101
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Lopez G, Sidransky E. Autosomal recessive mutations in the development of Parkinson's disease. Biomark Med 2011; 4:713-21. [PMID: 20945983 DOI: 10.2217/bmm.10.96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although Parkinson's disease was long considered a nongenetic disorder, it is now clear that there are multiple predisposing genes, and that the disorder can exhibit either Mendelian or non-Mendelian modes of inheritance. The identification of several of these genes has provided important insights into the pathogenesis of this common complex disorder. This article presents an overview of the genes associated with autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease, including Parkin (PARK2), PINK1 (PARK6), DJ1 (PARK7) and ATP13A2 (PARK9). Recently, it was recognized that mutations in the gene encoding glucocerebrosidase, the enzyme deficient in Gaucher disease, are associated with an increased incidence of parkinsonism. While Gaucher disease is an autosomal recessive inherited disorder, patients with Parkinson's disease can be Gaucher heterozygotes or homozygotes. Elucidating the basis for this association may shed light on new disease mechanisms that contribute to the development of parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grisel Lopez
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-3708, USA
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102
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Novel regulation of parkin function through c-Abl-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation: implications for Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci 2011; 31:157-63. [PMID: 21209200 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1833-10.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, are the most common cause of autosomal-recessive Parkinson's disease (PD). Here, we show that the stress-signaling non-receptor tyrosine kinase c-Abl links parkin to sporadic forms of PD via tyrosine phosphorylation. Under oxidative and dopaminergic stress, c-Abl was activated in cultured neuronal cells and in striatum of adult C57BL/6 mice. Activated c-Abl was found in the striatum of PD patients. Concomitantly, parkin was tyrosine-phosphorylated, causing loss of its ubiquitin ligase and cytoprotective activities, and the accumulation of parkin substrates, AIMP2 (aminoacyl tRNA synthetase complex-interacting multifunctional protein 2) (p38/JTV-1) and FBP-1.STI-571, a selective c-Abl inhibitor, prevented tyrosine phosphorylation of parkin and restored its E3 ligase activity and cytoprotective function both in vitro and in vivo. Our results suggest that tyrosine phosphorylation of parkin by c-Abl is a major post-translational modification that leads to loss of parkin function and disease progression in sporadic PD. Moreover, inhibition of c-Abl offers new therapeutic opportunities for blocking PD progression.
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103
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Rose JM, Novoselov SS, Robinson PA, Cheetham ME. Molecular chaperone-mediated rescue of mitophagy by a Parkin RING1 domain mutant. Hum Mol Genet 2011; 20:16-27. [PMID: 20889486 PMCID: PMC3000674 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddq428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Revised: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is characteristic of many neurodegenerative diseases. The Parkinson's disease-associated ubiquitin-protein ligase, Parkin, is important in the elimination of damaged mitochondria by autophagy (mitophagy) in a multistep process. Here, we show that a Parkin RING domain mutant (C289G) fails to redistribute to damaged mitochondria and cannot induce mitophagy after treatment with the mitochondrial uncoupler carbonyl cyanide m-methylhydrazone, because of protein misfolding and aggregation. Parkin(C289G) aggregation and inclusion formation were suppressed by the neuronal DnaJ/Hsp40 chaperone HSJ1a(DNAJB2a). Importantly, HSJ1a and DNAJB6 also restored mitophagy by promoting the relocation of Parkin(C289G) and the autophagy marker LC3 to depolarized mitochondria. The rescue of Parkin activity and suppression of aggregation were J domain dependent for HSJ1a, suggesting the involvement of Hsp70 in these processes, but were not dependent on the HSJ1a ubiquitin interaction motif. HSJ1a expression did not enhance mitophagy mediated by wild-type Parkin. These data show the potential of molecular chaperones to mediate the functional recovery of Parkin misfolding mutants and to combat deficits associated with Parkin aggregation in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna M. Rose
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, 11–43 Bath Street, LondonEC1V 9EL, UK and
| | | | - Philip A. Robinson
- Leeds Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Leeds, Level 8, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St James's University Hospital, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
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104
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Trancikova A, Ramonet D, Moore DJ. Genetic Mouse Models of Neurodegenerative Diseases. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2011; 100:419-82. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-384878-9.00012-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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105
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Synaptic dysfunction in genetic models of Parkinson's disease: a role for autophagy? Neurobiol Dis 2010; 43:60-7. [PMID: 20969957 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Revised: 10/08/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The past decade in Parkinson's disease (PD) research has been punctuated by numerous advances in understanding genetic factors that contribute to the disease. Common to most of the genetic models of Parkinsonian neurodegeneration are pathologic mechanisms of mitochondrial dysfunction, secretory vesicle dysfunction and oxidative stress that likely trigger common cell death mechanisms. Whereas presynaptic function is implicated in the function/dysfunction of α-synuclein, the first gene shown to contribute to PD, synaptic function has not comprised a major focus in most other genetic models. However, recent advances in understanding the impact of mutations in parkin and LRRK2 have also yielded insights into synaptic dysfunction as a possible early pathogenic mechanism. Autophagy is a common neuronal response in each of these genetic models of PD, participating in the clearance of protein aggregates and injured mitochondria. However, the potential consequences of autophagy upregulation on synaptic structure and function remain unknown. In this review, we discuss the evidence that supports a role for synaptic dysfunction in the neurodegenerative cascade in PD, and highlight unresolved questions concerning a potential role for autophagy in either pathological or compensatory synaptic remodeling. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Autophagy and protein degradation in neurological diseases."
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106
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Ron I, Rapaport D, Horowitz M. Interaction between parkin and mutant glucocerebrosidase variants: a possible link between Parkinson disease and Gaucher disease. Hum Mol Genet 2010; 19:3771-81. [PMID: 20643691 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddq292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Gaucher disease (GD), a sphingolipidosis characterized by impaired activity of the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCase), results from mutations in the GCase-encoding gene, GBA. We have shown that mutant GCase variants present variable degrees of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention and undergo ER-associated degradation (ERAD) in the proteasome. Furthermore, the degree of ERAD of mutant GCase variants correlates with and is one of the factors that determine GD severity. An association between GD and Parkinson disease (PD) has been demonstrated by the concurrence of PD in GD patients and the identification of GCase mutations in probands with sporadic PD. One of the genes involved in PD is PARK2, encoding the E3 ubiquitin ligase parkin. Parkin functions in the ERAD of misfolded ER proteins, and it is upregulated by unfolded protein response. Loss of parkin function leads to the accumulation of its substrates, which is deleterious to dopaminergic neurons in PD. We, therefore, tested the possibility that the association between GD and PD reflects the fact that parkin acts as an E3 ligase of mutant GCase variants. Our results showed that mutant GCase variants associate with parkin. Normal parkin, but not its RING finger mutants, affects the stability of mutant GCase variants. Parkin also promotes the accumulation of mutant GCase in aggresome-like structures and is involved in K48-mediated polyubiquitination of GCase mutants, indicating its function as its E3 ligase. We suggest that involvement of parkin in the degradation of mutant GCase explains the concurrence of GD and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Idit Ron
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Israel
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107
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The Drosophila vesicular monoamine transporter reduces pesticide-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 40:102-12. [PMID: 20472063 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2010] [Revised: 05/04/2010] [Accepted: 05/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dopamine is cytotoxic and may play a role in the development of Parkinson's disease. However, its interaction with environmental risk factors such as pesticides remains poorly understood. The vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) regulates intracellular dopamine content, and we have tested the neuroprotective effects of VMAT in vivo using the model organism Drosophila melanogaster. We find that Drosophila VMAT (dVMAT) mutants contain fewer dopaminergic neurons than wild type, consistent with a developmental effect, and that dopaminergic cell loss in the mutant is exacerbated by the pesticides rotenone and paraquat. Overexpression of DVMAT protein does not increase the survival of animals exposed to rotenone, but blocks the loss of dopaminergic neurons caused by this pesticide. These results are the first to demonstrate an interaction between a VMAT and pesticides in vivo, and provide an important model to investigate the mechanisms by which pesticides and cellular DA may interact to kill dopaminergic cells.
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108
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Lee JY, Nagano Y, Taylor JP, Lim KL, Yao TP. Disease-causing mutations in parkin impair mitochondrial ubiquitination, aggregation, and HDAC6-dependent mitophagy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 189:671-9. [PMID: 20457763 PMCID: PMC2872903 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201001039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 413] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Parkin catalyzes mitochondrial ubiquitination, recruiting autophagic components that clear damaged mitochondria. Defects in this pathway are implicated in Parkinson's disease. Mutations in parkin, a ubiquitin ligase, cause early-onset familial Parkinson's disease (AR-JP). How parkin suppresses Parkinsonism remains unknown. Parkin was recently shown to promote the clearance of impaired mitochondria by autophagy, termed mitophagy. Here, we show that parkin promotes mitophagy by catalyzing mitochondrial ubiquitination, which in turn recruits ubiquitin-binding autophagic components, HDAC6 and p62, leading to mitochondrial clearance. During the process, juxtanuclear mitochondrial aggregates resembling a protein aggregate-induced aggresome are formed. The formation of these “mito-aggresome” structures requires microtubule motor-dependent transport and is essential for efficient mitophagy. Importantly, we show that AR-JP–causing parkin mutations are defective in supporting mitophagy due to distinct defects at recognition, transportation, or ubiquitination of impaired mitochondria, thereby implicating mitophagy defects in the development of Parkinsonism. Our results show that impaired mitochondria and protein aggregates are processed by common ubiquitin-selective autophagy machinery connected to the aggresomal pathway, thus identifying a mechanistic basis for the prevalence of these toxic entities in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Yong Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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109
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Morris LGT, Veeriah S, Chan TA. Genetic determinants at the interface of cancer and neurodegenerative disease. Oncogene 2010; 29:3453-64. [PMID: 20418918 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2010.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
It has been hypothesized that oncogenesis and neurodegeneration may share common mechanistic foundations. Recent evidence now reveals a number of genes in which alteration leads to either carcinogenesis or neurodegeneration, depending on cellular context. Pathways that have emerged as having critical roles in both cancer and neurodegenerative disease include those involving genes such as PARK2, ATM, PTEN, PTPRD, and mTOR. A number of mechanisms have been implicated, and commonly affected cellular processes include cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and response to oxidative stress. For example, we have recently shown that the E3 ubiquitin ligase PARK2 is mutated or deleted in many different human malignancies and helps drive loss on chromosome 6q25.2-27, a genomic region frequently deleted in cancers. Mutation in PARK2 is also the most common cause of juvenile Parkinson's disease. Mutations in PARK2 result in an upregulation of its substrate cyclin E, resulting in dysregulated entry into the cell cycle. In neurons, this process results in cell death, but in cycling cells, the result is a growth advantage. Thus, depending on whether the cell affected is a dividing cell or a post-mitotic neuron, responses to these alterations may differ, ultimately leading to varying disease phenotypes. Here, we review the substantial data implicating specific genes in both cancer and neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- L G T Morris
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
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110
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Gu Z, Nakamura T, Lipton SA. Redox reactions induced by nitrosative stress mediate protein misfolding and mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2010; 41:55-72. [PMID: 20333559 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-010-8113-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 02/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Overstimulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors accounts, at least in part, for excitotoxic neuronal damage, potentially contributing to a wide range of acute and chronic neurologic diseases. Neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), manifest deposits of misfolded or aggregated proteins, and result from synaptic injury and neuronal death. Recent studies have suggested that nitrosative stress due to generation of excessive nitric oxide (NO) can mediate excitotoxicity in part by triggering protein misfolding and aggregation, and mitochondrial fragmentation in the absence of genetic predisposition. S-Nitrosylation, or covalent reaction of NO with specific protein thiol groups, represents a convergent signal pathway contributing to NO-induced protein misfolding and aggregation, compromised dynamics of mitochondrial fission-fusion process, thus leading to neurotoxicity. Here, we review the effect of S-nitrosylation on protein function under excitotoxic conditions, and present evidence suggesting that NO contributes to protein misfolding and aggregation via S-nitrosylating protein-disulfide isomerase or the E3 ubiquitin ligase parkin, and mitochondrial fragmentation through beta-amyloid-related S-nitrosylation of dynamin-related protein-1. Moreover, we also discuss that inhibition of excessive NMDA receptor activity by memantine, an uncompetitive/fast off-rate (UFO) drug can ameliorate excessive production of NO, protein misfolding and aggregation, mitochondrial fragmentation, and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zezong Gu
- Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia School of Medicine, One Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO 65212, USA.
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111
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Rogers N, Paine S, Bedford L, Layfield R. Review: the ubiquitin-proteasome system: contributions to cell death or survival in neurodegeneration. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2010; 36:113-24. [PMID: 20202119 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2010.01063.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The significance of the accumulation of ubiquitin-positive intraneuronal inclusions in the brains of those affected with different neurodegenerative diseases is currently unclear. While one interpretation is that the disease mechanism(s) involves dysfunction of an ubiquitin-mediated process, such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the inclusions are also found in surviving neurones, suggesting a possible neuroprotective role. Here we review recent evidence in support of these seemingly opposing notions gleaned from cell and animal models as well as investigations of patient samples, with particular emphasis on studies relevant to Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Rogers
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK
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112
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Ramsey CP, Giasson BI. Identification and characterization of a novel endogenous murine parkin mutation. J Neurochem 2010; 113:402-17. [PMID: 20089136 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06605.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Various mutations in the PARK2 gene which encodes the protein, parkin, are causal of a disease entity-termed autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. Parkin can function as an E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase, mediating the ubiquitination of specific targeted proteins and resulting in proteasomal degradation. Parkin is thought to lead to parkinsonism as a consequence of a loss in its function. In this study, immunoblot analyses of brain extracts from Balb/c, C57BL/6, C3H, and 129S mouse strains demonstrated significant variations in immunoreactivity with anti-parkin monoclonal antibodies (PRK8, PRK28, and PRK109). This resulted partly from differences in the steady-state levels of parkin protein across mouse strains. There was also a complete loss of immunoreactivity for PRK8 and PRK28 antibodies in C3H mice due to was because of a homologous nucleotide mutation resulting in an E398Q amino acid substitution. In cultured cells, parkin harboring this mutation had a greater tendency to aggregate, exhibited reduced interaction with the E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, UbcH7 and UbcH8, and demonstrated loss-of-function in promoting the proteosomal degradation of a specific putative substrate, synphilin-1. In situ, C3H mice displayed age-dependent increased levels of brain cortical synphilin-1 compared with C57BL/6, suggesting that E398Q parkin in these mice is functionally impaired and that C3H mice may be a suitable model of parkin loss-of-function similar to patients with missense mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenere P Ramsey
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6084, USA
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113
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Tanji K, Kamitani T, Mori F, Kakita A, Takahashi H, Wakabayashi K. TRIM9, a novel brain-specific E3 ubiquitin ligase, is repressed in the brain of Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 38:210-8. [PMID: 20085810 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Revised: 12/18/2009] [Accepted: 01/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
TRIM family proteins are involved in a broad range of biological processes, and their alteration results in many diverse pathological conditions found in genetic diseases, viral infections, and cancers. However, the spatial and temporal expression and function of TRIM9, one of TRIM family proteins, remain obscure. Our results here showed that TRIM9 protein is mainly expressed in the cerebral cortex, and functions as an E3 ubiquitin ligase collaborating with an E2 ubiquitin conjugating enzyme UbcH5b. Immunohistochemical examination revealed that TRIM9 is localized to the neurons in the normal mouse and human brain and that TRIM9 immunoreactivity is severely decreased in the affected brain areas in Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. This repressed level of TRIM9 protein was supported by immunoblotting analysis. Intriguingly, cortical and brainstem-type Lewy bodies were immunopositive for TRIM9. These results suggest that TRIM9 plays an important role in the regulation of neuronal functions and participates in pathological process of Lewy body disease through its ligase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunikazu Tanji
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Brain Science, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan.
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114
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Veeriah S, Taylor BS, Meng S, Fang F, Yilmaz E, Vivanco I, Janakiraman M, Schultz N, Hanrahan AJ, Pao W, Ladanyi M, Sander C, Heguy A, Holland EC, Paty PB, Mischel PS, Liau L, Cloughesy TF, Mellinghoff IK, Solit DB, Chan TA. Somatic mutations of the Parkinson's disease-associated gene PARK2 in glioblastoma and other human malignancies. Nat Genet 2009; 42:77-82. [PMID: 19946270 DOI: 10.1038/ng.491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2009] [Accepted: 10/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mutation of the gene PARK2, which encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase, is the most common cause of early-onset Parkinson's disease. In a search for multisite tumor suppressors, we identified PARK2 as a frequently targeted gene on chromosome 6q25.2-q27 in cancer. Here we describe inactivating somatic mutations and frequent intragenic deletions of PARK2 in human malignancies. The PARK2 mutations in cancer occur in the same domains, and sometimes at the same residues, as the germline mutations causing familial Parkinson's disease. Cancer-specific mutations abrogate the growth-suppressive effects of the PARK2 protein. PARK2 mutations in cancer decrease PARK2's E3 ligase activity, compromising its ability to ubiquitinate cyclin E and resulting in mitotic instability. These data strongly point to PARK2 as a tumor suppressor on 6q25.2-q27. Thus, PARK2, a gene that causes neuronal dysfunction when mutated in the germline, may instead contribute to oncogenesis when altered in non-neuronal somatic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selvaraju Veeriah
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
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115
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da Costa CA, Sunyach C, Giaime E, West A, Corti O, Brice A, Safe S, Abou-Sleiman PM, Wood NW, Takahashi H, Goldberg MS, Shen J, Checler F. Transcriptional repression of p53 by parkin and impairment by mutations associated with autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinson's disease. Nat Cell Biol 2009; 11:1370-5. [PMID: 19801972 PMCID: PMC2952934 DOI: 10.1038/ncb1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2009] [Accepted: 07/14/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mutations of the ubiquitin ligase parkin account for most autosomal recessive forms of juvenile Parkinson's disease (AR-JP). Several studies have suggested that parkin possesses DNA-binding and transcriptional activity. We report here that parkin is a p53 transcriptional repressor. First, parkin prevented 6-hydroxydopamine-induced caspase-3 activation in a p53-dependent manner. Concomitantly, parkin reduced p53 expression and activity, an effect abrogated by familial parkin mutations known to either abolish or preserve its ligase activity. ChIP experiments indicate that overexpressed and endogenous parkin interact physically with the p53 promoter and that pathogenic mutations abolish DNA binding to and promoter transactivation of p53. Parkin lowered p53 mRNA levels and repressed p53 promoter transactivation through its Ring1 domain. Conversely, parkin depletion enhanced p53 expression and mRNA levels in fibroblasts and mouse brains, and increased cellular p53 activity and promoter transactivation in cells. Finally, familial parkin missense and deletion mutations enhanced p53 expression in human brains affected by AR-JP. This study reveals a ubiquitin ligase-independent function of parkin in the control of transcription and a functional link between parkin and p53 that is altered by AR-JP mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristine Alves da Costa
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire and Institut de NeuroMédecine Moléculaire, UMR6097 CNRS/UNSA, équipe labellisée Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, 660 Route des Lucioles, 06560, Valbonne, France
| | - Claire Sunyach
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire and Institut de NeuroMédecine Moléculaire, UMR6097 CNRS/UNSA, équipe labellisée Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, 660 Route des Lucioles, 06560, Valbonne, France
| | - Emilie Giaime
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire and Institut de NeuroMédecine Moléculaire, UMR6097 CNRS/UNSA, équipe labellisée Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, 660 Route des Lucioles, 06560, Valbonne, France
| | - Andrew West
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Olga Corti
- INSERM U679, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Alexis Brice
- INSERM U679, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Stephen Safe
- Center for Environmental & Genetic Medicine, Institute of Biosciences & Technology, Houston, USA
| | - Patrick M. Abou-Sleiman
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Nicholas W. Wood
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Hitoshi Takahashi
- Brain Research Institute, University of Niigata, 1-757 Asahimachi, Niigata 951-8585, Japan
| | - Mathew S. Goldberg
- Center of Neurological Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jie Shen
- Center of Neurological Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Frédéric Checler
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire and Institut de NeuroMédecine Moléculaire, UMR6097 CNRS/UNSA, équipe labellisée Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, 660 Route des Lucioles, 06560, Valbonne, France
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116
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Sha D, Chin LS, Li L. Phosphorylation of parkin by Parkinson disease-linked kinase PINK1 activates parkin E3 ligase function and NF-kappaB signaling. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 19:352-63. [PMID: 19880420 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) or parkin cause autosomal recessive forms of Parkinson disease (PD), but how these mutations trigger neurodegeneration is poorly understood and the exact functional relationship between PINK1 and parkin remains unclear. Here, we report that PINK1 regulates the E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase function of parkin through direct phosphorylation. We find that phosphorylation of parkin by PINK1 activates parkin E3 ligase function for catalyzing K63-linked polyubiquitination and enhances parkin-mediated ubiquitin signaling through the IkappaB kinase/nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) pathway. Furthermore, the ability of PINK1 to promote parkin phosphorylation and activate parkin-mediated ubiquitin signaling is impaired by PD-linked pathogenic PINK1 mutations. Our findings support a direct link between PINK1-mediated phosphorylation and parkin-mediated ubiquitin signaling and implicate the deregulation of the PINK1/parkin/NF-kappaB neuroprotective signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Sha
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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117
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Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2009; 1802:29-44. [PMID: 19733240 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 391] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2009] [Revised: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 08/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles which fulfill a plethora of functions. In addition to their prominent role in energy metabolism, mitochondria are intimately involved in various key cellular processes, such as the regulation of calcium homeostasis, stress response and cell death pathways. Thus, it is not surprising that an impairment of mitochondrial function results in cellular damage and is linked to aging and neurodegeneration. Many lines of evidence suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a central role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), starting in the early 1980s with the observation that an inhibitor of complex I of the electron transport chain can induce parkinsonism. Remarkably, recent research indicated that several PD-associated genes interface with pathways regulating mitochondrial function, morphology, and dynamics. In fact, sporadic and familial PD seem to converge at the level of mitochondrial integrity.
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118
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Sen S, West AB. The therapeutic potential of LRRK2 and alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2009; 11:2167-87. [PMID: 19271991 PMCID: PMC2787962 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2009.2430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Current treatments for Parkinson's disease fail to modify disease progression, and the underlying pathogenic mechanisms remain elusive. The identification of specific targets responsible for disease will aid in the development of relevant model systems and the discovery of neuroprotective and neurorestorative therapies. Two promising protein candidates, alpha-synuclein and LRRK2, offer unique insight into the molecular basis of disease and the potential to intervene in pathogenesis. Although multiple lines of evidence support alpha-synuclein and LRRK2 as robust targets for therapy, the connection between protein function and neurodegeneration is unclear. Technology capable of mitigating alpha-synuclein and LRRK2 disease-associated function will ultimately be required before the true value of these proteins as therapeutic targets can be discerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurabh Sen
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
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119
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Abstract
Protein aggregation as a result of misfolding is a common theme underlying neurodegenerative diseases. In Parkinson's disease (PD), research on protein misfolding and aggregation has taken center stage following the association of alpha-synuclein gene mutations with familial forms of the disease, and importantly, the identification of the protein as a major component of Lewy bodies, a pathological hallmark of PD. Fueling this excitement is the subsequent identification of another PD-linked gene, parkin, as a ubiquitin ligase associated with the proteasome, a major intracellular protein degradation machinery that destroys unwanted, albeit mainly soluble, proteins. Notably, a role for parkin in the clearance of insoluble protein aggregates via macroautophagy has also been implicated by more recent studies. Paradoxically, like alpha-synuclein, parkin is also prone to misfolding, especially in the presence of age-related stress. Similarly, protein misfolding can also affect the function of other key PD-linked genes such as DJ-1, PINK1, and perhaps also LRRK2. Here, we discuss the role of protein misfolding and aggregation in PD, and how impairments of the various cellular protein quality systems could precipitate these events and lead to neuronal demise. Towards the end of our discussion, we also revisited the role of Lewy body formation in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne M M Tan
- Neurodegeneration Research Laboratory, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore
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Dusonchet J, Bensadoun JC, Schneider BL, Aebischer P. Targeted overexpression of the parkin substrate Pael-R in the nigrostriatal system of adult rats to model Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2009; 35:32-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2008] [Revised: 03/03/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Abstract
Several chronic neurodegenerative disorders manifest deposits of misfolded or aggregated proteins. Genetic mutations are the root cause for protein misfolding in rare families, but the majority of patients have sporadic forms possibly related to environmental factors. In some cases, the ubiquitin-proteasome system or molecular chaperones can prevent accumulation of aberrantly folded proteins. Recent studies suggest that generation of excessive nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), in part due to overactivity of the NMDA-subtype of glutamate receptor, can mediate protein misfolding in the absence of genetic predisposition. S-Nitrosylation, or covalent reaction of NO with specific protein thiol groups, represents one mechanism contributing to NO-induced protein misfolding and neurotoxicity. Here, we present evidence suggesting that NO contributes to protein misfolding via S-nitrosylating protein-disulfide isomerase or the E3 ubiquitin ligase parkin. We discuss how memantine/NitroMemantine can inhibit excessive NMDA receptor activity to ameliorate NO production, protein misfolding, and neurodegeneration.
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Bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic mice expressing a truncated mutant parkin exhibit age-dependent hypokinetic motor deficits, dopaminergic neuron degeneration, and accumulation of proteinase K-resistant alpha-synuclein. J Neurosci 2009; 29:1962-76. [PMID: 19228951 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5351-08.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recessive mutations in parkin are the most common cause of familial early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent studies suggest that certain parkin mutants may exert dominant toxic effects to cultured cells and such dominant toxicity can lead to progressive dopaminergic (DA) neuron degeneration in Drosophila. To explore whether mutant parkin could exert similar pathogenic effects to mammalian DA neurons in vivo, we developed a BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome) transgenic mouse model expressing a C-terminal truncated human mutant parkin (Parkin-Q311X) in DA neurons driven by a dopamine transporter promoter. Parkin-Q311X mice exhibit multiple late-onset and progressive hypokinetic motor deficits. Stereological analyses reveal that the mutant mice develop age-dependent DA neuron degeneration in substantia nigra accompanied by a significant loss of DA neuron terminals in the striatum. Neurochemical analyses reveal a significant reduction of the striatal dopamine level in mutant mice, which is significantly correlated with their hypokinetic motor deficits. Finally, mutant Parkin-Q311X mice, but not wild-type controls, exhibit age-dependent accumulation of proteinase K-resistant endogenous alpha-synuclein in substantia nigra and colocalized with 3-nitrotyrosine, a marker for oxidative protein damage. Hence, our study provides the first mammalian genetic evidence that dominant toxicity of a parkin mutant is sufficient to elicit age-dependent hypokinetic motor deficits and DA neuron loss in vivo, and uncovers a causal relationship between dominant parkin toxicity and progressive alpha-synuclein accumulation in DA neurons. Our study underscores the need to further explore the putative link between parkin dominant toxicity and PD.
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Hristova VA, Beasley SA, Rylett RJ, Shaw GS. Identification of a novel Zn2+-binding domain in the autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinson-related E3 ligase parkin. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:14978-86. [PMID: 19339245 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m808700200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Missense mutations in park2, encoding the parkin protein, account for approximately 50% of autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinson disease (ARJP) cases. Parkin belongs to the family of RBR (RING-between-RING) E3 ligases involved in the ubiquitin-mediated degradation and trafficking of proteins such as Pael-R and synphillin-1. The proposed architecture of parkin, based largely on sequence similarity studies, consists of N-terminal ubiquitin-like and C-terminal RBR domains. These domains are separated by a approximately 160-residue unique parkin sequence having no recognizable domain structure. We used limited proteolysis experiments on bacterially expressed and purified parkin to identify a new domain (RING0) within the unique parkin domain sequence. RING0 comprises two distinct, conserved cysteine-rich clusters between Cys(150)-Cys(169) and Cys(196)-His(215) consisting of CX(2)-(3)CX(11)CX(2)C and CX(4-6)CX(10-16)-CX(2)(H/C) motifs. The positions of the cysteine/histidine residues in this region bear similarity to parkin RING1 and RING2 domains, as well as other E3 ligase RING domains. However, in parkin a 26-residue linker region separates the motifs, which is not typical of other RING domain structures. Further, the RING0 domain includes all but one of the known ARJP mutation sites between the ubiquitin-like and RBR regions of parkin. Using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry analysis, we determined that the RING0, RING1, IBR, and RING2 domains each bind two Zn(2+) ions, the first observation of an E3 ligase with the ability to bind eight metal ions. Removal of the zinc from parkin causes near complete unfolding of the protein, an observation that rationalizes cysteine-based ARJP mutations found throughout parkin, including RING0 (C212Y) that form cellular inclusions and/or are defective for ubiquitination likely because of poor zinc binding and misfolding. The identification of the RING0 domain in parkin provides a new overall domain structure for the protein that will be important in assessing the roles of ARJP mutations and designing experiments aimed at understanding the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ventzislava A Hristova
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
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Szargel R, Rott R, Eyal A, Haskin J, Shani V, Balan L, Wolosker H, Engelender S. Synphilin-1A inhibits seven in absentia homolog (SIAH) and modulates alpha-synuclein monoubiquitylation and inclusion formation. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:11706-16. [PMID: 19224863 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m805990200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is characterized by the presence of ubiquitylated inclusions and the death of dopaminergic neurons. Seven in absentia homolog (SIAH) is a ubiquitin-ligase that ubiquitylates alpha-synuclein and synphilin-1 and is present in Lewy bodies of PD patients. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate the ubiquitylation of PD-related proteins might shed light on the events involved in the formation of Lewy bodies and death of neurons. We show in this study that the recently described synphilin-1 isoform, synphilin-1A, interacts in vitro and in vivo with the ubiquitin-protein isopeptide ligase SIAH and regulates its activity toward alpha-synuclein and synphilin-1. SIAH promotes limited ubiquitylation of synphilin-1A that does not lead to its degradation by the proteasome. SIAH also increases the formation of synphilin-1A inclusions in the presence of proteasome inhibitors, supporting the participation of ubiquitylated synphilin-1A in the formation of Lewy body-like inclusions. Synphilin-1A/SIAH inclusions recruit PD-related proteins, such as alpha-synuclein, synphilin-1, Parkin, PINK1, and UCH-L1. We found that synphilin-1A robustly increases the steady-state levels of SIAH by decreasing its auto-ubiquitylation and degradation. In addition, synphilin-1A blocks the ubiquitylation and degradation of the SIAH substrates synphilin-1 and deleted in colon cancer protein. Furthermore, synphilin-1A strongly decreases the monoubiquitylation of alpha-synuclein by SIAH and the formation of alpha-synuclein inclusions, supporting a role for monoubiquitylation in alpha-synuclein inclusion formation. Our results suggest a novel function for synphilin-1A as a regulator of SIAH activity and formation of Lewy body-like inclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymonde Szargel
- Department of Pharmacology, The B. Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Institute of Medical Research, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 31096, Israel
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125
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Lu XH. BAC to degeneration bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-mediated transgenesis for modeling basal ganglia neurodegenerative disorders. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2009; 89:37-56. [PMID: 19900614 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(09)89002-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Basal ganglia neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD), are characterized by not only spectrum of motor deficits, ranging form hypokinesia to hyperkinesia, but also emotional, cognitive, and psychiatric manifestations. The symptoms and pathogenic mechanism of these disorders should be viewed as dysfunctions of specific cortico-subcortical neurocircuits. Transgenic approaches using large genomic inserts, such as bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-mediated transgenesis, due to its capacity to propagate large-size genomic DNA and faithful production of endogenous-like gene expression pattern/lever, have provided an ideal basis for the generation of transgenic mice as model for basal ganglia neurodegenerative disorders, as well as the functional and structural analysis of neurocircuits. In this chapter, the basic concepts and practical approaches about application of BAC transgenic system are introduced. Existent major BAC transgenic mouse models for PD and HD are evaluated according to their construct, face, and predicative validity. Finally, considerations, possible solutions, and future perspectives of using BAC transgenic approach to study basal ganglia neurodegenerative disorders are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Hong Lu
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, Brain Research Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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126
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Rubio de la Torre E, Luzón-Toro B, Forte-Lago I, Minguez-Castellanos A, Ferrer I, Hilfiker S. Combined kinase inhibition modulates parkin inactivation. Hum Mol Genet 2008; 18:809-23. [PMID: 19050041 PMCID: PMC2640208 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddn407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal-recessive, juvenile-onset parkinsonism, and parkin dysfunction may also play a role in the pathogenesis of sporadic Parkinson disease (PD). Although its precise function remains largely unknown, parkin seems to play a neuroprotective role. Several studies indicate that changes in parkin solubility induced by post-translational modifications, such as S-nitrosylation or dopamine modification, comprise one mechanism of parkin inactivation associated with disease. Protein phosphorylation events have recently been linked to the molecular mechanism(s) underlying PD, but the role of this post-translational modification for parkin function has remained unclear. Here we report that compound phosphorylation of parkin by both casein kinase I and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (cdk5) decreases parkin solubility, leading to its aggregation and inactivation. Combined kinase inhibition partially reverses the aggregative properties of several pathogenic point mutants in cultured cells. Enhanced parkin phosphorylation is detected in distinct brain areas of individuals with sporadic PD and correlates with increases in the levels of p25, the activator of cdk5. These findings indicate that casein kinase I and cdk5 may represent novel combinatorial therapeutic targets for treating PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Rubio de la Torre
- Institute of Parasitology and Biomedicine López-Neyra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
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127
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Pruning and loss of excitatory synapses by the parkin ubiquitin ligase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:19492-7. [PMID: 19033459 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0802280105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the PARK2 gene cause hereditary Parkinson disease (PD). The PARK2 gene product, termed parkin, is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that mediates the transfer of ubiquitin onto diverse substrate proteins. Despite progress in defining the molecular properties and substrates of parkin, little is known about its physiological function. Here, we show that parkin regulates the function and stability of excitatory glutamatergic synapses. Postsynaptic expression of parkin dampens excitatory synaptic transmission and causes a marked loss of excitatory synapses onto hippocampal neurons. Conversely, knockdown of endogenous parkin or expression of PD-linked parkin mutants profoundly enhances synaptic efficacy and triggers a proliferation of glutamatergic synapses. This proliferation is associated with increased vulnerability to synaptic excitotoxicity. Thus, parkin negatively regulates the number and strength of excitatory synapses. Increased excitatory drive produced by disruption of parkin may contribute to the pathophysiology of PD.
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128
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D'Agata V, Tiralongo A, Castorina A, Leggio GM, Micale V, Carnazza ML, Drago F. Parkin expression profile in dopamine d3 receptor knock-out mice brains. Neurochem Res 2008; 34:327-32. [PMID: 18612813 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-008-9781-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 06/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Patients affected by autosomic recessive juvenile parkinsonism (ARJP) exhibit parkin gene mutations with brain decrease in dopamine D2/D3 binding sites. To date, there are no data indicating whether the reduction in dopamine D3 receptors (DRD3) may be associated with the expression of specific parkin variants. In the present study we investigated parkin expression profile in DRD3 knock-out mice brains. RT-PCR analysis was performed to assess qualitative changes in parkin isoforms' distribution pattern and in exons' expression both in wild type controls and dopamine D3 receptor's knock-out mice. Real-time PCR was performed to quantify single exons mRNA. Results demonstrated that exons 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, were more expressed in wild type compared to dopamine D3 receptor KO mice brains while some other (3, 9, 10) were lower expressed. The expression levels of exons 5, 11 and 12 did not change in both animal groups. Our analysis was confirmed by western blot, which showed that parkin protein levels were influenced by the absence of DRD3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Velia D'Agata
- Department of Anatomy, Diagnostic Pathology, Legal Medicine, Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania Medical School, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123, Catania, Italy.
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129
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Schlehe JS, Lutz AK, Pilsl A, Lämmermann K, Grgur K, Henn IH, Tatzelt J, Winklhofer KF. Aberrant Folding of Pathogenic Parkin Mutants. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:13771-9. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m707494200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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130
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Kawahara K, Hashimoto M, Bar-On P, Ho GJ, Crews L, Mizuno H, Rockenstein E, Imam SZ, Masliah E. α-Synuclein Aggregates Interfere with Parkin Solubility and Distribution. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:6979-87. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m710418200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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131
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Hasegawa T, Treis A, Patenge N, Fiesel FC, Springer W, Kahle PJ. Parkin protects against tyrosinase-mediated dopamine neurotoxicity by suppressing stress-activated protein kinase pathways. J Neurochem 2008; 105:1700-15. [PMID: 18248610 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05277.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) motor symptoms are caused by degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons. The most common causes of hereditary PD are mutations in the PARKIN gene. The ubiquitin ligase parkin has been shown to mediate neuroprotection in cell culture and in vivo, but the molecular mechanisms are not well understood. We investigated the effects of parkin in a human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell culture model of PD, in which transcriptional induction of the enzyme tyrosinase causes a neurotoxic overproduction of cellular DA and its oxidative metabolites. Tyrosinase induction caused formation of reactive oxygen species in the cytosol and mitochondria, and neurotoxicity via activation of apoptotic stress-activated protein kinases and caspase 3. Stable transfection of wild-type parkin suppressed tyrosinase-induced apoptosis, and PD-associated mutations abolished the neuroprotective effect of parkin. Expression of wild-type parkin did not affect reactive oxygen species production, but attenuated the tyrosinase-induced activation of both c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase as well as their cognate mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases. PD-associated mutations differentially affected the anti-apoptotic signaling of parkin. Thus, parkin contributes to DAergic neuroprotection by suppression of apoptotic stress-activated protein kinase pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Hasegawa
- Laboratory of Functional Neurogenetics, Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University Clinics Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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132
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Moore DJ, West AB, Dikeman DA, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Parkin mediates the degradation-independent ubiquitination of Hsp70. J Neurochem 2008; 105:1806-19. [PMID: 18248624 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05261.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive, juvenile-onset parkinsonism. Parkin is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that mediates the ubiquitination of protein substrates. Disease-associated mutations cause a loss-of-function of parkin which may compromise the poly-ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of specific protein substrates, potentially leading to their deleterious accumulation. Here, we identify the molecular chaperones, Hsp70 and Hsc70, as substrates for parkin. Parkin mediates the ubiquitination of Hsp70 both in vitro and in cultured cells. Parkin interacts with Hsp70 via its second RING finger domain and mutations in/near this domain compromise Hsp70 ubiquitination. Ubiquitination of Hsp70 fails to alter its steady-state levels or turnover, nor does it promote its proteasomal degradation. Consistent with this observation, Hsp70 levels remain unaltered in brains from parkin-deficient autosomal recessive, juvenile-onset parkinsonism subjects, whereas alternatively, Hsp70 levels are elevated in the detergent-insoluble fraction of sporadic Parkinson's disease/dementia with Lewy bodies brains. Parkin mediates the multiple mono-ubiquitination of Hsp70/Hsc70 consistent with a degradation-independent role for this ubiquitin modification. Our observations support a novel functional relationship between parkin and Hsc/Hsp70 and support the notion that parkin is a multi-purpose E3 ubiquitin ligase capable of modifying proteins either via attachment of alternatively linked poly-ubiquitin chains or through multiple mono-ubiquitination to achieve alternate biological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren J Moore
- Institute for Cell Engineering, and Department of Neurology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA.
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133
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Winklhofer KF, Tatzelt J, Haass C. The two faces of protein misfolding: gain- and loss-of-function in neurodegenerative diseases. EMBO J 2008; 27:336-49. [PMID: 18216876 PMCID: PMC2234348 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2007] [Accepted: 10/24/2007] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The etiologies of neurodegenerative diseases may be diverse; however, a common pathological denominator is the formation of aberrant protein conformers and the occurrence of pathognomonic proteinaceous deposits. Different approaches coming from neuropathology, genetics, animal modeling and biophysics have established a crucial role of protein misfolding in the pathogenic process. However, there is an ongoing debate about the nature of the harmful proteinaceous species and how toxic conformers selectively damage neuronal populations. Increasing evidence indicates that soluble oligomers are associated with early pathological alterations, and strikingly, oligomeric assemblies of different disease-associated proteins may share common structural features. A major step towards the understanding of mechanisms implicated in neuronal degeneration is the identification of genes, which are responsible for familial variants of neurodegenerative diseases. Studies based on these disease-associated genes illuminated the two faces of protein misfolding in neurodegeneration: a gain of toxic function and a loss of physiological function, which can even occur in combination. Here, we summarize how these two faces of protein misfolding contribute to the pathomechanisms of Alzheimer's disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, Parkinson's disease and prion diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstanze F Winklhofer
- Neurobiochemisty, Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Jörg Tatzelt
- Neurobiochemisty, Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Haass
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich and Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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134
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Van Humbeeck C, Waelkens E, Corti O, Brice A, Vandenberghe W. Parkin occurs in a stable, non-covalent, approximately 110-kDa complex in brain. Eur J Neurosci 2008; 27:284-93. [PMID: 18190519 PMCID: PMC2253705 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.06000.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the gene for parkin, a 52-kDa E3 ubiquitin ligase, are a major cause of hereditary Parkinson's disease (PD). In vitro studies have identified a large number of parkin-interacting proteins. Whether parkin exists as a monomer or as part of a stable protein complex in vivo is uncertain. Here we demonstrate that endogenous parkin occurs in a stable, non-covalent, ∼110-kDa complex in native extracts from mouse brain, heart and skeletal muscle, while monomeric parkin is undetectable. Partial denaturation experiments indicate that this complex is at least a tetramer. Reported parkin-binding partners do not show detectable association with the parkin complex on native gels. Upon overexpression in COS1, SH-SY5Y or CHO cells, parkin accumulates predominantly as a monomer, suggesting that the interactors required for complex formation are available in limiting amounts in these cells. Importantly, PD-linked parkin mutations significantly impair parkin complex formation. These data demonstrate that parkin oligomerizes into a stable, non-covalent, heteromeric complex in vivo, and suggest that parkin may have as yet unidentified stable binding partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Van Humbeeck
- Department of Neurosciences, Division of Experimental Neurology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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135
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Nakamura T, Lipton SA. Emerging roles of S-nitrosylation in protein misfolding and neurodegenerative diseases. Antioxid Redox Signal 2008; 10:87-101. [PMID: 17961071 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2007.1858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Overactivation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors accounts, at least in part, for excitotoxic neuronal damage, potentially contributing to a wide range of acute and chronic neurologic disorders. Recent studies have suggested that generation of excessive nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) can mediate excitotoxicity, in part by triggering protein misfolding. S-Nitrosylation, which is a covalent reaction of a NO group with a cysteine thiol, represents one such mechanism that can contribute to NO-induced neurotoxicity. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), in conjunction with molecular chaperones, can prevent accumulation of aberrantly-folded proteins. For example, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) can provide neuroprotection from misfolded proteins or endoplasmic reticulum stress through its molecular chaperone and thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase activities. Here, the authors present recent evidence suggesting that NO contributes to degenerative conditions by S-nitrosylating PDI (forming SNO-PDI) and the ubiquitin protein ligase, parkin (forming SNO-parkin). Moreover, it is demonstrated for the first time that inhibition of excessive NMDA receptor activity by memantine, via a mechanism of uncompetitive open-channel block with a relatively rapid off-rate, can ameliorate excessive production of NO, protein misfolding, and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Nakamura
- Center for Neuroscience and Aging, Burnham Institute for Medical Research, La Jolla, California 92039, USA
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136
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Parkinson's disease is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative disorder and is characterized clinically by classical parkinsonism and pathologically by selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and Lewy bodies. Although for most classical parkinsonism the etiology is unknown, a clear genetic component has been determined in a minority. Mutations in five causative genes combined [alpha-Synuclein (SNCA), Parkin, PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1), DJ-1, Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2)] account for 2-3% of all cases with classical parkinsonism, often clinically indistinguishable from idiopathic Parkinson's disease. RECENT FINDINGS The functional role of PINK1 and LRRK2 as kinases has been clearly established. Further, mutations in the ATP13A2 gene have been linked to Kufor-Rakeb syndrome (PARK9), a form of atypical parkinsonism. ATP13A2 encodes a lysosomal ATPase and shows elevated expression levels in the brains of sporadic patients, suggesting a potential role in the more common idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Finally, first promising pilot studies have been performed to identify differentially expressed genes and proteins as biomarkers for parkinsonism. SUMMARY The identification of single genes and their functional characterization has enhanced our understanding of the pathogenesis of parkinsonism, has led to improvement of diagnostic tools for genetic parkinsonism, and allows for the purposeful consideration of novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Klein
- Departments of Neurology and Human Genetics, Lübeck University, Lübeck, Germany.
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137
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LaVoie MJ, Cortese GP, Ostaszewski BL, Schlossmacher MG. The effects of oxidative stress on parkin and other E3 ligases. J Neurochem 2007; 103:2354-68. [PMID: 17883392 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04911.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Autosomal recessive mutations within the Parkin gene are associated with degeneration of the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus and an inherited form of Parkinson's disease (PD). As loss-of-function mutations in parkin are responsible for a familial variant of PD, conditions that affect wild-type parkin are likely to be associated with increased risk of idiopathic disease. Previous studies uncovered a unique vulnerability of the parkin protein to dopamine (DA)-induced aggregation and inactivation. In this study, we compared several proteins that share structural elements or ubiquitinating activity with parkin. We report that oxidative stress in several cell lines and primary neurons induces the aggregation of parkin into high molecular weight species, at least a portion of which are self-associated homo-multimers. While parkin was preferentially affected by excess DA, each of the E3 proteins tested were made more insoluble by oxidative stress, and they varied in degree of susceptibility (e.g. parkin > HHARI congruent with CHIP > c-Cbl > E6AP). These conditions of oxidative stress were also associated with decreased parkin E3 ligase activity. Similar to recently conducted studies on alpha-synuclein processing, both macroautophagy and the proteasome participate in parkin degradation, with the proteasome playing the predominant role for normal parkin turnover and macroautophagy being more important in the degradation of aggregated parkin. These data further highlight the selective vulnerability of parkin to DA-induced modifications, demonstrating for the first time the ability of both endogenous and ectopically expressed parkin to transition into an insoluble state in part through self-association and oligomer formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J LaVoie
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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138
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Winklhofer KF. The parkin protein as a therapeutic target in Parkinson's disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007; 11:1543-52. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.11.12.1543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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139
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Wang C, Lu R, Ouyang X, Ho MWL, Chia W, Yu F, Lim KL. Drosophila overexpressing parkin R275W mutant exhibits dopaminergic neuron degeneration and mitochondrial abnormalities. J Neurosci 2007; 27:8563-70. [PMID: 17687034 PMCID: PMC6672933 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0218-07.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2006] [Revised: 06/26/2007] [Accepted: 06/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene are a predominant cause of familial parkinsonism. Although initially described as a recessive disorder, emerging evidence suggest that single parkin mutations alone may confer increased susceptibility to Parkinson's disease. To better understand the effects of parkin mutations in vivo, we generated transgenic Drosophila overexpressing two human parkin missense mutants, R275W and G328E. Transgenic flies that overexpress R275W, but not wild-type or G328E, human parkin display an age-dependent degeneration of specific dopaminergic neuronal clusters and concomitant locomotor deficits that accelerate with age or in response to rotenone treatment. Furthermore, R275W mutant flies also exhibit prominent mitochondrial abnormalities in their flight muscles. Interestingly, these defects caused by the expression of human R275W parkin are highly similar to those triggered by the loss of endogenous parkin in parkin null flies. Together, our results provide the first in vivo evidence demonstrating that parkin R275W mutant expression mediates pathogenic outcomes and suggest the interesting possibility that select parkin mutations may directly exert neurotoxicity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Wang
- Neurodegeneration Research Laboratory and
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory and
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604
| | - Ruifeng Lu
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory and
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604
| | | | | | - William Chia
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory and
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604
| | - Fengwei Yu
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory and
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604
| | - Kah-Leong Lim
- Neurodegeneration Research Laboratory and
- Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Center, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, and
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604
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140
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Kyratzi E, Pavlaki M, Kontostavlaki D, Rideout HJ, Stefanis L. Differential effects of Parkin and its mutants on protein aggregation, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and neuronal cell death in human neuroblastoma cells. J Neurochem 2007; 102:1292-303. [PMID: 17472700 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04620.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in Parkin, an E3 ligase, which participates in the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), cause juvenile onset Parkinson's disease (PD). Some mutants aggregate upon over-expression, but the effects of such aggregation on the UPS and neuronal survival have not been characterized. We show in this study that transient over-expression of wild type (WT) Parkin or various mutants in human neuroblastoma cells leads to localized accumulation of green fluorescent protein (GFP(u)), an artificial proteasomal substrate, indicative of UPS dysfunction. Parkin mutants, but not WT, aggregated, and GFP(u) and ubiquitin accumulated within such aggregates. Apoptotic death occurred only with mutant Parkin over-expression, and correlated with aggregation, but not GFP(u) accumulation. Enzymatic proteasomal activity was slightly increased with WT Parkin and decreased with mutant Parkin over-expression. This decrease was, at least in part, due to caspase activation. We conclude that mutant forms of Parkin can exert toxic effects on neuronal cells, possibly through their propensity to aggregate. Both WT and mutant forms can induce localized UPS dysfunction, likely through different mechanisms. This raises a note of caution regarding forced over-expression of Parkin as a neuroprotective strategy in PD or other neurodegenerative conditions and suggests a possible toxic gain of function for certain mutant forms of Parkin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Kyratzi
- Division of Basic Neurosciences, Foundation for Biomedical Research of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
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141
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Pellecchia MT, Varrone A, Annesi G, Amboni M, Cicarelli G, Sansone V, Annesi F, Rocca FE, Vitale C, Pappatà S, Quattrone A, Barone P. Parkinsonism and essential tremor in a family with pseudo-dominant inheritance of PARK2: an FP-CIT SPECT study. Mov Disord 2007; 22:559-63. [PMID: 17149727 DOI: 10.1002/mds.21262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a family with 5 affected individuals manifesting either essential tremor (ET), Parkinsonism, or both, consistent with pseudo-dominant inheritance of PARK2. Two homozygotes presented postural and kinetic tremor several years before the onset of Parkinsonism. Postural and kinetic tremor mimicking ET was the only feature in 1 homozygous and 2 heterozygous carriers of the mutation. Striatal dopamine transporter density was reduced in accordance with phenotype and number of mutated alleles. In 3 homozygotes and 1 heterozygote, a 2-year follow-up single photon emission computed tomography suggested no progression of nigrostriatal deficit.
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142
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Beasley SA, Hristova VA, Shaw GS. Structure of the Parkin in-between-ring domain provides insights for E3-ligase dysfunction in autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:3095-100. [PMID: 17360614 PMCID: PMC1805599 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0610548104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in Parkin are one of the predominant hereditary factors found in patients suffering from autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism. Parkin is a member of the E3 ubiquitin ligase family that is defined by a tripartite RING1-in-between-ring (IBR)-RING2 motif. In Parkin, the IBR domain has been shown to augment binding of the E2 proteins UbcH7 and UbcH8, and the subsequent ubiquitination of the proteins synphilin-1, Sept5, and SIM2. To facilitate our understanding of Parkin function, the solution structure of the Parkin IBR domain was solved by using NMR spectroscopy. Folding of the IBR domain (residues M327-S378) was found to be zinc dependent, and the structure reveals the domain forms a unique pair scissor-like and GAG knuckle-like zinc-binding sites, different from other zinc-binding motifs such as the RING, LIM, PHD, or B-box motifs. The N terminus of the IBR domain, residues E307-E322, is unstructured. The disease causing mutation T351P causes global unfolding, whereas the mutation R334C causes some structural rearrangement of the domain. In contrast, the protein containing the mutation G328E appears to be properly folded. The structure of the Parkin IBR domain, in combination with mutational data, allows a model to be proposed where the IBR domain facilitates a close arrangement of the adjacent RING1 and RING2 domains to facilitate protein interactions and subsequent ubiquitination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven A. Beasley
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A 5C1
| | | | - Gary S. Shaw
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A 5C1
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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143
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Yi JJ, Ehlers MD. Emerging roles for ubiquitin and protein degradation in neuronal function. Pharmacol Rev 2007; 59:14-39. [PMID: 17329546 DOI: 10.1124/pr.59.1.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in cellular structure and synapse composition are central to proper nervous system function. Recent work has identified the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) as a key regulator of neuronal biology. The UPS is essential for the growth and development of immature neurons and is a critical mediator of synaptic adaptability in mature neurons. Furthermore, proteinaceous deposits that accumulate in diverse neurodegenerative disorders are enriched in components of the UPS, suggesting that UPS dysfunction may be pivotal for pathogenesis. Here, we summarize existing knowledge about the role of the UPS in brain function, highlighting recent work delineating its importance in neuronal development, plasticity, and degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason J Yi
- Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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144
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Corti O, Brice A. Of Parkin and Parkinson's: light and dark sides of a multifaceted E3 ubiquitin–protein ligase. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ddmec.2007.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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145
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Nakamura T, Lipton SA. S-Nitrosylation and uncompetitive/fast off-rate (UFO) drug therapy in neurodegenerative disorders of protein misfolding. Cell Death Differ 2007; 14:1305-14. [PMID: 17431424 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4402138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although activation of glutamate receptors is essential for normal brain function, excessive activity leads to a form of neurotoxicity known as excitotoxicity. Key mediators of excitotoxic damage include overactivation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, resulting in excessive Ca(2+) influx with production of free radicals and other injurious pathways. Overproduction of free radical nitric oxide (NO) contributes to acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. NO can react with cysteine thiol groups to form S-nitrosothiols and thus change protein function. S-nitrosylation can result in neuroprotective or neurodestructive consequences depending on the protein involved. Many neurodegenerative diseases manifest conformational changes in proteins that result in misfolding and aggregation. Our recent studies have linked nitrosative stress to protein misfolding and neuronal cell death. Molecular chaperones - such as protein-disulfide isomerase, glucose-regulated protein 78, and heat-shock proteins - can provide neuroprotection by facilitating proper protein folding. Here, we review the effect of S-nitrosylation on protein function under excitotoxic conditions, and present evidence that NO contributes to degenerative conditions by S-nitrosylating-specific chaperones that would otherwise prevent accumulation of misfolded proteins and neuronal cell death. In contrast, we also review therapeutics that can abrogate excitotoxic damage by preventing excessive NMDA receptor activity, in part via S-nitrosylation of this receptor to curtail excessive activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nakamura
- Center for Neuroscience and Aging, Burnham Institute for Medical Research, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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146
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Avraham E, Rott R, Liani E, Szargel R, Engelender S. Phosphorylation of Parkin by the Cyclin-dependent Kinase 5 at the Linker Region Modulates Its Ubiquitin-Ligase Activity and Aggregation. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:12842-50. [PMID: 17327227 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m608243200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in Parkin are responsible for a large percentage of autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism cases. Parkin displays ubiquitin-ligase activity and protects against cell death promoted by several insults. Therefore, regulation of Parkin activities is important for understanding the dopaminergic cell death observed in Parkinson disease. We now report that cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) phosphorylates Parkin both in vitro and in vivo. We found that highly specific Cdk5 inhibitors and a dominant negative Cdk5 construct inhibited Parkin phosphorylation, suggesting that a significant portion of Parkin is phosphorylated by Cdk5. Parkin interacts with Cdk5 as observed by co-immunoprecipitation experiments of transfected cells and rat brains. Phosphorylation by Cdk5 decreased the auto-ubiquitylation of Parkin both in vitro and in vivo. We identified Ser-131 located at the linker region of Parkin as the major Cdk5 phosphorylation site. The Cdk5 phosphorylation-deficient S131A Parkin mutant displayed a higher auto-ubiquitylation level and increased ubiquitylation activity toward its substrates synphilin-1 and p38. Additionally, the S131A Parkin mutant more significantly accumulated into inclusions in human dopaminergic cells when compared with the wild-type Parkin. Furthermore, S131A Parkin mutant increased the formation of synphilin-1/alpha-synuclein inclusions, suggesting that the levels of Parkin phosphorylation and ubiquitylation may modulate the formation of inclusion bodies relevant to the disease. The data indicate that Cdk5 is a new regulator of the Parkin ubiquitin-ligase activity and modulates its ability to accumulate into and modify inclusions. Phosphorylation by Cdk5 may contribute to the accumulation of toxic Parkin substrates and decrease the ability of dopaminergic cells to cope with toxic insults in Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Avraham
- Department of Pharmacology, The B. Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Institute of Medical Research, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 31096, Israel
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147
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Sang TK, Chang HY, Lawless GM, Ratnaparkhi A, Mee L, Ackerson LC, Maidment NT, Krantz DE, Jackson GR. A Drosophila model of mutant human parkin-induced toxicity demonstrates selective loss of dopaminergic neurons and dependence on cellular dopamine. J Neurosci 2007; 27:981-92. [PMID: 17267552 PMCID: PMC6673194 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4810-06.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in human parkin have been identified in familial Parkinson's disease and in some sporadic cases. Here, we report that expression of mutant but not wild-type human parkin in Drosophila causes age-dependent, selective degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons accompanied by a progressive motor impairment. Overexpression or knockdown of the Drosophila vesicular monoamine transporter, which regulates cytosolic DA homeostasis, partially rescues or exacerbates, respectively, the degenerative phenotypes caused by mutant human parkin. These results support a model in which the vulnerability of DA neurons to parkin-induced neurotoxicity results from the interaction of mutant parkin with cytoplasmic dopamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Kang Sang
- Neurogenetics and Movement Disorders Programs, Department of Neurology, and
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, Republic of China, and
| | | | - George M. Lawless
- Neurogenetics and Movement Disorders Programs, Department of Neurology, and
| | | | - Lisa Mee
- Neurogenetics and Movement Disorders Programs, Department of Neurology, and
| | | | - Nigel T. Maidment
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences
- Brain Research Institute
- Hatos Center for Neuropharmacology, and
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - David E. Krantz
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences
- Brain Research Institute
- Hatos Center for Neuropharmacology, and
| | - George R. Jackson
- Neurogenetics and Movement Disorders Programs, Department of Neurology, and
- Brain Research Institute
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
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148
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Henn IH, Bouman L, Schlehe JS, Schlierf A, Schramm JE, Wegener E, Nakaso K, Culmsee C, Berninger B, Krappmann D, Tatzelt J, Winklhofer KF. Parkin mediates neuroprotection through activation of IkappaB kinase/nuclear factor-kappaB signaling. J Neurosci 2007; 27:1868-78. [PMID: 17314283 PMCID: PMC6673568 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5537-06.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2006] [Revised: 01/11/2007] [Accepted: 01/11/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene are a major cause of autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease. Here we show that the E3 ubiquitin ligase parkin activates signaling through the IkappaB kinase (IKK)/nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) pathway. Our analysis revealed that activation of this signaling cascade is causally linked to the neuroprotective potential of parkin. Inhibition of NF-kappaB activation by an IkappaB super-repressor or a kinase-inactive IKKbeta interferes with the neuroprotective activity of parkin. Furthermore, pathogenic parkin mutants with an impaired neuroprotective capacity show a reduced ability to stimulate NF-kappaB-dependent transcription. Finally, we present evidence that parkin interacts with and promotes degradation-independent ubiquitylation of IKKgamma/NEMO (NF-kappaB essential modifier) and TRAF2 [TNF (tumor necrosis factor) receptor-associated factor 2], two critical components of the NF-kappaB pathway. Thus, our results support a direct link between the neuroprotective activity of parkin and ubiquitin signaling in the IKK/NF-kappaB pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris H. Henn
- Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, D-80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Lena Bouman
- Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, D-80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Julia S. Schlehe
- Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, D-80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Anita Schlierf
- Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, D-80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Julia E. Schramm
- Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, D-80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Elmar Wegener
- Gesellschaft für Strahlenforschung–Research Center for Environment and Health, Institute of Toxicology, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany, and
| | - Kazuhiro Nakaso
- Institute of Neurological Sciences, Department of Neurology, Tottori University, Yonago, Tottori 683-8504, Japan
| | - Carsten Culmsee
- Departments of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Biology-Biotechnology, and
| | - Benedikt Berninger
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, D-80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Daniel Krappmann
- Gesellschaft für Strahlenforschung–Research Center for Environment and Health, Institute of Toxicology, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany, and
| | - Jörg Tatzelt
- Department of Biochemistry, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, D-80336 Munich, Germany
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149
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Thomas B, von Coelln R, Mandir AS, Trinkaus DB, Farah MH, Lim KL, Calingasan NY, Beal MF, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. MPTP and DSP-4 susceptibility of substantia nigra and locus coeruleus catecholaminergic neurons in mice is independent of parkin activity. Neurobiol Dis 2007; 26:312-22. [PMID: 17336077 PMCID: PMC1920708 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2006] [Revised: 12/08/2006] [Accepted: 12/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive familial Parkinson's disease (PD). Parkin-deficient mouse models fail to recapitulate nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration as seen in PD, but produce deficits in dopaminergic neurotransmission and noradrenergic-dependent behavior. Since sporadic PD is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic susceptibilities and environmental factors, we hypothesized that neurotoxic insults from catecholaminergic toxins would render parkin knockout mice more vulnerable to neurodegeneration. Accordingly, we investigated the susceptibility of catecholaminergic neurons in parkin knockout mice to the potent dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurotoxins 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP-4) respectively. We report that nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in parkin knockout mice do not show increased susceptibility to the parkinsonian neurotoxin, MPTP, in acute, subacute and chronic dose regimens of the neurotoxin. Additionally, parkin knockout mice do not show increased vulnerability to the noradrenergic neurotoxin, DSP-4, regarding levels of norepinephrine in cortex, brain stem and spinal cord. These findings suggest that absence of parkin in mice does not increase susceptibility to the loss of catecholaminergic neurons upon exposure to both dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobby Thomas
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 525 East 68th Street, A-501, New York, NY-10021, USA
| | - Rainer von Coelln
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Allen S. Mandir
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Daniel B. Trinkaus
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Mohamed H. Farah
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Kah Leong Lim
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Noel Y. Calingasan
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 525 East 68th Street, A-501, New York, NY-10021, USA
| | - M. Flint Beal
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 525 East 68th Street, A-501, New York, NY-10021, USA
| | - Valina L. Dawson
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Ted M. Dawson
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
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150
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Lipton SA, Gu Z, Nakamura T. Inflammatory mediators leading to protein misfolding and uncompetitive/fast off-rate drug therapy for neurodegenerative disorders. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2007; 82:1-27. [PMID: 17678953 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(07)82001-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory mediators, including free radicals such as nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), can contribute to neurodegenerative diseases in part by triggering protein misfolding. In this chapter, we will discuss a newly discovered pathway for this phenomenon and possible novel treatments. Excitotoxicity, defined as overstimulation of glutamate receptors, has been implicated in a final common pathway contributing to neuronal injury and death in a wide range of acute and chronic neurological disorders, ranging from Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease (AD) to stroke and trauma. Excitotoxic cell death is due, at least in part, to excessive activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors, leading to excessive Ca(2+) influx through the receptor's associated ion channel and subsequent free radical production, including NO and ROS. These free radicals can trigger a variety of injurious pathways, but newly discovered evidence suggests that some proteins are S-nitrosylated (transfer of NO to a critical thiol group), and this reaction can mimic the effect of rare genetic mutations. This posttranslational modification can contribute to protein misfolding, triggering neurodegenerative diseases. One such molecule affected is protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), an enzyme responsible for normal protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). We found that when PDI is S-nitrosylation (forming SNO-PDI), the function of the enzyme is compromised, leading to misfolded proteins and contributing to neuronal cell injury and loss. Moreover, SNO-PDI occurs at pathological levels in several human diseases, including AD and PD. This discovery thus links protein misfolding to excitotoxicity and free radical formation in a number of neurodegenerative disorders. Another molecule whose S-nitrosylation can lead to abnormal protein accumulation is the E3 ubiquitin ligase, parkin, which contributes to the pathogenesis of PD. One way to ameliorate excessive NO production and hence abnormal S-nitrosylations would be to inhibit NMDA receptors. In fact, blockade of excessive NMDA receptor activity can in large measure protect neurons from this type of injury and death. However, inhibition of the NMDA receptor by high-affinity antagonists also blocks the receptor's normal function in synaptic transmission and leads to unacceptable side effects. For this reason, many NMDA receptor antagonists have disappointingly failed in advanced clinical trials. Our group was the first to demonstrate that gentle blockade of NMDA receptors by memantine, via a mechanism of uncompetitive open-channel block with a rapid "off-rate," can prevent this type of damage in a clinically efficacious manner without substantial side effects. For these Uncompetitive/Fast Off-rate therapeutics, we use the term "UFO drugs" because like Unidentified Flying Objects, they leave very quickly as soon as their job is finished. As a result, memantine blocks excessive NMDA receptor activity without disrupting normal activity. Memantine does this by preferentially entering the receptor-associated ion channel when it is excessively open, and, most importantly, when its off-rate from the channel is relatively fast so that it does not accumulate to interfere with normal synaptic transmission. Hence, memantine is clinically well tolerated, has been used in Europe for PD for many years, and recently passed multiple phase III trials for dementia, leading to its approval by the FDA and European Union for moderate-to-severe AD. Clinical studies of memantine for additional neurological disorders, including other dementias, neuropathic pain, and glaucoma, are underway. We have also developed a series of second-generation drugs that display greater neuroprotective properties than memantine. These second-generation drugs take advantage of the fact that the NMDA receptor has other modulatory sites, including critical thiol groups that are S-nitrosylated. In this case, in contrast to PDI or parkin, S-nitrosylation proves to be neuroprotective by decreasing excessive NMDA receptor activity. Targeted S-nitrosylation of the NMDA receptor can be achieved by coupling NO to memantine, yielding second-generation "UFO drugs" known as NitroMemantines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart A Lipton
- Neuroscience and Aging Center, Burnham Institute for Medical Research, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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