, reconstituted from hematopoietic progenitor cells in vivo. Such mice can be used to study human pathogens that replicate in leukocytes. In addition to studying the replication of these pathogens, the reconstituted human immune system components can also be analyzed for initiating immune responses and control against these infections. Moreover, these new animal models of human infectious disease should replicate the reactivity of the human immune system to vaccine candidates and, especially, the adjuvants contained in them, more faithfully.
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110
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Human IL-3/GM-CSF knock-in mice support human alveolar macrophage development and human immune responses in the lung. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:2390-5. [PMID: 21262803 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1019682108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice with a functional human immune system have the potential to allow in vivo studies of human infectious diseases and to enable vaccine testing. To this end, mice need to fully support the development of human immune cells, allow infection with human pathogens, and be capable of mounting effective human immune responses. A major limitation of humanized mice is the poor development and function of human myeloid cells and the absence of human immune responses at mucosal surfaces, such as the lung. To overcome this, we generated human IL-3/GM-CSF knock-in (hIL-3/GM-CSF KI) mice. These mice faithfully expressed human GM-CSF and IL-3 and developed pulmonary alveolar proteinosis because of elimination of mouse GM-CSF. We demonstrate that hIL-3/GM-CSF KI mice engrafted with human CD34(+) hematopoietic cells had improved human myeloid cell reconstitution in the lung. In particular, hIL-3/GM-CSF KI mice supported the development of human alveolar macrophages that partially rescued the pulmonary alveolar proteinosis syndrome. Moreover, human alveolar macrophages mounted correlates of a human innate immune response against influenza virus. The hIL-3/GM-CSF KI mice represent a unique mouse model that permits the study of human mucosal immune responses to lung pathogens.
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111
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Single amino acid change in gp41 region of HIV-1 alters bystander apoptosis and CD4 decline in humanized mice. Virol J 2011; 8:34. [PMID: 21255440 PMCID: PMC3034703 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-8-34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2011] [Accepted: 01/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The mechanism by which HIV infection leads to a selective depletion of CD4 cells leading to immunodeficiency remains highly debated. Whether the loss of CD4 cells is a direct consequence of virus infection or bystander apoptosis of uninfected cells is also uncertain. Results We have addressed this issue in the humanized mouse model of HIV infection using a HIV variant with a point mutation in the gp41 region of the Env glycoprotein that alters its fusogenic activity. We demonstrate here that a single amino acid change (V38E) altering the cell-to-cell fusion activity of the Env minimizes CD4 loss in humanized mice without altering viral replication. This differential pathogenesis was associated with a lack of bystander apoptosis induction by V38E virus even in the presence of similar levels of infected cells. Interestingly, immune activation was observed with both WT and V38E infection suggesting that the two phenomena are likely not interdependent in the mouse model. Conclusions We conclude that Env fusion activity is one of the determinants of HIV pathogenesis and it may be possible to attenuate HIV by targeting gp41.
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112
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Ishikawa F. ["Creation of mouse models for human diseases"]. NIHON RINSHO MEN'EKI GAKKAI KAISHI = JAPANESE JOURNAL OF CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 33:304-11. [PMID: 21212582 DOI: 10.2177/jsci.33.304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
To translate research findings into medicine and drug development, we have been performing in vivo research using primary human samples. Development of mouse models with reconstituted human immunity would be critical to overcome technical and ethical constraints associated with in vivo human research. To this end, we have created humanized mice by intravenously injecting purified human hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) into immune-compromised NOD/SCID/IL2rgKO newborns. This xenogeneic transplantation system allows long-term engraftment and multi-lineage differentiation of human HSCs. The humanized mouse fully reconstituted with human myeloid and lymphoid subsets is expected to serve as an in vivo platform for the investigation of human immune function. In addition to understanding normal human hematopoiesis and immunity, the use of humanized mice is expected to allow investigators to translate their research findings into therapeutic and pharmaceutical development. As a possibility for such translation, we developed an in vivo model of human acute myeloid leukemia (AML), a disease in which the majority of patients succumb to relapse. Using the model, we examined the pathogenesis of AML and tried to clarify the role of AML stem cells in chemotherapy resistance and relapse. Humanized mouse model for both normal and diseased immuno-hematopoietic system is opening a new era in translational medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumihiko Ishikawa
- RIKEN Research Center for Allergy & Immunology Research Unit for Human Disease Models
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113
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Wulf-Goldenberg A, Eckert K, Fichtner I. Intrahepatically transplanted human cord blood cells reduce SW480 tumor growth in the presence of bispecific EpCAM/CD3 antibody. Cytotherapy 2011; 13:108-13. [DOI: 10.3109/14653249.2010.515577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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114
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Toward a durable treatment of HIV-1 infection using RNA interference. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2011; 102:141-63. [PMID: 21846571 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-415795-8.00001-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) is a cellular mechanism that mediates sequence-specific gene silencing at the posttranscriptional level. RNAi can be used as an antiviral approach against human pathogens. An attractive target for RNAi therapeutics is the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), and the first clinical trial using a lentiviral gene therapy was initiated in early 2008. In this chapter, we focus on some basic principles of such an RNAi-based gene therapy against HIV-1. This includes the subjects of target site selection within the viral RNA genome, the phenomenon of viral escape, and therapeutic strategies to prevent viral escape. The latter antiescape strategies include diverse combinatorial RNAi approaches that are all directed against the HIV-1 RNA genome. As an alternative strategy, we also discuss the possibilities and restrictions of targeting cellular cofactors that are essential for virus replication, but less important for cell physiology.
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115
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Frecha C, Fusil F, Cosset FL, Verhoeyen E. In vivo gene delivery into hCD34+ cells in a humanized mouse model. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 737:367-90. [PMID: 21590405 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-095-9_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In vivo targeted gene delivery to hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) would mean a big step forward in the field of gene therapy. This would imply that the risk of cell differentiation and loss of homing/-engraftment is reduced, as there is no need for purification of the target cell. In vivo gene delivery also bypasses the issue that no precise markers that permit the isolation of a primitive hHSC exist up to now. Indeed, in vivo gene transfer could target all HSCs in their stem-cell niche, including those cells that are "missed" by the purification criteria. Moreover, for the majority of diseases, there is a requirement of a minimal number of gene-corrected cells to be reinfused to allow an efficient long-term engraftment. This requisite might become a limiting factor when treating children with inherited disorders, due to the low number of bone marrow (BM) CD34(+) HSCs that can actually be isolated. These problems could be overcome by using efficient in vivo HSC-specific lentiviral vectors (LVs). Additionally, vectors for in vivo HSC transduction must be specific for the target cell, to avoid vector spreading while enhancing transduction efficiency. Of importance, a major barrier in LV transduction of HSCs is that 75% of HSCs are residing in the G0 phase of the cell cycle and are not very permissive for classical VSV-G-LV transduction. Therefore, we engineered "early-activating-cytokine (SCF or/and TPO)" displaying LVs that allowed a slight and transient stimulation of hCD34(+) cells resulting in efficient lentiviral gene transfer while preserving the "stemness" of the targeted HSCs. The selective transduction of HSCs by these vectors was demonstrated by their capacity to promote selective transduction of CD34(+) cells in in vitro-derived, long-term culture-initiating cell colonies and long-term NOD/SCID repopulating cells. A second generation of these "early-acting-cytokine"-displaying lentiviral vectors has now been developed that is fit for targeted in vivo gene delivery to hCD34(+) cells. In the method presented here, we describe the in vivo gene delivery into hCD34(+) cells by intramarrow injection of these new vectors into humanized BALB/c Rag2( null )/IL2rgc ( null ) (BALB/c RAGA) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Frecha
- Human Virology Department, INSERM U758, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, and Université de Lyon 1, Lyon, France
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116
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Gamble LJ, Matthews QL. Current progress in the development of a prophylactic vaccine for HIV-1. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2010; 5:9-26. [PMID: 21267356 PMCID: PMC3023272 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s6959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Since its discovery and characterization in the early 1980s as a virus that attacks the immune system, there has been some success for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) infection. However, due to the overwhelming public health impact of this virus, a vaccine is needed urgently. Despite the tireless efforts of scientist and clinicians, there is still no safe and effective vaccine that provides sterilizing immunity. A vaccine that provides sterilizing immunity against HIV infection remains elusive in part due to the following reasons: 1) degree of diversity of the virus, 2) ability of the virus to evade the hosts' immunity, and 3) lack of appropriate animal models in which to test vaccine candidates. There have been several attempts to stimulate the immune system to provide protection against HIV-infection. Here, we will discuss attempts that have been made to induce sterilizing immunity, including traditional vaccination attempts, induction of broadly neutralizing antibody production, DNA vaccines, and use of viral vectors. Some of these attempts show promise pending continued research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena J Gamble
- Department of Medicine, The Gene Therapy Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294, USA
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117
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Neff CP, Ndolo T, Tandon A, Habu Y, Akkina R. Oral pre-exposure prophylaxis by anti-retrovirals raltegravir and maraviroc protects against HIV-1 vaginal transmission in a humanized mouse model. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15257. [PMID: 21203568 PMCID: PMC3006206 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual HIV-1 transmission by vaginal route is the most predominant mode of viral transmission, resulting in millions of new infections every year. In the absence of an effective vaccine, there is an urgent need to develop other alternative methods of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Many novel drugs that are currently approved for clinical use also show great potential to prevent viral sexual transmission when administered systemically. A small animal model that permits rapid preclinical evaluation of potential candidates for their systemic PrEP efficacy will greatly enhance progress in this area of investigation. We have previously shown that RAG-hu humanized mouse model permits HIV-1 mucosal transmission via both vaginal and rectal routes and displays CD4 T cell loss typical to that seen in the human. Thus far systemic PrEP studies have been primarily limited to RT inhibitors exemplified by tenofovir and emtricitabine. In these proof-of-concept studies we evaluated two new classes of clinically approved drugs with different modes of action namely, an integrase inhibitor raltegravir and a CCR5 inhibitor maraviroc as potential systemically administered chemo-prophylactics. Our results showed that oral administration of either of these drugs fully protects against vaginal HIV-1 challenge in the RAG-hu mouse model. Based on these results both these drugs show great promise for further development as orally administered PrEPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Preston Neff
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Thomas Ndolo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Apurva Tandon
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Yuichiro Habu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Ramesh Akkina
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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118
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Luo XM, Lei MYY, Feidi RA, West AP, Balazs AB, Bjorkman PJ, Yang L, Baltimore D. Dimeric 2G12 as a potent protection against HIV-1. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1001225. [PMID: 21187894 PMCID: PMC3002980 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Accepted: 11/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that broadly neutralizing anti-HIV-1 antibody 2G12 (human IgG1) naturally forms dimers that are more potent than monomeric 2G12 in in vitro neutralization of various strains of HIV-1. In this study, we have investigated the protective effects of monomeric versus dimeric 2G12 against HIV-1 infection in vivo using a humanized mouse model. Our results showed that passively transferred, purified 2G12 dimer is more potent than 2G12 monomer at preventing CD4 T cell loss and suppressing the increase of viral load following HIV-1 infection of humanized mice. Using humanized mice bearing IgG “backpack” tumors that provided 2G12 antibodies continuously, we found that a sustained dimer concentration of 5–25 µg/ml during the course of infection provides effective protection against HIV-1. Importantly, 2G12 dimer at this concentration does not favor mutations of the HIV-1 envelope that would cause the virus to completely escape 2G12 neutralization. We have therefore identified dimeric 2G12 as a potent prophylactic reagent against HIV-1 in vivo, which could be used as part of an antibody cocktail to prevent HIV-1 infection. Most successful vaccines function by eliciting antibodies that bind to the surface of pathogens of interest from the host immunologic repertoire. This should also be the case for an HIV-1 vaccine, but broadly neutralizing anti-HIV-1 antibodies have proven hard to elicit with any reagent. Thus, methods to directly administer broadly neutralizing anti-HIV-1 antibodies, such as passive transfusion, become appealing. It is therefore important to find out which antibodies, or antibody cocktails, would provide effective protection against HIV-1 before administering them. Here, we show that the dimeric fraction of 2G12, a unique monoclonal anti-HIV-1 antibody that dimerizes naturally, provides better protection against HIV-1 than its monomeric fraction. As an added bonus, although HIV-1 can evolve to completely escape antibody control, the 2G12 dimer does not favor such evolution. Our study suggests that the 2G12 dimer may be a suitable reagent for direct administration to protect people from HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin M. Luo
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Margarida Y. Y. Lei
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Rana A. Feidi
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Anthony P. West
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Alejandro Benjamin Balazs
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Pamela J. Bjorkman
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Lili Yang
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DB); (LY)
| | - David Baltimore
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DB); (LY)
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119
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Gorantla S, Makarov E, Finke-Dwyer J, Castanedo A, Holguin A, Gebhart CL, Gendelman HE, Poluektova L. Links between progressive HIV-1 infection of humanized mice and viral neuropathogenesis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 177:2938-49. [PMID: 21088215 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.100536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Few rodent models of human immunodeficiency virus type one (HIV-1) infection can reflect the course of viral infection in humans. To this end, we investigated the relationships between progressive HIV-1 infection, immune compromise, and neuroinflammatory responses in NOD/scid-IL-2Rγ(c)(null) mice reconstituted with human hematopoietic CD34(+) stem cells. Human blood-borne macrophages repopulated the meninges and perivascular spaces of chimeric animals. Viral infection in lymphoid tissue led to the accelerated entry of human cells into the brain, marked neuroinflammation, and HIV-1 replication in human mononuclear phagocytes. A meningitis and less commonly an encephalitis followed cM-T807 antibody-mediated CD8(+) cell depletion. We conclude that HIV-1-infected NOD/scid-IL-2Rγ(c)(null) humanized mice can, at least in part, recapitulate lentiviral neuropathobiology. This model of neuroAIDS reflects the virological, immunological, and early disease-associated neuropathological components of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santhi Gorantla
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5880, USA
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Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi is a pathogen that only infects humans. Currently, there is no animal model for studying this pathogen. Recently, alymphoid RAG-2(-/-)/γ(c)(-/-) mice engrafted with human leukocytes, known as humanized mice, have been successfully utilized to develop experimental models for several human-specific viral infections, including HIV, human-like dengue fever and hepatitis C virus. Little is known about the usefulness and feasibility of the humanized mouse model for the study of human-specific bacterial pathogens, such as S. typhi. The aim of this study was to determine if Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi could establish productive infection in humanized mice. Here we report that intravenous inoculation of S. typhi into humanized mice, but not controls, established S. typhi infections. High bacterial loads were found in the liver, spleen, blood and bone marrow of mice reconstituted with human leukocytes, but not in the unreconstituted control mice. Importantly, S. typhi-infected humanized mice lost significant body weight, and some of the infected mice displayed neurological symptoms. Our data suggest, for the first time, that humanized mice are susceptible to S. typhi challenge and that this model can be utilized to study the pathogenesis of S. typhi to develop novel therapeutic strategies.
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121
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Becker PD, Legrand N, van Geelen CMM, Noerder M, Huntington ND, Lim A, Yasuda E, Diehl SA, Scheeren FA, Ott M, Weijer K, Wedemeyer H, Di Santo JP, Beaumont T, Guzman CA, Spits H. Generation of human antigen-specific monoclonal IgM antibodies using vaccinated "human immune system" mice. PLoS One 2010; 5. [PMID: 20957227 PMCID: PMC2949385 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2010] [Accepted: 09/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Passive transfer of antibodies not only provides immediate short-term protection against disease, but also can be exploited as a therapeutic tool. However, the ‘humanization’ of murine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is a time-consuming and expensive process that has the inherent drawback of potentially altering antigenic specificity and/or affinity. The immortalization of human B cells represents an alternative for obtaining human mAbs, but relies on the availability of biological samples from vaccinated individuals or convalescent patients. In this work we describe a novel approach to generate fully human mAbs by combining a humanized mouse model with a new B cell immortalization technique. Methodology/Principal Findings After transplantation with CD34+CD38− human hematopoietic progenitor cells, BALB/c Rag2−/−IL-2Rγc−/− mice acquire a human immune system and harbor B cells with a diverse IgM repertoire. “Human Immune System” mice were then immunized with two commercial vaccine antigens, tetanus toxoid and hepatitis B surface antigen. Sorted human CD19+CD27+ B cells were retrovirally transduced with the human B cell lymphoma (BCL)-6 and BCL-XL genes, and subsequently cultured in the presence of CD40-ligand and IL-21. This procedure allows generating stable B cell receptor-positive B cells that secrete immunoglobulins. We recovered stable B cell clones that produced IgM specific for tetanus toxoid and the hepatitis B surface antigen, respectively. Conclusion/Significance This work provides the proof-of-concept for the usefulness of this novel method based on the immunization of humanized mice for the rapid generation of human mAbs against a wide range of antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo D. Becker
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nicolas Legrand
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam (AMC-UvA), Center for Immunology Amsterdam (CIA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Miriam Noerder
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nicholas D. Huntington
- Cytokines and Lymphoid Development Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- INSERM U668, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Annick Lim
- INSERM U668, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Sean A. Diehl
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam (AMC-UvA), Center for Immunology Amsterdam (CIA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ferenc A. Scheeren
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam (AMC-UvA), Center for Immunology Amsterdam (CIA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael Ott
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Twincore Centre of Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
| | - Kees Weijer
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam (AMC-UvA), Center for Immunology Amsterdam (CIA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Heiner Wedemeyer
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Twincore Centre of Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
| | - James P. Di Santo
- Cytokines and Lymphoid Development Unit, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- INSERM U668, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Carlos A. Guzman
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Hergen Spits
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam (AMC-UvA), Center for Immunology Amsterdam (CIA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- AIMM Therapeutics, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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122
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High natural permissivity of primary rabbit cells for HIV-1, with a virion infectivity defect in macrophages as the final replication barrier. J Virol 2010; 84:12300-14. [PMID: 20861260 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01607-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
An immunocompetent, permissive, small-animal model would be valuable for the study of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) pathogenesis and for the testing of drug and vaccine candidates. However, the development of such a model has been hampered by the inability of primary rodent cells to efficiently support several steps of the HIV-1 replication cycle. Although transgenesis of the HIV receptor complex and human cyclin T1 have been beneficial, additional late-phase blocks prevent robust replication of HIV-1 in rodents and limit the range of in vivo applications. In this study, we explored the HIV-1 susceptibility of rabbit primary T cells and macrophages. Envelope-specific and coreceptor-dependent entry of HIV-1 was achieved by expressing human CD4 and CCR5. A block of HIV-1 DNA synthesis, likely mediated by TRIM5, was overcome by limited changes to the HIV-1 gag gene. Unlike with mice and rats, primary cells from rabbits supported the functions of the regulatory viral proteins Tat and Rev, Gag processing, and the release of HIV-1 particles at levels comparable to those in human cells. While HIV-1 produced by rabbit T cells was highly infectious, a macrophage-specific infectivity defect became manifest by a complex pattern of mutations in the viral genome, only part of which were deamination dependent. These results demonstrate a considerable natural HIV-1 permissivity of the rabbit species and suggest that receptor complex transgenesis combined with modifications in gag and possibly vif of HIV-1 to evade species-specific restriction factors might render lagomorphs fully permissive to infection by this pathogenic human lentivirus.
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123
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O'Connell RM, Balazs AB, Rao DS, Kivork C, Yang L, Baltimore D. Lentiviral vector delivery of human interleukin-7 (hIL-7) to human immune system (HIS) mice expands T lymphocyte populations. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12009. [PMID: 20700454 PMCID: PMC2917362 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2010] [Accepted: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetically modified mice carrying engrafted human tissues provide useful models to study human cell biology in physiologically relevant contexts. However, there remain several obstacles limiting the compatibility of human cells within their mouse hosts. Among these is inadequate cross-reactvitiy between certain mouse cytokines and human cellular receptors, depriving the graft of important survival and growth signals. To circumvent this problem, we utilized a lentivirus-based delivery system to express physiologically relevant levels of human interleukin-7 (hIL-7) in Rag2-/-gammac-/- mice following a single intravenous injection. hIL-7 promoted homeostatic proliferation of both adoptively transferred and endogenously generated T-cells in Rag2-/-gammac-/- Human Immune System (HIS) mice. Interestingly, we found that hIL-7 increased T lymphocyte numbers in the spleens of HIV infected HIS mice without affecting viral load. Taken together, our study unveils a versatile approach to deliver human cytokines to HIS mice, to both improve engraftment and determine the impact of cytokines on human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M. O'Connell
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Alejandro B. Balazs
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Dinesh S. Rao
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Christine Kivork
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
| | - Lili Yang
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DB); (LY)
| | - David Baltimore
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DB); (LY)
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124
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Sango K, Joseph A, Patel M, Osiecki K, Dutta M, Goldstein H. Highly active antiretroviral therapy potently suppresses HIV infection in humanized Rag2-/-gammac-/- mice. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2010; 26:735-46. [PMID: 20624075 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2009.0136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Humanized Rag2(-/-)gamma(c)(-/-) mice (Hu-DKO mice) become populated with functional human T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells following transplantation with human hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) and represent an improved model for studying HIV infection in vivo. In the current study we demonstrated that intrasplenic inoculation of hu-DKO mice with HIV-1 initiated a higher level of HIV infection than intravenous or intraperitoneal inoculation, associated with a reciprocal decrease in peripheral CD4(+) T cells and increase in peripheral CD8(+) T cells. HIV infection by intrasplenic injection increased serum levels of human IgG and IgM including human IgM and IgG specific for HIV-1 gp120. There was a significant inverse correlation between the level of HIV-1 infection and the extent of CD4(+) T cell depletion. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) initiated 1 week after HIV-1 inoculation markedly suppressed HIV-1 infection and prevented CD4(+) T cell depletion. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that intrasplenic injection of hu-DKO mice with HIV is a more efficient route of HIV infection than intravenous or intraperitoneal injection and generates increased infection associated with an increased anti-HIV humoral response. This animal model can serve as a valuable in vivo model to study the efficacy of anti-HIV therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaori Sango
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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125
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Buchholz F, Hauber J. In vitro evolution and analysis of HIV-1 LTR-specific recombinases. Methods 2010; 53:102-9. [PMID: 20600935 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2010.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2010] [Revised: 06/14/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Current antiretroviral therapies would greatly benefit from the concurrent removal of integrated HIV-1 proviral DNA from the patient's cells. In this review, we describe an experimental strategy that allowed the engineering and functional analysis of a HIV-1 LTR-specific recombinase (Tre-recombinase). We furthermore provide protocols that are utilized for the investigation of Tre's antiretroviral activity in infected tissue cultures as well as in infected humanized Rag2(-/-)γc(-/-) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Buchholz
- Max-Planck-Institute for Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrasse 108, 01307 Dresden, Germany
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126
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Gorantla S, Makarov E, Finke-Dwyer J, Gebhart CL, Domm W, Dewhurst S, Gendelman HE, Poluektova LY. CD8+ cell depletion accelerates HIV-1 immunopathology in humanized mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:7082-91. [PMID: 20495069 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Stable engraftment of human lymphoid tissue in NOD/scid-IL-2Rgammacnull mice after CD34+ hematopoietic stem cell reconstitution permits the evaluation of ongoing HIV-1 infection for weeks to months. We demonstrate that HIV-1-infected rodents develop virus-specific cellular immune responses. CD8+ cell depletion, 2 or 5-7 wk after viral infection, resulted in a significant increase of HIV-1 load, robust immune cell activation, and cytopathology in lymphoid tissues but preserved CD4/CD8 double-positive thymic T cell pools. Human CD8+ cells reappeared in circulation as early as 2-3 wk. These data support a role of CD8+ cells in viral surveillance and the relevance of this humanized mouse model for the studies of HIV-1 pathobiology and virus-specific immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santhi Gorantla
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
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127
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Morrow MP, Grant A, Mujawar Z, Dubrovsky L, Pushkarsky T, Kiselyeva Y, Jennelle L, Mukhamedova N, Remaley AT, Kashanchi F, Sviridov D, Bukrinsky M. Stimulation of the liver X receptor pathway inhibits HIV-1 replication via induction of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1. Mol Pharmacol 2010; 78:215-25. [PMID: 20479131 DOI: 10.1124/mol.110.065029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol plays an important role in the HIV life cycle, and infectivity of cholesterol-depleted HIV virions is significantly impaired. Recently, we demonstrated that HIV-1, via its protein Nef, inhibits the activity of the major cellular cholesterol transporter ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1), suggesting that the virus may use this mechanism to get access to cellular cholesterol. In this study, we investigated the effect on HIV infection of a synthetic liver X receptor (LXR) ligand, N-(2,2,2-trifluoro-ethyl)-N-[4-(2,2,2-trifluoro-1-hydroxy-1-trifluoromethyl-ethyl)-phenyl]-benzenesulfonamide (TO-901317), which is a potent stimulator of ABCA1 expression. We demonstrate that TO-901317 restores cholesterol efflux from HIV-infected T lymphocytes and macrophages. TO-901317 potently suppressed HIV-1 replication in both cell types and inhibited HIV-1 replication in ex vivo cultured lymphoid tissue and in RAG-hu mice infected in vivo. This anti-HIV activity was dependent on ABCA1, because the effect of the drug was significantly reduced in ABCA1-defective T cells from a patient with Tangier disease, and RNA interference-mediated inhibition of ABCA1 expression eliminated the effect of TO-901317 on HIV-1 replication. TO-901317-mediated inhibition of HIV replication was due to reduced virus production and reduced infectivity of produced virions. The infectivity defect was in part due to reduced fusion activity of the virions, which was directly linked to reduced viral cholesterol. These results describe a novel approach to inhibiting HIV infection by stimulating ABCA1 expression.
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128
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Hofer U, Schlaepfer E, Baenziger S, Nischang M, Regenass S, Schwendener R, Kempf W, Nadal D, Speck RF. Inadequate clearance of translocated bacterial products in HIV-infected humanized mice. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000867. [PMID: 20442871 PMCID: PMC2861703 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2009] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial translocation from the gut and subsequent immune activation are hallmarks of HIV infection and are thought to determine disease progression. Intestinal barrier integrity is impaired early in acute retroviral infection, but levels of plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a marker of bacterial translocation, increase only later. We examined humanized mice infected with HIV to determine if disruption of the intestinal barrier alone is responsible for elevated levels of LPS and if bacterial translocation increases immune activation. Treating uninfected mice with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) induced bacterial translocation, but did not result in elevated plasma LPS levels. DSS-induced translocation provoked LPS elevation only when phagocytic cells were depleted with clodronate liposomes (clodrolip). Macrophages of DSS-treated, HIV-negative mice phagocytosed more LPS ex vivo than those of control mice. In HIV-infected mice, however, LPS phagocytosis was insufficient to clear the translocated LPS. These conditions allowed higher levels of plasma LPS and CD8+ cell activation, which were associated with lower CD4+/CD8+ cell ratios and higher viral loads. LPS levels reflect both intestinal barrier and LPS clearance. Macrophages are essential in controlling systemic bacterial translocation, and this function might be hindered in chronic HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula Hofer
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Erika Schlaepfer
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Baenziger
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marc Nischang
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Regenass
- Division of Clinical Immunology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto Schwendener
- Institute of Molecular Cancer Research, University Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Werner Kempf
- Kempf and Pfaltz Histological Diagnostics, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - David Nadal
- Experimental Infectious Diseases and Cancer Research, Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roberto F. Speck
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Jacobson S, Heuts F, Juarez J, Hultcrantz M, Korsgren O, Svensson M, Rottenberg M, Flodström-Tullberg M. Alloreactivity but failure to reject human islet transplants by humanized Balb/c/Rag2gc mice. Scand J Immunol 2010; 71:83-90. [PMID: 20384859 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.2009.02356.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A human islet transplant can cure patients with type 1 diabetes. A drawback of islet transplantation is the life-long immunosuppressive medication, often associated with severe side effects. Moreover, in spite of the immunosuppressive therapy, islets are lost in the majority of transplanted patients over time. An improved small animal model for studies on human islet allograft rejection mechanisms and the development of new measures for its prevention is clearly warranted. Here, we evaluated the potential of Balb/cRag2(-/-)gammac(-/-) mice carrying a human-like immune system (so-called humanized mice) as a tool for studies on the rejection of transplanted human islets. Human T cells from Balb/cRag2(-/-)gammac(-/-) mice, which as neonates had been transplanted with CD34(+) human cord blood haematopoietic stem cells (HIS mice), proliferated in response to allogeneic human dendritic cells, but failed to reject a human islet allograft transplanted to the renal subcapsular space as assessed by immunohistochemistry and analysis of human serum C-peptide levels. Histological analysis revealed that few if any T cells had migrated to the grafted tissue. These observations question the usefulness of the HIS mouse model for studies on human islet allograft rejection mechanisms and highlight the need for further improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Jacobson
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
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130
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Zhang L, Meissner E, Chen J, Su L. Current humanized mouse models for studying human immunology and HIV-1 immuno-pathogenesis. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2010; 53:195-203. [PMID: 20596827 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-010-0059-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2009] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
A robust animal model for "hypothesis-testing/mechanistic" research in human immunology and immuno-pathology should meet the following criteria. First, it has well-studied hemato-lymphoid organs and target cells similar to those of humans. Second, the human pathogens establish infection and lead to relevant diseases. Third, it is genetically inbred and can be manipulated via genetic, immunological and pharmacological means. Many human-tropic pathogens such as HIV-1 fail to infect murine cells due to the blocks at multiple steps of their life cycle. The mouse with a reconstituted human immune system and other human target organs is a good candidate. A number of human-mouse chimeric models with human immune cells have been developed in the past 20 years, but most with only limited success due to the selective engraftment of xeno-reactive human T cells in hu-PBL-SCID mice or the lack of significant human immune responses in the SCID-hu Thy/Liv mouse. This review summarizes the current understanding of HIV-1 immuno-pathogenesis in human patients and in SIV-infected primate models. It also reviews the recent progress in the development of humanized mouse models with a functional human immune system, especially the recent progress in the immunodeficient mice that carry a defective gammaC gene. NOD/SCID/gammaC(-/-) (NOG or NSG) or the Rag2(-/-)gammaC(-/-) double knockout (DKO) mice, which lack NK as well as T and B cells (NTB-null mice), have been used to reconstitute a functional human immune system in central and peripheral lymphoid organs with human CD34(+) HSC. These NTB-hu HSC humanized models have been used to investigate HIV-1 infection, immuno-pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions. Such models, with further improvements, will contribute to study human immunology, human-tropic pathogens as well as human stem cell biology in the tissue development and function in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- LiGuo Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Immunity and Infection, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
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131
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AID-mediated somatic hypermutation for generation of viral envelope protein diversity in patient-specific therapeutic HIV vaccines based on induction of neutralizing antibodies. Immunol Lett 2010; 128:86-7. [PMID: 19917313 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2009.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 11/05/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The somatic hypermutation (SHM) hypothesis for R5-X4 HIV-1 switching has recently received experimental support. AID-mediated SHM in B cell lines can be used to generate patient's HIV-1 envelope protein diversity in vitro for subsequent vaccination of HIV-1-infected patient at the beginning of asymptomatic period with a resulting mixture of mutant envelope proteins. Suggested approach, which represents a vaccination against R5-X4 HIV-1 switching, might open possibilities for creation of patient-specific therapeutic HIV vaccines based on induction of neutralizing antibodies.
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132
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van Lent AU, Centlivre M, Nagasawa M, Karrich JJ, Pouw SM, Weijer K, Spits H, Blom B, Legrand N. In vivo modulation of gene expression by lentiviral transduction in "human immune system" Rag2-/- gamma c -/- mice. Methods Mol Biol 2010; 595:87-115. [PMID: 19941107 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-421-0_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, several humanized mouse models have been used to experimentally analyze the function and development of the human immune system. Recent advances have lead to the establishment of new murine-human chimeric models with improved characteristics, both in terms of human engraftment efficiency and in situ multilineage human hematopoietic development. We describe here the use of newborn BALB/c Rag2(-/-)gamma(c) (-/-) mice as recipients of human hematopoietic progenitor cells to produce "human immune system" (HIS) (BALB-Rag/gamma) mice, using human fetal liver progenitors. The two major subsets of the human dendritic cell lineage, namely, BDCA2(+)CD11c(-) plasmacytoid dendritic cells and BDCA2(-)CD11c(+) conventional dendritic cells, can be found in HIS (BALB-Rag/gamma) mice. In order to manipulate the expression of genes of interest, the human hematopoietic progenitor cells can be genetically engineered ex vivo by lentiviral transduction before performing xenograft transplantation. Using this mouse model, the human immune system can be assessed for both fundamental and pre-clinical purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja U van Lent
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Center for Immunology Amsterdam (CIA), Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam (AMC-UvA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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133
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Abstract
Rag2(-/-) gamma(C)(-/-) mice transplanted with human hematopoietic stem cells (DKO-hu-HSC mice) mimic aspects of human infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), including sustained viral replication and CD4(+) T-cell decline. However, the extent of HIV-1 evolution during long-term infection in these humanized mice, a key feature of the natural infection, has not been assessed fully. In this study, we examined the types of genotypic and phenotypic changes in the viral env gene that occur in the viral populations of DKO-hu-HSC mice infected with the CCR5-tropic isolate HIV-1(JRCSF) for up to 44 weeks. The mean rate of divergence of viral populations in mice was similar to that observed in a cohort of humans during a similar period of infection. Many amino acid substitutions were common across mice, including losses of N-linked glycosylation sites and substitutions in the CD4 binding site and in CD4-induced epitopes, indicating common selective pressures between mice. In addition, env variants evolved sensitivity to antibodies directed at V3, suggesting a more open conformation for Env. This phenotypic change was associated with increased CD4 binding efficiency and was attributed to specific amino acid substitutions. In one mouse, env variants emerged that exhibited a CXCR4-tropic phenotype. These sequences were compartmentalized in the mesenteric lymph node. In summary, viral populations in these mice exhibited dynamic behavior that included sequence evolution, compartmentalization, and the appearance of distinct phenotypic changes. Thus, humanized mice offer a useful model for studying evolutionary processes of HIV-1 in a complex host environment.
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134
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Gianinazzi C, Schild M, Zumkehr B, Wüthrich F, Nüesch I, Ryter R, Schürch N, Gottstein B, Müller N. Screening of Swiss hot spring resorts for potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae. Exp Parasitol 2009; 126:45-53. [PMID: 20036656 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2009.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2009] [Revised: 12/11/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Free-living amoebae (FLA) belonging to Acanthamoeba spp., Naegleria fowleri, Balamuthia mandrillaris, and Sappinia pedata are known to cause infections in humans and animals leading to severe brain pathologies. Worldwide, warm aquatic environments have been found to be suitable habitats for pathogenic FLA. The present study reports on screening for potentially pathogenic FLA in four hot spring resorts in Switzerland. Water samples were taken from water filtration units and from the pools, respectively. Amoebae isolated from samples taken during, or before, the filtration process were demonstrated to be morphologically and phylogenetically related to Stenoamoeba sp., Hartmannella vermiformis, Echinamoeba exundans, and Acanthamoeba healyi. With regard to the swimming pools, FLA were isolated only in one resort, and the isolate was identified as non-pathogenic and as related to E. exundans. Further investigations showed that the isolates morphologically and phylogenetically related to A. healyi displayed a pronounced thermotolerance, and exhibited a marked in vitro cytotoxicity upon 5-day exposure to murine L929 fibroblasts. Experimental intranasal infection of Rag2-immunodeficient mice with these isolates led to severe brain pathologies, and viable trophozoites were isolated from the nasal mucosa, brain tissue, and lungs post mortem. In summary, isolates related to A. healyi were suggestive of being potentially pathogenic to immunocompromised persons. However, the presence of these isolates was limited to the filtration units, and an effective threat for health can therefore be excluded.
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135
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Berges BK, Akkina SR, Remling L, Akkina R. Humanized Rag2(-/-)gammac(-/-) (RAG-hu) mice can sustain long-term chronic HIV-1 infection lasting more than a year. Virology 2009; 397:100-3. [PMID: 19922970 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2009] [Revised: 10/16/2009] [Accepted: 10/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 infection is characterized by life-long viral persistence and continued decline of helper CD4 T cells. The new generation of humanized mouse models that encompass RAG-hu, hNOG and BLT mice have been shown to be susceptible to HIV-1 infection and display CD4 T cell loss. Productive infection has been demonstrated with both R5 and X4 tropic strains of HIV-1 via direct injection as well as mucosal exposure. However the duration of infection in these mice was evaluated for a limited time lasting only weeks post infection, and it is not established how long the viremia can be sustained, and if the CD4 T cell loss persists throughout the life of the infected humanized mice. In the present study we followed the HIV-1 infected RAG-hu mice to determine the long-term viral persistence and CD4 T cell levels. Our results showed that viremia persists life-long lasting for more than a year, and that CD4 T cell levels display a continuous declining trend as seen in the human. These studies provide a chronic HIV-1 infection humanized mouse model that can be used to dissect viral latency, long-term drug evaluation and immune-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradford K Berges
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, 329 Pathology, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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136
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Shedlock DJ, Silvestri G, Weiner DB. Monkeying around with HIV vaccines: using rhesus macaques to define 'gatekeepers' for clinical trials. Nat Rev Immunol 2009; 9:717-28. [PMID: 19859066 DOI: 10.1038/nri2636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Rhesus macaques are an important animal model for the study of human disease and the development of vaccines against HIV and AIDS. HIV vaccines have been benchmarked in rhesus macaque preclinical challenge studies using chimeric viruses made up of parts of HIV and simian immunodeficiency viruses. However, the lack of efficacy in a recent clinical trial calls for a re-evaluation of the scientific assumptions regarding the predictive value of using data generated from rhesus macaques as a 'gatekeeper' for the advancement of candidate vaccines into the clinic. In this context, there is significant consensus among HIV vaccinologists that next-generation HIV vaccines must generate 'better' immunity in rhesus macaques than clinically unsuccessful vaccines generated using validated assays. Defining better immunity is the core challenge of HIV vaccine development in this system and is the focus of this Review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devon J Shedlock
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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137
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Legrand N, Ploss A, Balling R, Becker PD, Borsotti C, Brezillon N, Debarry J, de Jong Y, Deng H, Di Santo JP, Eisenbarth S, Eynon E, Flavell RA, Guzman CA, Huntington ND, Kremsdorf D, Manns MP, Manz MG, Mention JJ, Ott M, Rathinam C, Rice CM, Rongvaux A, Stevens S, Spits H, Strick-Marchand H, Takizawa H, van Lent AU, Wang C, Weijer K, Willinger T, Ziegler P. Humanized mice for modeling human infectious disease: challenges, progress, and outlook. Cell Host Microbe 2009; 6:5-9. [PMID: 19616761 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2009.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Over 800 million people worldwide are infected with hepatitis viruses, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and malaria, resulting in more than 5 million deaths annually. Here we discuss the potential and challenges of humanized mouse models for developing effective and affordable therapies and vaccines, which are desperately needed to combat these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Legrand
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1105 AZ, The Netherlands
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138
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Manz MG, Di Santo JP. Renaissance for mouse models of human hematopoiesis and immunobiology. Nat Immunol 2009; 10:1039-42. [DOI: 10.1038/ni1009-1039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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139
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Marodon G, Desjardins D, Mercey L, Baillou C, Parent P, Manuel M, Caux C, Bellier B, Pasqual N, Klatzmann D. High diversity of the immune repertoire in humanized NOD.SCID.gamma c-/- mice. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39:2136-45. [PMID: 19572320 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200939480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The diversity of the human immune repertoire and how it relates to a functional immune response has not yet been studied in detail in humanized NOD.SCID.gammac(-/-) immunodeficient mice. Here, we used a multiplex PCR on genomic DNA to quantify the combinatorial diversity of all possible V-J rearrangements at the TCR-beta chain and heavy chain Ig locus. We first show that the combinatorial diversity of the TCR-beta chain generated in the thymus was well preserved in the periphery, suggesting that human T cells were not vastly activated in mice, in agreement with phenotypic studies. We then show that the combinatorial diversity in NOD.SCID.gammac(-/-) mice reached 100% of human reference samples for both the TCR and the heavy chain of Ig. To document the functionality of this repertoire, we show that a detectable but weak HLA-restricted cellular immune response could be elicited in reconstituted mice after immunization with an adenoviral vector expressing HCV envelope glycoproteins. Altogether, our results suggest that humanized mice express a diversified repertoire and are able to mount antigen-specific immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles Marodon
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie - Paris 6, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 7211, Paris, France.
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140
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Nie C, Sato K, Misawa N, Kitayama H, Fujino H, Hiramatsu H, Heike T, Nakahata T, Tanaka Y, Ito M, Koyanagi Y. Selective infection of CD4+ effector memory T lymphocytes leads to preferential depletion of memory T lymphocytes in R5 HIV-1-infected humanized NOD/SCID/IL-2Rgammanull mice. Virology 2009; 394:64-72. [PMID: 19744686 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2009] [Revised: 07/19/2009] [Accepted: 08/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the events leading to the depletion of CD4(+) T lymphocytes during long-term infection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), we infected human CD34(+) cells-transplanted NOD/SCID/IL-2Rgamma(null) mice with CXCR4-tropic and CCR5-tropic HIV-1. CXCR4-tropic HIV-1-infected mice were quickly depleted of CD4(+) thymocytes and both CD45RA(+) naïve and CD45RA(-) memory CD4(+) T lymphocytes, while CCR5-tropic HIV-1-infected mice were preferentially depleted of CD45RA(-) memory CD4(+) T lymphocytes. Staining of HIV-1 p24 antigen revealed that CCR5-tropic HIV-1 preferentially infected effector memory T lymphocytes (T(EM)) rather than central memory T lymphocytes. In addition, the majority of p24(+) cells in CCR5-tropic HIV-1-infected mice were activated and in cycling phase. Taken together, our findings indicate that productive infection mainly takes place in the activated T(EM) in cycling phase and further suggest that the predominant infection in T(EM) would lead to the depletion of memory CD4(+) T lymphocytes in CCR5-tropic HIV-1-infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanyi Nie
- Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoinkawara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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141
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Neagu MR, Ziegler P, Pertel T, Strambio-De-Castillia C, Grütter C, Martinetti G, Mazzucchelli L, Grütter M, Manz MG, Luban J. Potent inhibition of HIV-1 by TRIM5-cyclophilin fusion proteins engineered from human components. J Clin Invest 2009; 119:3035-47. [PMID: 19741300 DOI: 10.1172/jci39354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2009] [Accepted: 07/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
New World monkeys of the genus Aotus synthesize a fusion protein (AoT5Cyp) containing tripartite motif-containing 5 (TRIM5) and cyclophilin A (CypA) that potently blocks HIV-1 infection. We attempted to generate a human HIV-1 inhibitor modeled after AoT5Cyp, by fusing human CypA to human TRIM5 (hT5Cyp). Of 13 constructs, 3 showed substantial HIV-1-inhibitory activity when expressed in human cell lines. This activity required capsid binding by CypA and correlated with CypA linkage to the TRIM5a capsid-specificity determinant and the ability to form cytoplasmic bodies. CXCR4- and CCR5-tropic HIV-1 clones and primary isolates were inhibited from infecting multiple human macrophage and T cell lines and primary cells by hT5Cyp, as were HIV-2ROD, SIVAGMtan, FIVPET, and a circulating HIV-1 isolate previously reported to be AoT5Cyp resistant. The anti-HIV-1 activity of hT5Cyp was surprisingly more effective than that of the well-characterized rhesus TRIM5alpha, especially in T cells. hT5Cyp also blocked HIV-1 infection of primary CD4+ T cells and macrophages and conferred a survival advantage to these cells without disrupting their function. Extensive attempts to elicit HIV-1 resistance to hT5Cyp were unsuccessful. Finally, Rag2-/-gammac-/- mice were engrafted with human CD4+ T cells that had been transduced by optimized lentiviral vectors bearing hT5Cyp. Upon challenge with HIV-1, these mice showed decreased viremia and productive infection in lymphoid organs and preserved numbers of human CD4+ T cells. We conclude that hT5Cyp is an extraordinarily robust inhibitor of HIV-1 replication and a promising anti-HIV-1 gene therapy candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha R Neagu
- Department of Microbiology and Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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142
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von Eije KJ, ter Brake O, Berkhout B. Stringent testing identifies highly potent and escape-proof anti-HIV short hairpin RNAs. J Gene Med 2009; 11:459-67. [PMID: 19384894 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND RNA interference (RNAi) is a cellular mechanism that can be induced by small interfering RNAs to mediate sequence-specific gene silencing by cleavage of the targeted mRNA. RNAi can be used as an antiviral approach to silence the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) through stable expression of short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs). Previously, we used a co-transfection assay in which shRNA constructs were transfected with an HIV-1 molecular clone to identify 20 shRNA inhibitors that target highly conserved HIV-1 sequences. METHODS In the present study, we selected the most potent shRNAs to formulate a combinatorial shRNA therapy and determine the best and easiest method for antiviral shRNA selection. We performed transient inhibition assays with either a luciferase reporter or HIV-1 molecular clone and also infected shRNA-expressing T cell lines with HIV-1 and monitored virus replication. The latter assay allows detection of viral escape. In addition, we also tested shRNA-expressing T cells upon challenge with increasing dosages of HIV-1, and measured the dose required to result in massive virus-induced syncytia formation in this 2-week assay. RESULTS Extended culturing selected three highly effective shRNAs that do not allow viral replication for more than 100 days. This difference in potency was not observed in the transient co-transfection assays. The use of increased dosages of HIV-1 selected the same highly potent shRNAs as the laborious and extended escape study. CONCLUSIONS These highly potent shRNAs could be used for a clinical vector and the comparison of the developed assays might help other researchers in their search for antiviral shRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin J von Eije
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Centre for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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143
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Abstract
Basic research in the field of molecular biology led to the discovery of the mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi) in Caenorhabditis elegans in 1998. RNAi is now widely appreciated as an important gene control mechanism in mammals, and several RNAi-based gene-silencing applications have already been used in clinical trials. In this review I will discuss RNAi approaches to inhibit the pathogenic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), which establishes a chronic infection that would most likely require a durable gene therapy approach. Viruses, such as HIV-1, are particularly difficult targets for RNAi attack because they mutate frequently, which allows viral escape by mutation of the RNAi target sequence. Combinatorial RNAi strategies are required to prevent viral escape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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144
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Van Duyne R, Pedati C, Guendel I, Carpio L, Kehn-Hall K, Saifuddin M, Kashanchi F. The utilization of humanized mouse models for the study of human retroviral infections. Retrovirology 2009; 6:76. [PMID: 19674458 PMCID: PMC2743631 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-6-76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2009] [Accepted: 08/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of novel techniques and systems to study human infectious diseases in both an in vitro and in vivo settings is always in high demand. Ideally, small animal models are the most efficient method of studying human afflictions. This is especially evident in the study of the human retroviruses, HIV-1 and HTLV-1, in that current simian animal models, though robust, are often expensive and difficult to maintain. Over the past two decades, the construction of humanized animal models through the transplantation and engraftment of human tissues or progenitor cells into immunocompromised mouse strains has allowed for the development of a reconstituted human tissue scaffold in a small animal system. The utilization of small animal models for retroviral studies required expansion of the early CB-17 scid/scid mouse resulting in animals demonstrating improved engraftment efficiency and infectivity. The implantation of uneducated human immune cells and associated tissue provided the basis for the SCID-hu Thy/Liv and hu-PBL-SCID models. Engraftment efficiency of these tissues was further improved through the integration of the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mutation leading to the creation of NODSCID, NOD/Shi-scid IL2rγ-/-, and NOD/SCID β2-microglobulinnull animals. Further efforts at minimizing the response of the innate murine immune system produced the Rag2-/-γc-/- model which marked an important advancement in the use of human CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells. Together, these animal models have revolutionized the investigation of retroviral infections in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Van Duyne
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University School of Medicine, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
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145
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Mucosal innate and adaptive immune responses against herpes simplex virus type 2 in a humanized mouse model. J Virol 2009; 83:10664-76. [PMID: 19656896 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02584-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genital herpes, caused by herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), is one of the most prevalent sexually transmitted diseases worldwide and a risk factor for acquiring human immunodeficiency virus. Although many vaccine candidates have shown promising results in animal models, they have failed to be effective in human trials. In this study, a humanized mouse strain was evaluated as a potential preclinical model for studying human immune responses to HSV-2 infection and vaccination. Immunodeficient mouse strains were examined for their abilities to develop human innate and adaptive immune cells after transplantation of human umbilical cord stem cells. A RAG2(-/-) gammac(-/-) mouse strain with a BALB/c background was chosen as the most appropriate model and was then examined for its ability to mount innate and adaptive immune responses to intravaginal HSV-2 infection and immunization. After primary infection, human cells in the lymph nodes were able to generate a protective innate immune response and produce gamma interferon (IFN-gamma). After intravaginal immunization and infection, human T cells and NK cells were found in the genital tract and iliac lymph nodes. In addition, human T cells in the spleen, lymph nodes, and vaginal tract were able to respond to stimulation with HSV-2 antigens by replicating and producing IFN-gamma. Human B cells were also able to produce HSV-2-specific immunoglobulin G. These adaptive responses were also shown to be protective and reduce local viral replication in the genital tract. This approach provides a means for studying human immune responses in vivo using a small-animal model and may become an important preclinical tool.
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146
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Suo G, Sadarangani A, Lamarca B, Cowan B, Wang JYJ. Murine xenograft model for human uterine fibroids: an in vivo imaging approach. Reprod Sci 2009; 16:827-42. [PMID: 19516078 DOI: 10.1177/1933719109336615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Uterine fibroids are the most prevalent benign tumors in women of reproductive age. The current knowledge on the fibroid disease mechanism has derived from studies of the Eker rat model where a unique germ line defect in the tuberous sclerosis 2 (Tsc2) tumor suppressor gene leads to the development of leiomyosarcoma, leiomyoma, and renal cancer. To study fibroids of human origin, we sought to establish fibroid xenografts in immune-compromised mice. We determined that lentiviral-mediated transduction of a green fluorescence protein (GFP)-luciferase (LUC) fusion gene and bioluminescence-based whole animal imaging allowed for the monitoring of transplanted fibroid cells in mice. We used this in vivo imaging approach to test a series of transplantation protocols and found that only freshly dissociated fibroid cells, but not the fibroid-derived smooth muscle cells grown in ex vivo cultures, can generate stable xenografts in subcutaneous Matrigel implants. Formation of the fibroid-xenografts requires the implantation of 17betaestradiol-releasing pellets in the recipient mice. Furthermore, freshly dissociated myometrial cells do not form xenografts under the experimental conditions. The xenograft protocol developed from this study provides an avenue for investigating the pathogenesis and drug responses of human fibroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangli Suo
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology-Oncology, Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California 92093-0820, USA
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147
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Watanabe Y, Takahashi T, Okajima A, Shiokawa M, Ishii N, Katano I, Ito R, Ito M, Minegishi M, Minegishi N, Tsuchiya S, Sugamura K. The analysis of the functions of human B and T cells in humanized NOD/shi-scid/gammac(null) (NOG) mice (hu-HSC NOG mice). Int Immunol 2009; 21:843-58. [PMID: 19515798 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxp050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
'Humanized mice' are anticipated to be a valuable tool for studying the human immune system, but the reconstituted human immune cells have not yet been well characterized. Here, we extensively investigated the differentiation and functions of human B and T cells in a supra-immunodeficient mouse strain, NOD/shi-scid/gammac(null) (NOG) reconstituted with CD34(+) hematopoietic stem cells obtained from umbilical cord blood. In these hu-HSC NOG mice, the development of human B cells was partially blocked, and a significant number of B-cell progenitors accumulated in the spleen. The mature CD19(+)IgM(+)IgD(+) human B cells of the hu-HSC NOG mice could produce IgG in vivo and in vitro by antigenic stimulation. In contrast, although human T cells with an apparently normal phenotype developed, most of them could neither proliferate nor produce IL-2 in response to antigenic stimulation by anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 antibodies in vitro. The positive selection of human T cells in the thymus was sufficiently functional, if not complete, and mainly mediated by mouse class II, suggesting that the human T cells lost their function in the periphery. We found that multiple mechanisms were involved in the T-cell abnormalities. Collectively, our results demonstrate that further improvements are necessary before humanized mice with a functional human immune system are achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohei Watanabe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Japan
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148
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Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) viremia with reverse transcriptase and integrase inhibitors, CD4+ T-cell recovery, and viral rebound upon interruption of therapy in a new model for HIV treatment in the humanized Rag2-/-{gamma}c-/- mouse. J Virol 2009; 83:8254-8. [PMID: 19494021 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00580-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A small animal model that reproduces human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) pathogenesis may allow modeling of new therapeutic strategies in ways not approachable in mononuclear cell culture. We find that, as in humans, combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) in humanized (hu-) Rag2(-/-)gamma(c)(-/-) mice allows suppression of viremia below the limits of detection and recovery of CD4(+) cells, while interruption of ART results in viral rebound and renewed loss of CD4(+) T cells. Failure of ART in infected mice is associated with the appearance of drug resistance mutations. The hu-Rag2(-/-)gamma(c)(-/-) mouse may therefore facilitate testing of novel approaches to HIV replication and persistence.
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149
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Strowig T, Gurer C, Ploss A, Liu YF, Arrey F, Sashihara J, Koo G, Rice CM, Young JW, Chadburn A, Cohen JI, Münz C. Priming of protective T cell responses against virus-induced tumors in mice with human immune system components. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 206:1423-34. [PMID: 19487422 PMCID: PMC2715061 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20081720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Many pathogens that cause human disease infect only humans. To identify the mechanisms of immune protection against these pathogens and also to evaluate promising vaccine candidates, a small animal model would be desirable. We demonstrate that primary T cell responses in mice with reconstituted human immune system components control infection with the oncogenic and persistent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). These cytotoxic and interferon-gamma-producing T cell responses were human leukocyte antigen (HLA) restricted and specific for EBV-derived peptides. In HLA-A2 transgenic animals and similar to human EBV carriers, T cell responses against lytic EBV antigens dominated over recognition of latent EBV antigens. T cell depletion resulted in elevated viral loads and emergence of EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disease. Both loss of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells abolished immune control. Therefore, this mouse model recapitulates features of symptomatic primary EBV infection and generates T cell-mediated immune control that resists oncogenic transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Till Strowig
- Laboratory of Viral Immunobiology, Christopher H. Browne Center for Immunology and Immune Diseases, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
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150
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Von Eije KJ, Berkhout B. RNA-interference-based Gene Therapy Approaches to HIV Type-1 Treatment: Tackling the Hurdles from Bench to Bedside. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 19:221-33. [DOI: 10.1177/095632020901900602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) is a cellular mechanism that can be induced by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to mediate sequence-specific gene silencing by cleavage of the targeted messenger RNA. RNAi can be used as an antiviral approach to silence HIV type-1 (HIV-1) through stable expression of precursors, such as short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs), which are processed into siRNAs that can elicit degradation of HIV-1 RNAs. At the beginning of 2008, the first clinical trial using a lentivirus with an RNA-based gene therapy against HIV-1 was initiated. The antiviral molecules in this gene therapy consist of three RNA effectors, one of which triggers the RNAi pathway. This review article focuses on the basic principles of an RNAi-based gene therapy against HIV-1, including delivery methods, target selection, viral escape possibilities, systems for multiplexing siRNAs to achieve a durable therapy and the in vitro and in vivo test systems to evaluate the efficacy and safety of such a therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin J Von Eije
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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