Model-based scatter correction for fully 3D PET

High accuracy multiple scatter modelling for 3D whole body PET

A new technique for modelling multiple-order Compton scatter which uses the absolute probabilities relating the image space to the projection space in 3D whole body PET is presented. The details considered in this work give a valuable insight into the scatter problem, particularly for multiple scatter. Such modelling is advantageous for large attenuating media where scatter is a dominant component of the measured data, and where multiple scatter may dominate the total scatter depending on the energy threshold and object size. The model offers distinct features setting it apart from previous research: (1) specification of the scatter distribution for each voxel based on the transmission data, the physics of Compton scattering and the specification of a given PET system; (2) independence from the true activity distribution; (3) in principle no scaling or iterative process is required to find the distribution; (4) explicit multiple scatter modelling; (5) no scatter subtraction or addition to the forward model when included in the system matrix used with statistical image reconstruction methods; (6) adaptability to many different scatter compensation methods from simple and fast to more sophisticated and therefore slower methods; (7) accuracy equivalent to that of a Monte Carlo model. The scatter model has been validated using Monte Carlo simulation (SimSET).

[Examination of PET image evaluation experimentation method aiming at improved accuracy of data acquisition]

Multiple data evaluation is desirable for data obtained by positron emission tomography (PET), as the data follow the Poisson distribution. Such evaluation, however, tends to be very complicated, since the count- rates change with nuclide decay. To solve this problem, we propose a new data scan protocol in this communication. With this method, the true+scatter coincidence counts were computed during the initial one-minute scanning, which was fixed as the standard. A dynamic scan was then performed with the fixed counts from the high count-rate region. Regions with +/-2.5% of the image noise of the standard image was chosen to provide the data for evaluation. These were found to be the regions of 16.5-25.5 kcps (2D) and 81.1-138.5 kcps. Image quality was found to be affected by noise (2D) and random coincidence. Using this method, multiple data could be obtained by a single experiment, and very reliable image evaluation could be done.

Iterative reconstruction techniques in emission computed tomography

In emission tomography statistically based iterative methods can improve image quality relative to analytic image reconstruction through more accurate physical and statistical modelling of high-energy photon production and detection processes. Continued exponential improvements in computing power, coupled with the development of fast algorithms, have made routine use of iterative techniques practical, resulting in their increasing popularity in both clinical and research environments. Here we review recent progress in developing statistically based iterative techniques for emission computed tomography. We describe the different formulations of the emission image reconstruction problem and their properties. We then describe the numerical algorithms that are used for optimizing these functions and illustrate their behaviour using small scale simulations.

PET energy-based scatter estimation and image reconstruction with energy-dependent corrections

In this paper we propose a comprehensive energy-based scatter correction approach for positron emission tomography (PET). We take advantage of the marked difference between the energy spectra of the unscattered and scattered photons, and use the detailed energy information that comes with the list-mode data for the estimation of the scattered events distribution in the data space. Also, inside the maximum-likelihood expectation maximization (ML-EM) image reconstruction algorithm, we introduce energy-dependent factors that individualize the correction terms for each event, given its position and energy information. The central piece of our approach is the two-dimensional detector energy response model represented as a linear combination of four components, each one representing a particular state a PET event can be found in: both photons unscattered, the second scattered while the first not, the first photon scattered while the second not and both photons scattered. For a set of events collected in the vicinity of a point in the projection space, the coefficient of each component is determined by applying a statistical estimator. As a result we obtain the number of scattered events that are in the given set. The model also gives us the variation of scatter fraction with the photon pair energies for that particular position in the data space. A simulation study that demonstrates the proposed methods is presented.

From 2D PET to 3D PET: Issues of Data Representation and Image Reconstruction

Positron emission tomography (PET), intrinsically a 3D imaging technique, was for a long time exclusively operated in 2D mode, using septa to shield the detectors from photons emitted obliquely to the detector planes. However, the use of septa results in a considerable loss of sensitivity. From the late 1980s, significant efforts have been made to develop a methodology for the acquisition and reconstruction of 3D PET data. This paper focuses on the differences between data acquisition in 2D and 3D mode, especially in terms of data set sizes and representation. Although the real time data acquisition aspect in 3D has been mostly solved in modern PET scanner systems, there still remain questions on how to represent and how to make best use of the information contained in the acquired data sets. Data representation methods, such as list-mode and matrix-based methods, possibly with additional compression, will be discussed. Moving from 2D to 3D PET has major implications on the way these data are reconstructed to images. Two fundamentally different approaches exist, the analytical one and the iterative one. Both, at different expenses, can be extended to directly handle 3D data sets. Either way the computational burden increases heavily compared to 2D reconstruction. One possibility to benefit from the increased sensitivity in 3D PET while sticking to high-performance 2D reconstruction algorithms is to rebin 3D into 2D data sets. The value of data rebinning will be explored. An ever increasing computing power and the concept of distributed or parallel computing have made direct 3D reconstruction feasible. Following a short review of reconstruction methods and their extensions to 3D, we focus on numerical aspects that improve reconstruction performance, which is especially important in solving large equation systems in 3D iterative reconstruction. Finally exemplary results are shown to review the properties of the discussed algorithms. This paper concludes with an overview on future trends in data representation and reconstruction.

[Influence of photon scattering on the quantification of relative changes in longitudinal brain PET studies with 18F-FDG]

AIM

To study the effect of photon scattering on the quantification of relative changes of 18F-FDG uptake in longitudinal brain PET studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two studies from a numerical Zubal phantom were simulated. One of these was a basal reference study and the other was an activated study showing an increase or decrease in the uptake in a region of the anterior cingulated cortex. SimSET Monte Carlo code was used to simulate PET sinograms. Primary photons, which did not undergo interactions, and scattered photons, which underwent one or more interactions, were stored in separate files to assess the effect of scattering. Reconstruction was carried out using an iterative algorithm based on ordered subsets of projections (OSEM-2D). The relative changes in uptake were calculated from images reconstructed with all the photons (primary and scattered) and from images reconstructed with only primary photons.

RESULTS

A linear relationship between the calculated and theoretical values was obtained both for the images reconstructed with all the photons and for those reconstructed with primary photons. Our findings show a relative change recovery of 79% +/- 0.4% for all photons and 91% +/- 0.5% for primary photons only.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight subestimation of relative changes of 12% +/- 0.7% when scattered photons are used. Thus the importance of correcting this degradation in order to improve quantification is shown.

Monte Carlo simulation and scatter correction of the GE Advance PET scanner with SimSET and Geant4

For Monte Carlo simulations to be used as an alternative solution to perform scatter correction, accurate modelling of the scanner as well as speed is paramount. General-purpose Monte Carlo packages (Geant4, EGS, MCNP) allow a detailed description of the scanner but are not efficient at simulating voxel-based geometries (patient images). On the other hand, dedicated codes (SimSET, PETSIM) will perform well for voxel-based objects but will be poor in their capacity of simulating complex geometries such as a PET scanner. The approach adopted in this work was to couple a dedicated code (SimSET) with a general-purpose package (Geant4) to have the efficiency of the former and the capabilities of the latter. The combined SimSET+Geant4 code (SimG4) was assessed on the GE Advance PET scanner and compared to the use of SimSET only. A better description of the resolution and sensitivity of the scanner and of the scatter fraction was obtained with SimG4. The accuracy of scatter correction performed with SimG4 and SimSET was also assessed from data acquired with the 20 cm NEMA phantom. SimG4 was found to outperform SimSET and to give slightly better results than the GE scatter correction methods installed on the Advance scanner (curve fitting and scatter modelling for the 300-650 keV and 375-650 keV energy windows, respectively). In the presence of a hot source close to the edge of the field of view (as found in oxygen scans), the GE curve-fitting method was found to fail whereas SimG4 maintained its performance.

Statistical dynamic image reconstruction in state-of-the-art high-resolution PET

Modern high-resolution PET is now more than ever in need of scrutiny into the nature and limitations of the imaging modality itself as well as image reconstruction techniques. In this work, we have reviewed, analysed and addressed the following three considerations within the particular context of state-of-the-art dynamic PET imaging: (i) the typical average numbers of events per line-of-response (LOR) are now (much) less than unity, (ii) due to the physical and biological decay of the activity distribution, one requires robust and efficient reconstruction algorithms applicable to a wide range of statistics and (iii) the computational considerations in dynamic imaging are much enhanced (i.e., more frames to be stored and reconstructed). Within the framework of statistical image reconstruction, we have argued theoretically and shown experimentally that the sinogram non-negativity constraint (when using the delayed-coincidence and/or scatter-subtraction techniques) is especially expected to result in an overestimation bias. Subsequently, two schemes are considered: (a) subtraction techniques in which an image non-negativity constraint has been imposed and (b) implementation of random and scatter estimates inside the reconstruction algorithms, thus enabling direct processing of Poisson-distributed prompts. Both techniques are able to remove the aforementioned bias, while the latter, being better conditioned theoretically, is able to exhibit superior noise characteristics. We have also elaborated upon and verified the applicability of the accelerated list-mode image reconstruction method as a powerful solution for accurate, robust and efficient dynamic reconstructions of high-resolution data (as well as a number of additional benefits in the context of state-of-the-art PET).

Scatter correction for 3D PET using beam stoppers combined with dual-energy window acquisition: a feasibility study

Fully three-dimensional (3D) positron emission tomography (PET) can achieve high sensitivity of coincidence events, but the absence of inter-slice septa inevitably leads to increased scattered events. The scattered events can represent as much as 50% of the total detected events. In this research, we proposed a scatter correction method for 3D PET based on beam stoppers and dual-energy window acquisition. The beam stoppers were placed surrounding the object to attenuate primary beams. The scatter fractions were directly estimated at those blocked lines of response and then the entire scatter fraction distribution was recovered using the dual-energy window ratio as reference. The performance was evaluated by using Monte Carlo simulations of various digital phantoms. For the Utah phantom study, the proposed method accurately estimated the scatter fraction distribution, and improved image contrast and quantification based on four different quality indices as performance measures. For the non-homogeneous Zubal phantom, the simulated results also demonstrated that the proposed method achieved a better restoration of image contrast than the dual-energy window method. We conclude that the proposed scatter correction method could effectively suppress various kinds of scattered events, including multiple scatter and scatter from outside the field of view.

[18F]FDOPA PET and clinical features in parkinsonism due to manganism

Manganese exposure reportedly causes a clinically and pathophysiologically distinct syndrome from idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD). We describe the clinical features and results of positron emission tomography with 6-[18F]fluorodopa ([18F]FDOPA PET) of a patient with parkinsonism occurring in the setting of elevated blood manganese. The patient developed parkinsonism associated with elevated serum manganese from hepatic dysfunction. [18F]FDOPA PET demonstrated relatively symmetric and severely reduced [18F]FDOPA levels in the posterior putamen compared to controls. The globus pallidum interna had increased signal on T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images. We conclude that elevated manganese exposure may be associated with reduced striatal [18F]FDOPA uptake, and MRI may reveal selective abnormality within the internal segment of the pallidum. This case suggests that the clinical and pathophysiological features of manganese-associated parkinsonism may overlap with that of PD.

Technology related parameters affecting quantification in positron emission tomography imaging

Some of the issues associated with positron emission tomography (PET) technology which still pose challenges for the recovery of quantitative images are discussed. Through these issues reference to what is today considered as the 'gold standard' in quantitative PET imaging is also presented. A brief comparison of 2-D and 3-D PET is given, together with a short discussion of combined PET/CT imaging devices.

Improving 3D PET imaging by restoration: a phantom study

The main objective of our work is to improve 3D PET imaging. Compared with 2D PET, 3D PET imaging has slightly worse axial resolution and a significantly higher contribution of scatter and randoms, but 3D PET has much better sensitivity than 2D PET imaging. A Jaszczak deluxe phantom was acquired in 3D mode on our GE Advance PET system. Activity of 333 MBq of 18F was uniformly distributed. Prior to the emission scan, blank and transmission scans had been acquired. They were used for attenuation correction. The duration of the emission scan was 20 min, transmission 10 min, and blank 20 min. Standard FBP reconstruction software provided by the vendor was used to obtain slice images. Point spread function was also acquired in a 21 cm diameter cylinder phantom filled with water 6.0 cm from the center and used to create restoration filters. Two restoration filters were applied, medium and sharp. Results showed significant improvement in resolution, contrast and detectability of the cold rods. The artifacts outside the phantom were also significantly reduced. For 11.1 mm rods, average contrast was 0.49+/-0.02 in the original image, 0.52+/-0.04 in the medium restored image, and in the sharply restored image 0.75+/-0.05. For 7.9 mm rods, average contrast was 0.07+/-0.01 in the original image, 0.21+/-0.03 in the medium restored image, and 0.50+/-0.04 in the sharply restored image. The amount of noise in the uniform slices, measured as the coefficient of variation (COV), was 5.5, 7.1 and 10.8% in the original image and in the images restored with medium and sharp filters, respectively. In conclusion, restoration can significantly improve the resolution and contrast of 3D PET imaging.

Optimization of a fully 3D single scatter simulation algorithm for 3D PET

We describe a new implementation of a single scatter simulation (SSS) algorithm for the prediction and correction of scatter in 3D PET. In this implementation, out of field of view (FoV) scatter and activity, side shields and oblique tilts are explicitly modelled. Comparison of SSS predictions with Monte Carlo simulations and experimental data from uniform, line and cold-bar phantoms showed that the code is accurate for uniform as well as asymmetric objects and can model different energy resolution crystals and low level discriminator (LLD) settings. Absolute quantitation studies show that for most applications, the code provides a better scatter estimate than the tail-fitting scatter correction method currently in use at our institution. Several parameters such as the density of scatter points, the number of scatter distribution sampling points and the axial extent of the FoV were optimized to minimize execution time, with particular emphasis on patient studies. Development and optimization were carried out in the case of GSO-based scanners, which enjoy relatively good energy resolution. SSS estimates for scanners with lower energy resolution may result in different agreement, especially because of a higher fraction of multiple scatter events. The algorithm was applied to a brain phantom as well as to clinical whole-body studies. It proved robust in the case of large patients, where the scatter fraction increases. The execution time, inclusive of interpolation, is typically under 5 min for a whole-body study (axial FoV: 81 cm) of a 100 kg patient.

A comparison of rotation- and blob-based system models for 3D SPECT with depth-dependent detector response

We compare two different implementations of a 3D SPECT system model for iterative reconstruction, both of which compensate for non-uniform photon attenuation and depth-dependent system response. One implementation performs fast rotation of images represented using a basis of rectangular voxels, whereas the other represents images using a basis of rotationally symmetric volume elements. In our simulations the blob-based approach was found to slightly outperform the rotation-based one in terms of the bias-variance tradeoff in the reconstructed images. Their difference can be significant, however, in terms of computational load. The rotation-based method is faster for many typical SPECT reconstruction problems, but the blob-based one can be better-suited to cases where the reconstruction algorithm needs to process one volume element at a time.

PET instrumentation

PET is a nuclear medicine imaging modality and belongs to the family of emission CT, which also includes single-photon emission CT. PET measures the physiologic function inside the human body by measuring the concentration of a radioactively-labeled compound that is taken up by and accumulated in the body's organs. This article discusses the instrumentation used in PET.

Propagation of errors from the sensitivity image in list mode reconstruction

List mode image reconstruction is attracting renewed attention. It eliminates the storage of empty sinogram bins. However, a single back projection of all LORs is still necessary for the pre-calculation of a sensitivity image. Since the detection sensitivity is dependent on the object attenuation and detector efficiency, it must be computed for each study. Exact computation of the sensitivity image can be a daunting task for modern scanners with huge numbers of LORs. Thus, some fast approximate calculation may be desirable. In this paper, we analyze the error propagation from the sensitivity image into the reconstructed image. The theoretical analysis is based on the fixed point condition of the list mode reconstruction. The nonnegativity constraint is modeled using the Kuhn-Tucker condition. With certain assumptions and the first-order Taylor series approximation, we derive a closed form expression for the error in the reconstructed image as a function of the error in the sensitivity image. The result shows that the error response is frequency-dependent and provides a simple expression for determining the required accuracy of the sensitivity image calculation. Computer simulations show that the theoretical results are in good agreement with the measured results.

Emission image reconstruction for randoms-precorrected PET allowing negative sinogram values

Most positron emission tomography (PET) emission scans are corrected for accidental coincidence (AC) events by real-time subtraction of delayed-window coincidences, leaving only the randoms-precorrected data available for image reconstruction. The real-time randoms precorrection compensates in mean for AC events but destroys the Poisson statistics. The exact log-likelihood for randoms-precorrected data is inconvenient, so practical approximations are needed for maximum likelihood or penalized-likelihood image reconstruction. Conventional approximations involve setting negative sinogram values to zero, which can induce positive systematic biases, particularly for scans with low counts per ray. We propose new likelihood approximations that allow negative sinogram values without requiring zero-thresholding. With negative sinogram values, the log-likelihood functions can be nonconcave, complicating maximization; nevertheless, we develop monotonic algorithms for the new models by modifying the separable paraboloidal surrogates and the maximum-likelihood expectation-maximization (ML-EM) methods. These algorithms ascend to local maximizers of the objective function. Analysis and simulation results show that the new shifted Poisson (SP) model is nearly free of systematic bias yet keeps low variance. Despite its simpler implementation, the new SP performs comparably to the saddle-point model which has shown the best performance (as to systematic bias and variance) in randoms-precorrected PET emission reconstruction.

Scatter modelling and compensation in emission tomography

In nuclear medicine, clinical assessment and diagnosis are generally based on qualitative assessment of the distribution pattern of radiotracers used. In addition, emission tomography (SPECT and PET) imaging methods offer the possibility of quantitative assessment of tracer concentration in vivo to quantify relevant parameters in clinical and research settings, provided accurate correction for the physical degrading factors (e.g. attenuation, scatter, partial volume effects) hampering their quantitative accuracy are applied. This review addresses the problem of Compton scattering as the dominant photon interaction phenomenon in emission tomography and discusses its impact on both the quality of reconstructed clinical images and the accuracy of quantitative analysis. After a general introduction, there is a section in which scatter modelling in uniform and non-uniform media is described in detail. This is followed by an overview of scatter compensation techniques and evaluation strategies used for the assessment of these correction methods. In the process, emphasis is placed on the clinical impact of image degradation due to Compton scattering. This, in turn, stresses the need for implementation of more accurate algorithms in software supplied by scanner manufacturers, although the choice of a general-purpose algorithm or algorithms may be difficult.

Attenuation and scatter correction for in-beam positron emission tomography monitoring of tumour irradiations with heavy ions

An in-beam dual-head positron camera is used to monitor the dose application in situ during the tumour irradiation with carbon ion beams at the experimental heavy ion therapy facility at GSI Darmstadt. Therefore, a positron emission tomograph has been mounted directly at the treatment site. A fully 3D reconstruction algorithm based on the maximum likelihood expectation maximization (MLEM) algorithm has been developed and adapted to this spatially varying imaging situation. The scatter and attenuation correction are included in the forward projection step of the maximum likelihood image reconstruction. This requires an attenuation map containing the information on the material composition and densities. This information is derived from the x-ray computed tomograms of the patient and the patient fixation system including the head-rest. The normalization of scattered events relative to the unscattered events is done by a global scatter fraction factor which is estimated by means of a Monte Carlo simulation. The feasibility of the proposed algorithm is shown by means of computer simulations, phantom measurements as well as patient data.

Impact of technology on the utilisation of positron emission tomography in lymphoma: current and future perspectives

Positron emission tomography (PET) has now gained a place in the management of patients with cancer, including those with Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Restaging studies and those addressing the monitoring of response to treatment are especially in focus. Most of the knowledge gained has been achieved with dedicated BGO-based PET technology, but there are a number of developments that will impact on the use of this metabolic imaging technique in the investigation of patients with lymphoma. The challenges ahead are determined by the need for high-quality whole-body imaging associated with increased patient throughput and the need to investigate the role of new labelled ligands. The latter are likely to yield new insights into tumour cell characterisation, tumour behaviour and tumour outcome assessment. The study of new radiolabelled ligands will impose further demands for rapid dynamic data acquisition and accurate tracer quantification. Current and future developments in PET technology range from the use of new detector materials to different detector geometries and data acquisition modes. The search for alternatives to BGO scintillation materials for PET has led to the development of PET instruments utilising new crystals such as LSO and GSO. The use of these new detectors and the increased sensitivity achieved with 3D data acquisitions represent the most significant current developments in the field. With the increasing demands imposed on the clinical utilisation of PET, issues such as study cost and patient throughput will emerge as significant future factors. As a consequence, low-cost units are being offered by the manufacturers through the utilisation of gamma camera-based SPET systems for PET coincidence imaging. Unfortunately, clinical studies in lymphoma and other cancers have already demonstrated the limitations of this technology, with 20% of lesions <15 mm in size escaping detection. On the other hand, the recent development of combined PET/CT devices attempts to address the lack of anatomical information inherent with PET images, taking advantage of further improvement in patient throughput and hence cost-effectiveness. Preliminary studies using this multimodality imaging approach have already demonstrated the potential of the technique. Although the potential exists, certain technical issues with PET/CT require refinement of the methodology. Such issues include organ movement (such as respiratory motion), which strongly influences the image fusion of a rapidly acquired CT scan with the slower acquisition of a PET dataset, and the derivation of CT-based attenuation coefficients in the presence of contrast agents or metallic implants. The application of the technology for radiotherapy planning also poses a number of associated challenges. Finally, the development of dedicated PET systems based on planar detector arrangements with new detector components has the potential to improve clinical throughput by over 100%, but clinical trials using such systems have still to be carried out in order to establish the associated whole-body image quality.

Developments in instrumentation for emission computed tomography

Instrumentation for emission computed tomography continues to evolve, taking advantage of developments in detector technology, data processing and correction methods, and reconstruction algorithms. This article reviews the basic principles and latest developments in emission computed tomography instrumentation, for both positron emission tomography and single-photon emission computed tomography applications.

Effects of sex, age, and aggressive traits in man on brain serotonin 5-HT1A receptor binding potential measured by PET using [C-11]WAY-100635

Serotonin (5-HT) 1A receptors have been implicated in a variety of conditions including, depression, suicidal behavior, and aggression. Post-mortem brain studies and in vivo imaging studies report a variety of age and sex effects on brain 5-HT(1A) binding. Behavioral data from 5-HT(1A) specific pharmacological challenges suggest a role for 5-HT(1A) receptors in aggression. The goal of the present study was to determine age, sex, and severity of life-time aggression effects on 5-HT(1A) binding potential (BP) in vivo using positron emission tomography (PET) and the high affinity 5-HT(1A) antagonist, [carbonyl-C-11]WAY-100635 in 12 healthy females (ages 41.0+/-15.7 years) and 13 healthy males (ages 39.6+/-15.5 years). Regions of interest included the dorsal raphe, anterior cingulate cortex, cingulate body, hippocampus, amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex (PFC), and orbital PFC. No significant correlation between age and BP was detected in any brain region. MANOVA of the first three principle components demonstrated a significantly higher BP in females compared with males (P=0.0127). Post-hoc tests confirmed sex differences (P<0.05) in the following regions: dorsal raphe, amygdala, anterior cingulate, cingulate body, medial PFC, and orbital PFC. The cerebellar volume of distribution was also significantly higher in females. There is a significant negative correlation between binding in several regions and lifetime aggression. We have replicated our post-mortem finding of higher 5-HT(1A) binding in females compared to males. We did not detect an age dependent decrease in binding in males or females. Lower 5-HT(1A) binding in more aggressive individuals is consistent with pharmacological challenge studies. Future studies should determine whether the binding is a state or trait effect.

Fast implementation of the single scatter simulation algorithm and its use in iterative image reconstruction of PET data

In positron emission tomography (PET), scatter correction is usually performed prior to image reconstruction using a more or less exact model of the scatter processes. These models require estimates of the true activity and object density distributions of the imaged object. The problem is that these estimates are computed from measured data and, therefore, already contain scattered events. The purpose of this work was to overcome this problem by incorporating scatter characteristics directly into the process of iterative image reconstruction. This could be achieved by an optimized implementation of the single scatter simulation (SSS) algorithm, which results in a significant speed-up of the scatter estimation procedure. The scatter simulation was then included in the forward projection step of maximum likelihood image reconstruction. The results demonstrate that this approach leads to a more exact estimation of the scatter component which cannot be obtained by a simple sequential data processing strategy.

MR atlas of the baboon brain for functional neuroimaging

Mathematical co-registration of functional image data (e.g., positron emission tomography, PET) to anatomical magnetic resonance (MR) imaging data allows for objective associations between function and anatomy. Baboons are often used as non-human primate models for functional neuroimaging studies. In this work, a digital MR-based high-resolution atlas of the baboon brain was generated and evaluated for PET. The atlas was generated from six SPGR-MR datasets (centered at mid-sagittal line, AC-PC orientation) that were transformed into the space of one representative MR, averaged and resampled into PET space. The atlas was evaluated by comparing blood flow and dopamine receptor and serotonin transporter binding measures determined using regions-of-interest (ROIs) generated on each individual co-registered MR (ROI(i)) and the atlas-defined ROI template (ROI(ATLAS)). Common ROIs applied to all data included frontal cortex, temporal cortex, thalamus, caudate, putamen and cerebellum. High correlations (r(2)>0.87) were found between the ROI(i) and ROI(ATLAS) data for all radiotracers (linear regression across ROIs for each baboon). The average regression slope values ranged from 0.95 to 1.02 across radiotracers. Lastly, use of the atlas for statistical parametric mapping (SPM) of [15O]water data yielded good agreement with previous ROI(i) results. Overall, the digital MR-based atlas allowed for automatic co-registration, proved useful across a range of PET Studies, and is accessible electronically via the Internet.

Scatter correction for positron emission mammography

In this paper we present a scatter correction method for a regularized list mode maximum likelihood reconstruction algorithm for the positron emission mammograph (PEM) that is being developed at our laboratory. The scatter events inside the object are modelled as additive Poisson random variables in the forward model of the reconstruction algorithm. The mean scatter sinogram is estimated using a Monte Carlo simulation program. With the assumption that the background activity is nearly uniform, the Monte Carlo scatter simulation only needs to run once for each PEM configuration. This saves computation time. The crystal scatters are modelled as a shift-invariant blurring in image domain because they are more localized. Thus, the useful information in the crystal scatters can be deconvolved in high-resolution reconstructions. The propagation of the noise from the estimated scatter sinogram into the reconstruction is analysed theoretically. The results provide an easy way to calculate the required number of events in the Monte Carlo scatter simulation for a given noise level in the image. The analysis is also applicable to other scatter estimation methods, provided that the covariance of the estimated scatter sinogram is available.

A hybrid scatter correction for 3D PET based on an estimation of the distribution of unscattered coincidences: implementation on the ECAT EXACT HR+

We implemented a hybrid scatter-correction method for 3D PET that combines two scatter-correction methods in a complementary way. The implemented scheme uses a method based on the discrimination of the energy of events (the estimation of trues method (ETM)) and an auxiliary method (the single scatter simulation method (SSSI) or the convolution-subtraction method (CONV)) in an attempt to increase the accuracy of the correction over a wider range of acquisitions. The ETM takes into account the scatter from outside the field-of-view (FOV), which is not estimated with the auxiliary method. On the other hand, the auxiliary method accounts for events that have scattered with small angles, which have an energy that cannot be discriminated from that of unscattered events using the ETM. The ETM uses the data acquired in an upper energy window above the photopeak (550-650 keV) to obtain a noisy estimate of the unscattered events in the standard window (350-650 keV). Our implementation uses the auxiliary method to correct the residual scatter in the upper window. After appropriate scaling, the upper window data are subtracted from the total coincidences acquired in the standard window, resulting in the final scatter estimate, after smoothing. In this work we compare the hybrid method with the corrections used by default in the 2D and 3D modes of the ECAT EXACT HR+ using phantom measurements. Generally, the contrast was better with the hybrid method, although the relative errors of quantification were similar. We conclude that hybrid techniques such as the one implemented in this work can provide an accurate, general-purpose and practical way to correct the scatter in 3D PET, taking into account the scatter from outside the FOV.

Dual-[11C]tracer single-acquisition positron emission tomography studies

The ability to study multiple physiologic processes of the brain simultaneously within the same subject would provide a new means to explore the interactions between neurotransmitter systems in vivo. Currently, examination of two distinct neuropharmacologic measures with positron emission tomography (PET) necessitates performing two separate scans spaced in time to allow for radionuclide decay. The authors present results from a dual-tracer PET study protocol using a single dynamic-scan acquisition where the injections of two tracers are offset by several minutes. Kinetic analysis is used to estimate neuropharmacologic parameters for both tracers simultaneously using a combined compartmental model configuration. This approach results in a large reduction in total study time of nearly 2 hours for carbon-11-labeled tracers. As multiple neuropharmacologic measures are obtained at nearly the same time, interventional protocols involving a pair of dual-tracer scans become feasible in a single PET session. Both computer simulations and actual human PET studies were performed using combinations of three different tracers: [11C]flumazenil, N-[11C]methylpiperidinyl propionate, and [ 11 C]dihydrotetrabenazine. Computer simulations of tracer-injection separations of 10 to 30 minutes showed the feasibility of the approach for separations down to 15 to 20 minutes or less. Dual-tracer PET studies were performed in 32 healthy volunteers using injection separations of 10, 15, or 20 minutes. Model parameter estimates for each tracer were similar to those obtained from previously performed single-injection studies. Voxel-by-voxel parametric images were of good quality for injections spaced by 20 minutes and were nearly as good for 15-minute separations, but were degraded noticeably for some model parameters when injections were spaced by only 10 minutes. The authors conclude that dual-tracer single-scan PET is feasible, yields accurate estimates of multiple neuropharmacologic measures, and can be implemented with a number of different radiotracer pairs.

Plasma fatty acids, adiposity, and variance of skeletal muscle insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus

Skeletal muscle insulin resistance (IR) is typically severe in type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). However, the factors that account for interindividual differences in the severity of IR are not well understood. The current study was undertaken to examine the respective roles of plasma FFA, regional adiposity, and other metabolic factors as determinants of the severity of skeletal muscle IR in type 2 DM. Twenty-three subjects (12 women and 11 men) with type 2 DM underwent positron emission tomography imaging using [18F]2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose during euglycemic insulin infusions (120 mU/min x m2) to measure skeletal muscle IR, using Patlak analysis of the tissue activity curves. Body composition analysis included body mass index, fat mass, and fat-free mass by dual energy x-ray tomography, and computed tomography determinations of visceral adiposity, thigh adipose tissue distribution, and muscle composition. Body mass index, fat mass, subfascial adiposity in the thigh, and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) were all significantly related to skeletal muscle IR (r = -0.48 to -0.63; P < 0.01). However, the strongest simple correlate of IR in skeletal muscle was insulin-suppressed plasma FFA (r = -0.81; P < 0.001). VAT was the sole component of adiposity that significantly correlated with insulin-suppressed plasma FFA concentration (r = 0.64; P < 0.001). These findings indicate that the severity of skeletal muscle IR in type 2 DM is closely related to the IR of suppressing lipolysis and that plasma fatty acids and VAT are key elements mediating the link between obesity and skeletal muscle IR in type 2 DM.

Scatter modelling and correction strategies in fully 3-D PET

PET offers the possibility of quantitative measurements of tracer concentration in vivo. However, there are several issues that must be considered in order to fully realise this potential. Whilst, a correction for a number of background and physical phenomena need to be performed, the two most significant effects are the photon attenuation in the patient and the contribution in the images of events arising from photons scattered in the patient and the gantry. The non-homogeneous distribution of attenuation within the thoracic cavity complicates the interpretation of PET images and precludes the application of simple scatter correction methods developed for homogeneous media. The development of more sophisticated techniques for quantification of PET images are still required. Recent progress in 3D PET instrumentation and image reconstructions has created a need for a concise review of the relevance and accuracy of scatter correction strategies. Improved quantification of PET images remains an area of considerable research interest and several research groups are concentrating their efforts towards the development of more accurate scatter modelling and correction algorithms.

Interactions of impaired glucose transport and phosphorylation in skeletal muscle insulin resistance: a dose-response assessment using positron emission tomography

It has been postulated that glucose transport is the principal site of skeletal muscle insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes, though a distribution of control between glucose transport and phosphorylation has also been proposed. The current study examined whether the respective contributions of transport and phosphorylation to insulin resistance are modulated across a dose range of insulin stimulation. Rate constants for transport and phosphorylation in skeletal muscle were estimated using dynamic positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of 2-deoxy-2[18F]fluoro-D-glucose ([18F]FDG) during insulin infusions at three rates (0, 40, and 120 mU/m2 per min) in lean glucose-tolerant, obese glucose-tolerant, and obese type 2 diabetic subjects. Parallel studies of arteriovenous fractional extraction across the leg of [18F]FDG and [2-3H] glucose were performed to measure the "lumped constant" (LC) (i.e., the analog effect) for [18F]FDG to determine whether this value is affected by insulin dose or insulin resistance. The value of the LC was similar across insulin doses and groups. Leg glucose uptake (LGU) also provided a measure of skeletal muscle glucose metabolism independent of PET. [18F]FDG uptake determined by PET imaging strongly correlated with LGU across groups and across insulin doses (r = 0.81, P < 0.001). Likewise, LGU correlated with PET parameters of glucose transport (r = 0.67, P < 0.001) and glucose phosphorylation (r = 0.86, P < 0.001). Glucose transport increased in response to insulin in the lean and obese groups (P < 0.05), but did not increase significantly in the type 2 diabetic group. A dose-responsive pattern of stimulation of glucose phosphorylation was observed in all groups of subjects (P < 0.05); however, glucose phosphorylation was lower in both the obese and type 2 diabetic groups compared with the lean group at the moderate insulin dose (P < 0.05). These findings indicate an important interaction between transport and phosphorylation in the insulin resistance of obesity and type 2 diabetes.

The contribution of positron emission tomography to the study of ischemic heart failure

Cardiac imaging with positron emission tomography offers unrivaled sensitivity and specificity to probe cardiovascular physiology in health and disease. The use of positron emission tomography to noninvasively measure regional myocardial blood flow and assess myocardial viability in patients with ventricular dysfunction and coronary artery disease has contributed greatly to our understanding of the pathophysiology of ischemic heart failure. The advances and the need for further studies to establish both the natural history of such ventricular dysfunction and the role of coronary revascularization are discussed.

A comparison of normalization effects on three whole-body cylindrical 3D PET systems

Normalization coefficients in three-dimensional positron emission tomography (3D PET) are affected by parameters such as camera geometry and the design and arrangement of the block detectors. In this work, normalization components for three whole-body 3D-capable tomographs (the GE Advance, the Siemens/CTI962/HR+ and the Siemens/CTI951R) are compared by means of a series of scans using uniform cylindrical and rotating line sources. Where applicable, the manufacturers' normalization methods are validated, and it is shown that these methods can be improved upon by using previously published normalization protocols. Those architectural differences between the three tomographs that affect normalization are discussed with a view to drawing more general conclusions about the effect of machine architecture on normalization. The data presented suggest that uniformity of system response becomes easier to achieve as the uniformity of crystal response within the detector block is improved.

A 2D/3D hybrid PET scanner with rotating partial slice-septa and its quantitative procedures

This paper presents a PET scanner capable of acquiring projection data in three-dimensional (3D) and two-dimensional (2D) modes simultaneously. The scanner has rotating partial slice-septa, and coincidence events are stored as 2D data or as 3D data depending on whether the lines of response are collimated by the septa or not. 68Ge/Ga rod sources can be set on the rotating septa, and a transmission scan for attenuation correction is performed in the 2D mode. The scanner allows simultaneous 3D-emission/2D-transmission scanning or post-injection transmission scanning with little cross-talk. A blank scan for detector normalization is also performed with the rotating rod sources in the 2D mode, from which we can derive the normalizing factors in both modes. The 3D/2D difference method is available for scatter correction, even in a dynamic study where the source distribution is changing. A 'summation method' is proposed as a new image reconstruction algorithm, in which the high- and low-frequency components of images are reconstructed from the 3D and 2D data respectively. In this method, most of the scatter contribution in the 3D data is removed by high-pass filtering, not by subtracting estimated scatter distribution, and hence the method is expected to be robust for scatter from outside the axial field of view. Computer simulations revealed that the rotating partial septa offer a single-scatter to true ratio similar to that of the conventional full septa if the depth of the partial septa is properly lengthened, with a small increase in multiple scattering.

Physical characteristics of the ECAT EXACT3D positron tomograph

The 'EXACT3D' positron tomograph, which is now in routine clinical research use, was developed with the aim of achieving unprecedented sensitivity, high spatial and temporal resolution and simplicity of design using proven detector technology. It consists of six rings of standard detector blocks (CTI/Siemens EXACT HR+) with 4.39 mm x 4.05 mm x 30 mm elements, giving an axial field of view (FOV) of 23.4 cm. This extended FOV and the absence of interplane septa and retractable transmission rod sources has allowed greatly simplified gantry and detector cassette design. Operation in exclusive 3D mode requires an alternative to the conventional coincidence method for transmission scanning, and a single photon approach using a hydraulically driven 137Cs point source has been implemented. The tomograph has no other moving parts. A single time frame of data without any compression is very large (> 300 Mbyte) and two approaches are employed to overcome this difficulty: (a) adjacent sinograms can be summed automatically into different combinations and (b) listmode (event-by-event) acquisition has been instituted, which is both storage efficient (particularly for acquisition of sparse data sets) and maximizes temporal resolution. The high-speed I/O and computing hardware can maintain a sustained acquisition rate of about 4 million coincidence events per second. A disadvantage of the large axial FOV in 3D is the increased sensitivity to activity outside the coincidence FOV. However, this can be minimized by additional side shielding. The mean spatial resolution is 4.8 +/- 0.2 mm FWHM (transaxial, 1 cm off-axis) and 5.6 +/- 0.5 mm (axial, on-axis). Its absolute efficiency is 5.8% for a line source in air (just spanning the axial FOV) and 10% for a central point source (with thresholds of 350-650 keV). For a uniform 20 cm diameter cylinder, the efficiency is 69 kcps kBq(-1) ml(-1) (after subtraction of a scatter fraction of 42%). Sensitivity relative to the EXACT HR+ (with four rings of blocks) is 2.5 (3D) and 12 (2D) times respectively. The rate of random events in blood flow studies in the brain and body, using 15O-labelled water, can be controlled by limiting the administered dose and inserting additional side shielding.

Fundamental study of hot spot detectability in 3-dimensional positron emission tomography

The purpose of this study was to investigate the detectability of small hot lesions with the 3-dimensional transmission/emission (3D T/E) acquisition mode in FDG-PET scan. The correlation of target detectability, target size, target to non-target uptake ratio (T/N ratio) and standardized uptake value (SUV) were studied. Small hot lesions ranged from 4.4 mm to 36.9 mm in diameter were located in cylindrical phantom. The images of phantoms with a T/N ratio of 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 9.6, 13.2, 17.5, 23.8 and 30.3 were obtained with 2-dimensional transmission/emission (2D T/E) scan and 3D T/E scans. Targets in diameter more than 10.6 mm in diameter with an actual T/N ratio ranged from 6.0 to 30.3 could be identified on the images obtained with all the 2D T/E and 3D T/E acquisition modes. The detectability efficiency of small hot target in 2D T/E and 3D T/E scans was as same (77.8%). The T/N ratio of targets from 2D T/E images was 30% to 48.4% different to that from 3D T/E image, and the SUV of the target from the 2D T/E images was almost the same as that from 3D T/E images. This study revealed that 3D T/E scanning had similar hot spot detectability to 2D T/E scanning; 3D T/E and 2D T/E scanning had the same faculty for semiquantitative analysis using SUV. These findings may be helpful for the diagnosis and understanding of 3D T/E FDG-PET in hot lesion detection.

Energy-based scatter correction for 3-D PET scanners using NaI(T1) detectors

Earlier investigations with BGO positron emission tomography (PET) scanners showed that the scatter correction technique based on multiple acquisitions with different energy windows are problematic to implement because of the poor energy resolution of BGO (22%), particularly for whole-body studies. We believe that these methods are likely to work better with NaI(TI) because of the better energy resolution achievable with NaI(TI) detectors (10%). Therefore, we investigate two different choices for the energy window, a low-energy window (LEW) on the Compton spectrum at 400-450 keV, and a high-energy window (HEW) within the photopeak (lower threshold above 511 keV). The results obtained for our three-dimensional (3-D) (septa-less) whole-body scanners [axial field of view (FOV) of 12.8 cm and 25.6 cm] as well as for our 3-D brain scanner (axial FOV of 25.6 cm) show an accurate prediction of the scatter distribution for the estimation of trues method (ETM) using a HEW, leading to a significant reduction of the scatter contamination. The dual-energy window (DEW) technique using a LEW is shown to be intrinsically wrong; in particular, it fails for line source and bar phantom measurements. However, the method is able to produce good results for homogeneous activity distributions. Both methods are easy to implement, are fast, have a low noise propagation, and will be applicable to other PET scanners with good energy resolution and stability, such as hybrid NaI(TI) PET/SPECT dual-head cameras and future PET cameras with GSO or LSO scintillators.

Investigation of scattered radiation in 3D whole-body positron emission tomography using Monte Carlo simulations

The correction of scattered radiation is one of the most challenging tasks in 3D positron emission tomography (PET) and knowledge about the amount of scatter and its distribution is a prerequisite for performing an accurate correction. One concern in 3D PET in contrast to 2D PET is the scatter contribution from activity outside the field-of-view (FOV) and multiple scatter. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we examined the scatter distribution for various phantoms. The simulations were performed for a whole-body PET system (ECAT EXACT HR+, Siemens/CTI) with an axial FOV of 15.5 cm and a ring diameter of 82.7 cm. With (without) interplane septa, up to one (two) out of three detected events are scattered (for a centred point source in a water-filled cylinder that nearly fills out the patient port), whereby the relative scatter fraction varies significantly with the axial position. Our results show that for an accurate scatter correction, activity as well as scattering media outside the FOV have to be taken into account. Furthermore it could be shown that there is a considerable amount of multiple scatter which has a different spatial distribution from single scatter. This means that multiple scatter cannot be corrected by simply rescaling the single scatter component.

Efficient SPECT scatter calculation in non-uniform media using correlated Monte Carlo simulation

Accurate simulation of scatter in projection data of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is computationally extremely demanding for activity distribution in non-uniform dense media. This paper suggests how the computation time and memory requirements can be significantly reduced. First the scatter projection of a uniform dense object (P(SDSE)) is calculated using a previously developed accurate and fast method which includes all orders of scatter (slab-derived scatter estimation), and then P(SDSE) is transformed towards the desired projection P which is based on the non-uniform object. The transform of P(SDSE) is based on two first-order Compton scatter Monte Carlo (MC) simulated projections. One is based on the uniform object (P(u)) and the other on the object with non-uniformities (P(nu)). P is estimated by P = P(SDSE) P(nu)/P(u). A tremendous decrease in noise in P is achieved by tracking photon paths for P(nu) identical to those which were tracked for the calculation of P(u) and by using analytical rather than stochastic modelling of the collimator. The method was validated by comparing the results with standard MC-simulated scatter projections (P) of 99mTc and 201Tl point sources in a digital thorax phantom. After correction, excellent agreement was obtained between P and P. The total computation time required to calculate an accurate scatter projection of an extended distribution in a thorax phantom on a PC is a only few tens of seconds per projection, which makes the method attractive for application in accurate scatter correction in clinical SPECT. Furthermore, the method removes the need of excessive computer memory involved with previously proposed 3D model-based scatter correction methods.

Randoms variance reduction in 3D PET

In positron emission tomography (PET), random coincidence events must be removed from the measured signal in order to obtain quantitatively accurate data. The most widely implemented technique for estimating the number of random coincidences on a particular line of response is the delayed coincidence channel method. Estimates obtained in this way are subject to Poisson noise, which then propagates into the final image when the estimates are subtracted from the prompt signal. However, this noise may be reduced if variance reduction techniques similar to those used in normalization of PET detectors are applied to the randoms estimates prior to use. We have investigated the effects of randoms variance reduction on noise-equivalent count (NEC) rates on a whole-body PET camera operating in 3D mode. NEC rates were calculated using a range of phantoms representative of situations that might be encountered clinically. We have also investigated the properties of three randoms variance reduction methods (based on algorithms previously used for normalization) in terms of their systematic accuracy and their variance reduction efficacy, both in phantom studies and in vivo. Those algorithms investigated that do not make assumptions about the spatial distribution of random coincidences give the best estimates of the randoms distribution. With the camera used, which has a limited axial extent (10.8 cm) and a large ring diameter (102 cm), the gains in image signal-to-noise ratio obtained with this technique ranged from approximately 5% to approximately 15%, depending on object size, activity distribution and the amount of activity in the field of view. Larger gains would be expected if this technique were to be employed on cameras of greater axial extent and smaller ring diameter.

Relevance of accurate Monte Carlo modeling in nuclear medical imaging

Monte Carlo techniques have become popular in different areas of medical physics with advantage of powerful computing systems. In particular, they have been extensively applied to simulate processes involving random behavior and to quantify physical parameters that are difficult or even impossible to calculate by experimental measurements. Recent nuclear medical imaging innovations such as single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and multiple emission tomography (MET) are ideal for Monte Carlo modeling techniques because of the stochastic nature of radiation emission, transport and detection processes. Factors which have contributed to the wider use include improved models of radiation transport processes, the practicality of application with the development of acceleration schemes and the improved speed of computers. In this paper we present a derivation and methodological basis for this approach and critically review their areas of application in nuclear imaging. An overview of existing simulation programs is provided and illustrated with examples of some useful features of such sophisticated tools in connection with common computing facilities and more powerful multiple-processor parallel processing systems. Current and future trends in the field are also discussed.

Developments in component-based normalization for 3D PET

Normalization in positron emission tomography (PET) is the process of ensuring that all lines of response joining detectors in coincidence have the same effective sensitivity. In three-dimensional (3D) PET, normalization is complicated by the presence of a large proportion of scattered coincidences, and by the fact that cameras operating in 3D mode encounter a very wide range of count-rates. In this work a component-based normalization model is presented which separates the normalization of true and scattered coincidences and accounts for variations in normalization effects with count-rate. The effects of the individual components in the model on reconstructed images are investigated, and it is shown that only a subset of these components has a significant effect on reconstructed image quality.

Cerebral glucose transport and metabolism in preterm human infants

Few data regarding early developmental changes in cerebral (blood-to-brain) glucose transport (CTXglc) and CMRglc are available for humans. We measured CBF, CTXglc, and CMRglc with positron emission tomography at 4 to 7 days of life in six preterm human infants whose estimated gestational age was 25 to 34 weeks. The Michaelis-Menten constants Kt and Tmax were estimated from CTXglc and the calculated cerebral capillary plasma glucose concentration. Mean CMRglc was 8.8 mumol 100 g-1 min-1. The CMRglc did not correlate with plasma glucose concentration (r = .315, P = .543), whereas CTXglc showed a significant correlation with plasma glucose concentration (r = .836, P = .038). Estimation of the Michaelis-Menten constants from the best fit to the measured data produced values of Kt = 6.0 mumol mL-1 and Tmax = 32.6 mumol 100 g-1 min-1. These values for Kt in the developing human brain are similar to those that have been reported for the mature brain of adolescent and adult humans and adult nonhuman primates, indicating the affinity of the glucose transport protein for D-glucose is similar. However, Tmax is approximately one third to one half of the comparable values for mature brain, indicating a reduced number of available luminal transporters.

The effect of activity outside the direct field of view in a 3D-only whole-body positron tomograph

The ECAT EXACT3D (CTI/Siemens 966) 3D-only PET tomograph has unprecedented sensitivity due to the large BGO (bismuth germanate) detector volume. However, the consequences of a large (23.4 cm) axial field-of-view (FOV) and the need for a patient port diameter to accommodate body scanning make the device more sensitive to photons arising from activity outside the direct (coincidence) FOV. This leads to relatively higher deadtime and an increased registration of random and scatter (true) coincidences. The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of activity outside the FOV on (i) noise-equivalent counts (NEC) and (ii) the performance of a 'model-based' scatter correction algorithm, and to investigate the effect of side shielding additional to that supplied with the tomograph. Annular shielding designed for brain scanning increased the NEC for blood flow (H[2]15O) measurement (integrated over 120 s) by up to 25%. For 11C tracer studies, the increase is less than 5% over 120 min. Purpose-built additional body shielding, made to conform to the shape of a volunteer, reduced the randoms count rate in a heart blood flow measurement (H[2]15O) by about 30%. After scatter correction the discrepancy between ROI count ratios for compartments within the 20 cm diameter 'Utah' phantom differed by less than 5% from true (sampled) activity concentration ratios. This was so with or without activity outside the FOV and with or without additional side shielding. Count rate performance is thus improved by extra shielding but more improvement is seen in head than in body scanning. Measurement of heart blood flow using bolus injections of H(2)15O would benefit from the use of detectors with lower deadtime and superior timing resolution such as LSO (lutetium oxyorthosilicate).

Exact and approximate rebinning algorithms for 3-D PET data

This paper presents two new rebinning algorithms for the reconstruction of three-dimensional (3-D) positron emission tomography (PET) data. A rebinning algorithm is one that first sorts the 3-D data into an ordinary two-dimensional (2-D) data set containing one sinogram for each transaxial slice to be reconstructed; the 3-D image is then recovered by applying to each slice a 2-D reconstruction method such as filtered-backprojection. This approach allows a significant speedup of 3-D reconstruction, which is particularly useful for applications involving dynamic acquisitions or whole-body imaging. The first new algorithm is obtained by discretizing an exact analytical inversion formula. The second algorithm, called the Fourier rebinning algorithm (FORE), is approximate but allows an efficient implementation based on taking 2-D Fourier transforms of the data. This second algorithm was implemented and applied to data acquired with the new generation of PET systems and also to simulated data for a scanner with an 18 degrees axial aperture. The reconstructed images were compared to those obtained with the 3-D reprojection algorithm (3DRP) which is the standard "exact" 3-D filtered-backprojection method. Results demonstrate that FORE provides a reliable alternative to 3DRP, while at the same time achieving an order of magnitude reduction in processing time.

Correction for scatter in 3D brain PET using a dual energy window method

A method for scatter correction using dual energy window acquisition has been developed and implemented on data collected with a brain-PET tomograph operated in the septa retracted, 3D mode. Coincidence events are assigned to (i) an upper energy window where both photons deposit energy between 380 keV and 850 keV or (ii) a lower energy window where one or both photons deposit within 200 keV and 380 keV. Scaling parameters are derived from measurements of the ratios of counts from line sources due to scattered and unscattered events in the two energy windows in head-sized phantoms. A scaled subtraction of the two energy windows produces a distribution of scatter which is smoothed prior to subtraction from the upper energy window. In phantoms, the correction was found to restore the uniformity, contrast and linearity of activity concentration. Relative activity concentrations were restored to within 7% of their true values in a multicompartment phantom. The method was found to provide accurate correction for scattered events arising from activity outside the direct detector field of view. In a three-compartment phantom containing water, 18F and 11C scanned in dynamic, multiframe mode, the half-lives of the two isotopes were restored to within 2% of their true value.