101
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Abstract
Synovial inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and other arthritides is, in part, dependent on migration of inflammatory cells as well as retention of these cells at the site of inflammation. Chemokines play a critical role in these processes and represent an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. Animal models of RA have shown that it is possible to induce clinical improvement by specifically targeting chemokines or their receptors. Although at present only very limited data exist, initial data suggest that it may be possible to reduce synovial inflammation in patients with RA by specific chemokine blockade. Innovative trial design may help to screen for potentially interesting chemokine antagonists in an early stage of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul P Tak
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology F4-218, Academic Medical Centre/University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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102
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Zollner TM, Asadullah K, Schön MP. Targeting leukocyte trafficking to inflamed skin - still an attractive therapeutic approach? Exp Dermatol 2007; 16:1-12. [PMID: 17181631 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2006.00503.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Research into leukocyte trafficking and its therapeutic exploitation appears to be a multistep process, just like the trafficking cascade itself. The initial euphoria evoked by an early understanding of the trafficking steps was followed by considerable disappointment following the clinical failure of the first selectin antagonist Cylexin (CY-1503), a sialyl Lewis(X) mimetic. The research area recovered and identified additional attractive pharmacological targets such as chemokine receptors and integrins. However, after lack of efficacy in anti-chemokine trials and the fatalities associated with anti VLA-4 therapy (Tysabri), the question arose again whether targeting leukocyte trafficking is really promising or whether such a complex, multistep process with many redundant and/or functionally overlapping molecules is simply too challenging to deal with. In this article, we delineate some pros and cons of this approach followed by a brief update on where we stand in the field and where we might move in the future.
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103
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Kinne RW, Stuhlmüller B, Burmester GR. Cells of the synovium in rheumatoid arthritis. Macrophages. Arthritis Res Ther 2007; 9:224. [PMID: 18177511 PMCID: PMC2246244 DOI: 10.1186/ar2333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 226] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The multitude and abundance of macrophage-derived mediators in rheumatoid arthritis and their paracrine/autocrine effects identify macrophages as local and systemic amplifiers of disease. Although uncovering the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis remains the ultimate means to silence the pathogenetic process, efforts in understanding how activated macrophages influence disease have led to optimization strategies to selectively target macrophages by agents tailored to specific features of macrophage activation. This approach has two advantages: (a) striking the cell population that mediates/amplifies most of the irreversible tissue destruction and (b) sparing other cells that have no (or only marginal) effects on joint damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raimund W Kinne
- Experimental Rheumatology Unit, Department of Orthopedics, University Clinic, Jena, Klosterlausnitzer Str. 81, D-07607 Eisenberg, Germany
| | - Bruno Stuhlmüller
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Charité University Hospital, Humboldt University of Berlin, Tucholskystr. 2, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerd-R Burmester
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Charité University Hospital, Humboldt University of Berlin, Tucholskystr. 2, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
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104
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Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, systemic inflammatory disease that causes significant morbidity and mortality. The pathogenesis outlined to date in RA consists of a cascade of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines leading to the recruitment of inflammatory cells and the self perpetuation of inflammation, ultimately leading to cartilage and bone destruction. The dramatic progress in understanding the molecular immunology in RA has led to a transition from conventional treatment with aggressive immune suppression to targeted biological-based therapies that control the inflammatory pathways associated with RA. This article reviews the current biological and small-molecule therapies approved for the treatment of RA and those in development, including antibodies, tolerising agents and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana H Tremoulet
- University of California, Department of Pediatrics, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0731, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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105
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Amat M, Benjamim CF, Williams LM, Prats N, Terricabras E, Beleta J, Kunkel SL, Godessart N. Pharmacological blockade of CCR1 ameliorates murine arthritis and alters cytokine networks in vivo. Br J Pharmacol 2006; 149:666-75. [PMID: 17016504 PMCID: PMC2014657 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The chemokine receptor CCR1 is a potential target for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. To explore the impact of CCR1 blockade in experimental arthritis and the underlying mechanisms, we used J-113863, a non-peptide antagonist of the mouse receptor. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Compound J-113863 was tested in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and three models of acute inflammation; Staphylococcus enterotoxin B (SEB)-induced interleukin-2 (IL-2), delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced tumour necrosis factoralpha (TNFalpha) production. In the LPS model, CCR1 knockout, adrenalectomised, or IL-10-depleted mice were also used. Production of TNFalpha by mouse macrophages and human synovial membrane samples in vitro were also studied. KEY RESULTS Treatment of arthritic mice with J-113863 improved paw inflammation and joint damage, and dramatically decreased cell infiltration into joints. The compound did not inhibit IL-2 or DTH, but reduced plasma TNFalpha levels in LPS-treated mice. Surprisingly, CCR1 knockout mice produced more TNFalpha than controls in response to LPS, and J-113863 decreased TNFalpha also in CCR1 null mice, indicating that its effect was unrelated to CCR1. Adrenalectomy or neutralisation of IL-10 did not prevent inhibition of TNFalpha production by J-113863. The compound did not inhibit mouse TNFalpha in vitro, but did induce a trend towards increased TNFalpha release in cells from synovial membranes of rheumatoid arthritis patients. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS CCR1 blockade improves the development of CIA, probably via inhibition of inflammatory cell recruitment. However, results from both CCR1-deficient mice and human synovial membranes suggest that, in some experimental settings, blocking CCR1 could enhance TNF production.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Amat
- Department of Biology, Drug Discovery, Almirall Research Center, Sant Feliu de Llobregat Barcelona, Spain
| | - C F Benjamim
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - L M Williams
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology Division, Imperial College London London, UK
| | - N Prats
- Department of Biology, Drug Discovery, Almirall Research Center, Sant Feliu de Llobregat Barcelona, Spain
| | - E Terricabras
- Department of Biology, Drug Discovery, Almirall Research Center, Sant Feliu de Llobregat Barcelona, Spain
| | - J Beleta
- Department of Biology, Drug Discovery, Almirall Research Center, Sant Feliu de Llobregat Barcelona, Spain
| | - S L Kunkel
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - N Godessart
- Department of Biology, Drug Discovery, Almirall Research Center, Sant Feliu de Llobregat Barcelona, Spain
- Author for correspondence:
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106
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van Lieshout AWT, van der Voort R, le Blanc LMP, Roelofs MF, Schreurs BW, van Riel PLCM, Adema GJ, Radstake TRDJ. Novel insights in the regulation of CCL18 secretion by monocytes and dendritic cells via cytokines, toll-like receptors and rheumatoid synovial fluid. BMC Immunol 2006; 7:23. [PMID: 16984635 PMCID: PMC1590050 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-7-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2006] [Accepted: 09/19/2006] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The T cell attracting chemokine CCL18 is produced by antigen presenting cells and a role for CCL18 has been suggested in the pathogenesis of a variety of diseases. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is one of these conditions, in which abundant CCL18 production is present. Although Th2 cytokines and IL-10 are known to have an effect on CCL18 production, there are several gaps in our knowledge regarding the exact regulation of CCL18 secretion, both in general and in RA. In this study we provide new insights in the regulation of CCL18 secretion by monocytes and dendritic cells. RESULTS In contrast to a large panel of pro-inflammatory stimuli (IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, IL-10, IL-13, IL-15, IL-17, IL-18, IFN-gamma), T cell mimicking molecules (RANKL, CD40L) or TLR driven maturation, the anti-inflammatory IL-10 strongly stimulated DC to secrete CCL18. On freshly isolated monocytes, CCL18 secretion was induced by IL-4 and IL-13, in strong synergy with IL-10. This synergistic effect could already be observed after only 24 hours, indicating that not only macrophages and dendritic cells, but also monocytes secrete CCL18 under these stimulatory conditions. A high CCL18 expression was detected in RA synovial tissue and incubation of monocytes with synovial fluid from RA patients clearly enhanced the effects of IL-4, IL-13 and IL-10. Surprisingly, the effect of synovial fluid was not driven by IL-10 of IL-13, suggesting the presence of another CCL18 inducing factor in synovial fluid. CONCLUSION In summary, IL-10 synergistically induces CCL18 secretion in combination with IL-4 of IL-13 on monocytes and monocyte derived cells. The effects of IL-14, IL-13 and IL-10 are strongly enhanced by synovial fluid. This synergy may contribute to the high CCL18 expression in RA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robbert van der Voort
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
- Department of Hematology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - Linda MP le Blanc
- Department of Rheumatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - Mieke F Roelofs
- Department of Rheumatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - B Willem Schreurs
- Department of Orthopedics, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - Piet LCM van Riel
- Department of Rheumatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - Gosse J Adema
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - Timothy RDJ Radstake
- Department of Rheumatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
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107
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Abstract
Studies of two antibodies, efalizumab and natalizumab, have recently demonstrated that the blockade of leukocyte migration is of therapeutic benefit for the treatment of diseases such as psoriasis and multiple sclerosis. The role of chemokines in the control of cell traffic led to their receptors being considered one of the most promising family of targets aimed at disrupting cell recruitment in chronic inflammatory processes. Choosing the appropriate chemokine receptor for each disease was not easy, and the interpretation of target validation studies proved to be extremely difficult. Despite an intense effort in the search for chemokine receptor antagonists in the last decade, no compounds in advanced clinical trials exist as such. The inherent complexity of the family, the differences between the chemokine system in mice and men, and the species selectivity of small-molecule compounds could account for this fact. Pharmaceutical companies still believe in chemokine receptors as therapeutic targets, as demonstrated by the number of compounds reported to be in development. In the next years, the developmental progression of these compounds will reveal which target within the chemokine family is of real therapeutic value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Godessart
- Department of Biology, Almirall Research Center, Cardener 68-74, 08024 Barcelona, Spain.
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108
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Miller AL, Gerard C, Schaller M, Gruber AD, Humbles AA, Lukacs NW. Deletion of CCR1 attenuates pathophysiologic responses during respiratory syncytial virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:2562-7. [PMID: 16456018 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.4.2562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The role of chemokines in chronic inflammatory responses are central to the recruitment of particular subsets of leukocytes. In the present studies, we have examined the role of CCR1 in the developing pathogenesis of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in the lungs of infected BALB/c mice. Although we did not observe significant differences in clearance of RSV, we were able to identify decreased pathophysiologic responses in CCR1(-/-) mice. CCR1(-/-) mice displayed a significant reduction in both airway hyperresponsiveness and mucus production that corresponded to significant increases in IFN-gamma and CXCL10. The goblet cell hyper/metaplasia and the expression of mucus-associated gene, gob5, were correspondingly reduced in the CCR1(-/-) mice. In addition, the Western blot analysis of gob5 protein indicated that CCR1(-/-) mice have virtually no up-regulation of the protein at day 6 of infection compared with wild-type-infected mice. Results from bone marrow chimeric mice indicated that partial reconstitution of the response could be achieved in the CCR1(-/-) mice with wild-type bone marrow cells, suggesting that these cells have a role in the response. However, transplanting of CCR1(-/-) bone marrow into wild-type mice did demonstrate an incomplete deficit in RSV-induced responses, indicating that CCR1(+) parenchymal cells may also play a significant role in the process. Thus, the presence of CCR1 appears to have a significant role in the development of detrimental airway physiologic responses during RSV infection. These data suggest that CCR1 may be a potential target during detrimental pulmonary responses during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison L Miller
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, 48109, USA
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109
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Pablos Álvarez JL. [Not Available]. REUMATOLOGIA CLINICA 2006; 2 Suppl 2:S9-S12. [PMID: 21794378 DOI: 10.1016/s1699-258x(06)73086-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
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110
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Pharoah DS, Varsani H, Tatham RW, Newton KR, de Jager W, Prakken BJ, Klein N, Wedderburn LR. Expression of the inflammatory chemokines CCL5, CCL3 and CXCL10 in juvenile idiopathic arthritis, and demonstration of CCL5 production by an atypical subset of CD8+ T cells. Arthritis Res Ther 2006; 8:R50. [PMID: 16507178 PMCID: PMC1526593 DOI: 10.1186/ar1913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2005] [Revised: 01/16/2006] [Accepted: 02/06/2006] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
This study focuses upon three chemokines, namely CCL5, CXCL10 and CCL3, which are potential novel therapeutic targets in arthritis. The aim of the study was to analyse the expression and production of these three chemokines within the joints of children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) of the oligoarticular and polyarticular subtypes. All three of these chemokines are highly expressed at the level of mRNA, with the most significant increase in mRNA levels being demonstrated for CCL5 when compared with matched peripheral blood samples and controls. We show that high levels of all three chemokines are present in synovial fluid of children with JIA. We investigate the major source of CCL5 from inflammatory synovial cells, which we show to be CD8+ T cells. This CD8+ synovial T cell population has an unexpected phenotype that has not been described previously, being CCR7- yet predominantly CD28+ and CD45RA-. These cells contain high levels of stored intracellular CCL5, and rapid release of CCL5 takes place on T cell stimulation, without requiring new protein synthesis. In addition, we demonstrate that CCL5 is present in synovial biopsies from these patients, in particular on the endothelium of small and medium sized vessels. We believe this to be the first in depth analysis of these mediators of inflammation in JIA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hemlata Varsani
- Rheumatology Unit, Institute of Child Health, UCL, London, UK
| | | | - Katy R Newton
- Rheumatology Unit, Institute of Child Health, UCL, London, UK
| | - Wilco de Jager
- Department of Paediatric Immunology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Centre, Utrecht
| | - Berent J Prakken
- Department of Paediatric Immunology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Centre, Utrecht
| | - Nigel Klein
- Microbiology/Infectious Disease Unit, Institute of Child Health, UCL, London, UK
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111
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Gladue RP, Cole SH, Roach ML, Tylaska LA, Nelson RT, Shepard RM, McNeish JD, Ogborne KT, Neote KS. The Human Specific CCR1 Antagonist CP-481,715 Inhibits Cell Infiltration and Inflammatory Responses in Human CCR1 Transgenic Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:3141-8. [PMID: 16493073 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.5.3141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We previously described the in vitro characteristics of the potent and selective CCR1 antagonist, CP-481,715. In addition to being selective for CCR1 vs other chemokine receptors, CP-481,715 is also specific for human CCR1 (hCCR1), preventing its evaluation in classical animal models. To address this, we generated mice whereby murine CCR1 was replaced by hCCR1 (knockin) and used these animals to assess the anti-inflammatory properties of CP-481,715. Cells isolated from hCCR1 knockin mice were shown to express hCCR1 and migrate in response to both murine CCR1 and hCCR1 ligands. Furthermore, this migration is inhibited by CP-481,715 at dose levels comparable to those obtained with human cells. In animal models of cell infiltration, CP-481,715 inhibited CCL3-induced neutrophil infiltration into skin or into an air pouch with an ED50 of 0.2 mg/kg. CP-481,715 did not inhibit cell infiltration in wild-type animals expressing murine CCR1. In a more generalized model of inflammation, delayed-type hypersensitivity, CP-481,715 significantly inhibited footpad swelling and decreased the amount of IFN-gamma and IL-2 produced by isolated spleen cells from sensitized animals. It did not, however, induce tolerance to a subsequent challenge. These studies illustrate the utility of hCCR1 knockin animals to assess the activity of human specific CCR1 antagonists; demonstrate the ability of the CCR1 antagonist CP-481,715 to inhibit cell infiltration, inflammation, and Th1 cytokine responses in these animals; and suggest that CP-481,715 may be useful to modulate inflammatory responses in human disease.
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MESH Headings
- Actins/metabolism
- Animals
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal/pharmacology
- Cell Migration Inhibition
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokine CCL3
- Chemokine CCL4
- Chemokines, CC/physiology
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/drug effects
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Humans
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/drug therapy
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/genetics
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/pathology
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/physiology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred DBA
- Mice, Transgenic
- Quinoxalines/pharmacology
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, Chemokine/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Stem Cells/immunology
- Stem Cells/pathology
- Th1 Cells/drug effects
- Th1 Cells/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald P Gladue
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, Department of Immunology, Groton, CT 06340, USA.
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112
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Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic disorder characterized predominately by a chronic inflammatory polyarthritis, with frequent progression to joint destruction and disability. Radiographic joint damage develops in as many as 75% of patients within the first 2 years of disease. For this reason, current RA treatment approaches have focused on early intensive therapy with multiple disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs. The approval of new drugs for this indication has expanded the number of therapeutic options that can potentially allow for tight control of the inflammatory process.
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113
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Humby F, Manzo A, Pitzalis C. Chemokines in arthritis: key molecules in pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.2217/17460816.1.1.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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114
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Abstract
Chemokines are small proteins that can act on cells that express matching receptors. They are best known for their role in migration of cells, especially immune cells. Chemokine/chemokine-receptor pairs are often functionally categorized into three groups: inflammatory, homeostatic, and angiogenic/angiostatic, although functions sometimes overlap. Interfering with the interaction between chemokines and their receptors is currently under investigation as a therapeutic strategy in rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa E Vergunst
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, F4-218, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, NL-1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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115
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Baeten D, Houbiers J, Kruithof E, Vandooren B, Van den Bosch F, Boots AM, Veys EM, Miltenburg AMM, De Keyser F. Synovial inflammation does not change in the absence of effective treatment: implications for the use of synovial histopathology as biomarker in early phase clinical trials in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2006; 65:990-7. [PMID: 16414969 PMCID: PMC1798244 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2005.047852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the impact on synovial histopathology of changes in clinical disease activity in the absence of effective treatment. METHODS Twelve patients with active RA not receiving effective treatment were studied over a 14 week period. Synovial biopsy specimens obtained at baseline and week 14 were analysed by histology and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Over the course of 14 weeks, there was a trend towards a decrease of the DAS28, with 7/12 patients being good or moderate DAS28 responders despite the absence of effective treatment. Patients' assessment of global disease activity and swollen joint count both decreased significantly. Histologically, there was a decrease of lining layer hyperplasia and lymphoid aggregates, a similar trend for vascularity, but there was no effect on global synovial infiltration. Accordingly, there was no decrease of the cellular infiltration with T lymphocytes (CD3, CD4, CD8), B lymphocytes (CD20), plasma cells (CD38), dendritic cells (CD1a, CD83), and even an increase of CD163+ sublining macrophages, with a similar trend for CD68+ sublining macrophages. The changes in DAS28 scores in these patients did not correlate with changes in histological variables, with the exception of an inverse correlation with plasma cells. Remarkably, even in the DAS28 responders, no significant changes in synovial inflammatory infiltration were noted. CONCLUSIONS Despite variations in global disease activity, synovial inflammatory infiltration did not change significantly in the absence of effective treatment. The lack of a placebo effect on synovial markers of treatment response such as sublining macrophages can facilitate conclusive early phase trials with small numbers of patients with RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Baeten
- Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Centre University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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116
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Haringman JJ, Gerlag DM, Smeets TJM, Baeten D, van den Bosch F, Bresnihan B, Breedveld FC, Dinant HJ, Legay F, Gram H, Loetscher P, Schmouder R, Woodworth T, Tak PP. A randomized controlled trial with an anti-CCL2 (anti–monocyte chemotactic protein 1) monoclonal antibody in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 54:2387-92. [PMID: 16869001 DOI: 10.1002/art.21975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Chemokines such as CCL2/monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) play a key role in leukocyte migration and are potential targets in the treatment of chronic inflammatory disorders. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of human anti-CCL2/MCP-1 monoclonal antibody (ABN912) treatment in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS Patients with active RA were enrolled in a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-escalation study of ABN912. Infusions were administered on day 1 and day 15. In the dose-escalation phase, 4 cohorts of 8 patients each underwent serial arthroscopic biopsy of synovial tissue. Immunohistochemistry and digital image analysis were used to characterize biomarkers in synovial tissue. Laboratory evaluation included pharmacokinetic analysis and immunotypic studies of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. To assess the clinical effects of treatment with ABN912, an additional 21 patients were treated with the highest dose tolerated. RESULTS The total study population comprised 45 patients: 33 patients received ABN912, and 12 patients received placebo. ABN912 treatment was well tolerated. Unexpectedly, there was a dose-related increase in ABN912-complexed total CCL2/MCP-1 levels in peripheral blood, up to 2,000-fold. There was no detectable clinical benefit of ABN912 compared with placebo, nor did treatment with the study drug result in a significant change in the levels of biomarkers in synovial tissue and peripheral blood. CONCLUSION ABN912 treatment did not result in clinical or immunohistologic improvement and may have been associated with worsening of RA in patients treated with the highest dose. The results might be related to the greatly increased level of total CCL2/MCP-1 in serum that was observed following treatment with ABN912. This observation may be relevant for a variety of antibody-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper J Haringman
- Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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117
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Smith MD, Baeten D, Ulfgren AK, McInnes IB, Fitzgerald O, Bresnihan B, Tak PP, Veale D. Standardisation of synovial tissue infiltrate analysis: how far have we come? How much further do we need to go? Ann Rheum Dis 2006; 65:93-100. [PMID: 15975970 PMCID: PMC1797968 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2005.036905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/29/2005] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Changes in cellular infiltrate and expression of cytokines, chemokines, and cell adhesion molecules as a result of therapeutic interventions in rheumatoid arthritis can be demonstrated in the synovial membrane. However, before synovial tissue analysis can be used as an outcome measure in such studies, standardisation of the site and method of synovial tissue acquisition, methods of tissue processing, and appropriate methods of detection and measurement of cell lineage specific markers and relevant biological proteins is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Smith
- Rheumatology Research Unit, Repatriation General Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia.
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118
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Ubogu EE, Cossoy MB, Ransohoff RM. The expression and function of chemokines involved in CNS inflammation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2006; 27:48-55. [PMID: 16310865 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2005.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2005] [Revised: 09/21/2005] [Accepted: 11/11/2005] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors have principal roles in leukocyte trafficking under normal physiological and pathological conditions. The differential expression of the chemokine system in different parts of the CNS provides insights into the processes that are required for normal immune surveillance and pathological immune-mediated effector processes. Insights derived from studying multiple sclerosis, an inflammatory disorder of the CNS in humans, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of this disorder, aid in further understanding the complexities of chemokine-mediated inflammation. Knowledge of the molecular biology of chemokines and their receptors, and the roles of specific chemokine ligands and receptors in the CNS in health and in disease have made these proteins targets for therapeutic intervention in neuroinflammation. We also discuss currently proposed and potentially useful chemokine receptor antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eroboghene E Ubogu
- Neuroinflammation Research Center, Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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119
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Abstract
Leukocyte infiltration into the joint space and tissues is an essential component of the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this review, we will summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms of leukocyte trafficking into the synovium, focusing on the role of adhesion molecules, chemokines, and chemokine receptors in synovial autoimmune inflammation. The process by which a circulating leukocyte decides to migrate into the synovium is highly regulated and involves the capture, firm adhesion, and transmigration of cells across the endothelial monolayer. Adhesion molecules and chemokine signals function in concert to mediate this process and to organize leukocytes into distinct structures within the synovium. Chemokines play a key regulatory role in organ-specific leukocyte trafficking and activation by affecting integrin activation, chemotaxis, effector cell function, and cell survival. Consequently, chemokines, their receptors, and downstream signal transduction molecules are attractive therapeutic targets for RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa K Tarrant
- Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Immunology, Thurston Arthritis Research Center, University of North Carolina, 3330 Thurston Bldg., CB#7280, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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120
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Dewin DR, Catusse J, Gompels UA. Identification and Characterization of U83A Viral Chemokine, a Broad and Potent β-Chemokine Agonist for Human CCRs with Unique Selectivity and Inhibition by Spliced Isoform. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 176:544-56. [PMID: 16365449 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.1.544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Leukotropic human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) establishes a persistent infection associated with inflammatory diseases and encodes chemokines that could chemoattract leukocytes for infection or inflammation. HHV-6 variant A encodes a distant chemokine homolog, U83A, and a polymorphism promoting a secreted form was identified. U83A and three N-terminal modifications were expressed and purified, and activities were compared with a spliced truncated isoform, U83A-Npep. U83A efficiently and potently induced calcium mobilization in cells expressing single human CCR1, CCR4, CCR6, or CCR8, with EC50 values <10 nM. U83A also induced chemotaxis of Th2-like leukemic cells expressing CCR4 and CCR8. High-affinity binding, 0.4 nM, was demonstrated to CCR1 and CCR5 on monocytic/macrophage cells, and pretreatment with U83A or modified forms could block responses for endogenous ligands. U83A-Npep acted only as antagonist, efficiently blocking binding of CCL3 to CCR1 or CCR5 on differentiated monocytic/macrophage leukemic cells. Furthermore, CCL3 induction of calcium signaling via CCR1 and CCL1 induced chemotaxis via CCR8 in primary human leukocytes was inhibited. Thus, this blocking by the early expressed U83A-Npep could mediate immune evasion before finishing the replicative cycle. However, late in infection, when full-length U83A is made, chemoattraction of CCR1-, CCR4-, CCR5-, CCR6-, and CCR8-bearing monocytic/macrophage, dendritic, and T lymphocyte cells can facilitate dissemination via lytic and latent infection of these cells. This has further implications for neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis, where both cells bearing CCR1/CCR5 plus their ligands, as well as HHV-6A, have been linked. Applications also discussed include novel vaccines/immunotherapeutics for cancer and HIV as well as anti-inflammatories.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Line
- Chemokines/genetics
- Chemokines/immunology
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte
- Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
- DNA, Recombinant
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
- Flow Cytometry
- Genes, Viral/genetics
- Genes, Viral/immunology
- Herpesvirus 6, Human/physiology
- Humans
- Image Processing, Computer-Assisted
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Protein Isoforms/genetics
- Protein Isoforms/immunology
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/metabolism
- Viral Proteins/genetics
- Viral Proteins/immunology
- Viral Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Dewin
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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121
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Revesz L, Bollbuck B, Buhl T, Eder J, Esser R, Feifel R, Heng R, Hiestand P, Jachez-Demange B, Loetscher P, Sparrer H, Schlapbach A, Waelchli R. Novel CCR1 antagonists with oral activity in the mouse collagen induced arthritis. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2005; 15:5160-4. [PMID: 16198561 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.08.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2005] [Revised: 08/16/2005] [Accepted: 08/22/2005] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cinnamides as novel CCR1 antagonist chemotypes are described with high affinity to human and rodent receptors. A1B1 and A4B7 showed oral activity in the mouse collagen induced arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laszlo Revesz
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Global Discovery Chemistry, Autoimmunity and Transplantation, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
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122
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Garrood T, Lee L, Pitzalis C. Molecular mechanisms of cell recruitment to inflammatory sites: general and tissue-specific pathways. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005; 45:250-60. [PMID: 16319101 DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/kei207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- T Garrood
- Rheumatology Unit, 5th Floor, Thomas Guy House, Guy's Hospital , London SE1 9RT, UK
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123
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Gupta S, Schulz-Maronde S, Kutzleb C, Richter R, Forssmann WG, Kapp A, Forssmann U, Elsner J. Cloning, expression, and functional characterization of cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) CC chemokine receptor 1. J Leukoc Biol 2005; 78:1175-84. [PMID: 16204626 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0605326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The CC chemokine receptor 1 (CCR1) has emerged as a relevant factor contributing to inflammatory diseases such as allergic asthma. Commonly used animal models of allergic airway inflammation, especially murine models, have certain limitations. The elaborate, nonhuman, primate models of asthma display the highest comparability with the situation in humans. These models play an important role in the understanding of the pathogenesis of asthma. To improve the understanding in cynomolgus monkey models, we identified and characterized CCR1 in this nonhuman primate. Initially, we cloned the cynomolgus monkey CCR1 (cCCR1) gene, and the sequence analysis revealed high homology at the nucleotide (92%) and amino acid (88.4%) levels with its human counterpart. Human embryonic kidney 293 cells were stably transfected with cCCR1 and used in functional assays. Among those CCR1 ligands tested, CCL14(9-74) was most potent in the induction of intracellular Ca2+ fluxes as observed for human CCR1 (hCCR1). Complete cross-desensitization could be achieved between CCL14(9-74) and CCL15. However, CCL3 could not fully abrogate the response to the potent ligand CCL14(9-74). Competition-binding studies with radiolabeled CCL3 concordantly showed that CCL14(9-74) has a higher affinity to cCCR1 than hCCL3. Moreover, differential tissue-specific expression of cCCR1 was investigated by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, displaying the highest levels in spleen. This study adds basic information needed for the evaluation of the role of CCR1 in the pathophysiology of asthma using the highly relevant cynomolgus monkey model and in addition, aids in the preclinical evaluation of potential novel drugs targeting CCR1.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Binding, Competitive
- Cell Line
- Chemokines/pharmacology
- Chemokines, CC/pharmacology
- Cloning, Molecular
- Disease Models, Animal
- GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gi-Go/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Humans
- Ligands
- Macaca fascicularis/genetics
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Rats
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, Chemokine/drug effects
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Shipra Gupta
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, An-Institut, Hannover Medical School, Germany
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124
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Saita Y, Kondo M, Miyazaki T, Yamaji N, Shimizu Y. Transgenic mouse expressing human CCR5 as a model for in vivo assessments of human selective CCR5 antagonists. Eur J Pharmacol 2005; 518:227-33. [PMID: 16076464 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2005] [Revised: 05/20/2005] [Accepted: 06/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The species selectivity of receptor antagonists often hinders their preclinical assessment in vivo. In order to evaluate human selective CC chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) antagonists in vivo, we generated human CCR5 transgenic mice that expressed the transgene on both peripheral blood leukocytes as well as thymocytes. The selective CCR5 ligand CC chemokine ligand 4 (CCL4)/macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1beta induced the chemotaxis of thymocytes that had been derived from the transgenic mice, but not from littermate mice, suggesting that the human CCR5 expressed in the transgenic mice were functional. The binding of the human CCR5 specific antibody 45531 to peripheral blood granulocytes from the transgenic mice was inhibited by human selective CCR5 antagonist SCH-351125. Using this antibody, we developed an ex vivo assay system that is suitable for the evaluation of a test compound's ability to occupy the human CCR5 receptor on mouse peripheral blood leukocytes. This transgenic mouse model is useful for estimating the pharmacodynamics of human selective CCR5 antagonists in vivo.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/metabolism
- Binding, Competitive/drug effects
- Cell Line
- Chemokine CCL3
- Chemokine CCL4
- Chemokines, CC/metabolism
- Chemokines, CC/pharmacology
- Chemotaxis/drug effects
- Cyclic N-Oxides/pharmacology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Female
- Flow Cytometry
- Gene Expression
- Humans
- Iodine Radioisotopes
- Leukocytes/drug effects
- Leukocytes/metabolism
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Models, Animal
- Oximes
- Piperidines/pharmacology
- Pyridines/pharmacology
- Receptors, CCR5/genetics
- Receptors, CCR5/immunology
- Receptors, CCR5/metabolism
- Thymus Gland/cytology
- Thymus Gland/drug effects
- Thymus Gland/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Saita
- Inflammation Research, Pharmacology Laboratories, Institute for Drug Discovery Research, Yamanouchi Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan.
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125
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126
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Haringman JJ, Smeets TJM, Reinders-Blankert P, Tak PP. Chemokine and chemokine receptor expression in paired peripheral blood mononuclear cells and synovial tissue of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and reactive arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2005; 65:294-300. [PMID: 16107514 PMCID: PMC1798063 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2005.037176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chemokine receptors and chemokines have a crucial role in leucocyte recruitment into inflamed tissue. OBJECTIVE To examine the expression of an extensive number of chemokines and receptors in a unique bank of paired samples of synovial tissue (ST) and peripheral blood (PB) from patients with different forms of arthritis to assist in identifying suitable targets for therapeutic intervention. METHODS Synovial biopsy specimens were obtained from 23 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), 16 with osteoarthritis, and 8 with reactive arthritis. ST chemokine (CCL2/MCP-1, CCL5/RANTES, CCL7/MCP-3, CCL8/MCP-2, CCL14/HCC-1, CCL15/HCC-2, CCL16/HCC-4), chemokine receptor (CCR1, CCR2b, CCR5, CXCR4), and CD13 expression was analysed by immunohistochemistry and two colour immunofluorescence. Chemokine receptor expression (CCR1, CCR3, CCR5, CCR6, CCR7) on PB cells was studied by flow cytometry. Non-parametric tests were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS Abundant expression of CCR1, CXCR4, and CCR5 was found in all forms of arthritis, with a specific increase of CCL5 and CCL15 in RA. CCL7, CCL8, CCL14, CCL15, and CCL16 were detected for the first time in ST. The results for PB analysis were comparable among different arthritides. Interestingly, compared with healthy controls, significantly lower expression of CCR1 (p<0.005) and CCR5 (p<0.05) by PB monocytes in the patient groups was seen. DISCUSSION A variety of chemokines and receptors might have an important role in several inflammatory joint disorders. Although other receptors are involved as well, migration of CCR1(+) and CCR5(+) cells towards the synovial compartment may play a part in the effector phase of various forms of arthritis.
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MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Arthritis/blood
- Arthritis/metabolism
- Arthritis, Reactive/blood
- Arthritis, Reactive/metabolism
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/blood
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/metabolism
- Chemokines/blood
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Female
- Fluorescent Antibody Technique
- Humans
- Immunoenzyme Techniques
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Osteoarthritis/blood
- Osteoarthritis/metabolism
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, CCR5/metabolism
- Receptors, Chemokine/blood
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Synovial Membrane/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Haringman
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology F4-218, Department of Internal Medicine, Academic Medical Centre/University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, NL-1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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127
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Berahovich RD, Miao Z, Wang Y, Premack B, Howard MC, Schall TJ. Proteolytic activation of alternative CCR1 ligands in inflammation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:7341-51. [PMID: 15905581 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.11.7341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Although chemokines CCL3/MIP-1alpha and CCL5/RANTES are considered to be primary CCR1 ligands in inflammatory responses, alternative CCR1 ligands have also been described. Indeed, four such chemokines, CCL6/C10/MIP-related protein-1, CCL9/MIP-1gamma/MIP-related protein-2, CCL15/MIP-1delta/hemofiltrate CC chemokine-2/leukotactin-1, and CCL23/CKbeta8/myeloid progenitor inhibitory factor-1, are unique in possessing a separately encoded N-terminal domain of 16-20 residues and two additional precisely positioned cysteines that form a third disulfide bridge. In vitro, these four chemokines are weak CCR1 agonists, but potency can be increased up to 1000-fold by engineered or expression-associated N-terminal truncations. We examined the ability of proinflammatory proteases, human cell supernatants, or physiological fluids to perform N-terminal truncations of these chemokines and thereby activate their functions. Remarkably, most of the proteases and fluids removed the N-terminal domains from all four chemokines, but were relatively unable to cleave the truncated forms further. The truncated chemokines exhibited up to 1000-fold increases in CCR1-mediated signaling and chemotaxis assays in vitro. In addition, N-terminally truncated CCL15/MIP-1delta and CCL23/CKbeta8, but not CCL3/MIP-1alpha or CCL5/RANTES, were detected at relatively high levels in synovial fluids from rheumatoid arthritis patients. These data suggest that alternative CCR1 ligands are converted into potent chemoattractants by proteases released during inflammatory responses in vivo.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/immunology
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/metabolism
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/pathology
- Cathepsin G
- Cathepsins/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/metabolism
- Chymases
- Humans
- Hydrolysis
- Inflammation Mediators/metabolism
- Ligands
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Monokines/biosynthesis
- Monokines/metabolism
- Pancreatic Elastase/metabolism
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Receptors, Chemokine/physiology
- Recombinant Proteins/metabolism
- Recombinant Proteins/pharmacology
- Serine Endopeptidases/metabolism
- Synovial Fluid/enzymology
- Synovial Fluid/immunology
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128
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Franz
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Charité University Hospital, Humboldt University of Berlin, Schumannstr 20-21, D-10098 Berlin, Germany.
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129
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Ribeiro S, Horuk R. The clinical potential of chemokine receptor antagonists. Pharmacol Ther 2005; 107:44-58. [PMID: 15894378 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2005] [Accepted: 01/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines belong to a family of chemotactic cytokines that direct the migration of immune cells towards sites of inflammation. They mediate their biological effects by binding to cell surface receptors, which belong to the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. Since chemokines and their receptors have been implicated in the pathophysiology of a number of autoinflammatory diseases, chemokine receptor antagonists could prove to be useful therapeutics to target these diseases. Here, we review the role of chemokines in autoimmunity, concentrating mainly on the chemokine receptors CCR1 and CCR5, and discuss the potential utility of antagonists that target these 2 receptors as they progress through the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Ribeiro
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Berlex Biosciences, 2600 Hilltop Drive, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
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130
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Westra J, Kułdo JM, van Rijswijk MH, Molema G, Limburg PC. Chemokine production and E-selectin expression in activated endothelial cells are inhibited by p38 MAPK (mitogen activated protein kinase) inhibitor RWJ 67657. Int Immunopharmacol 2005; 5:1259-69. [PMID: 15914330 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2005.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2005] [Revised: 02/09/2005] [Accepted: 03/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Endothelial cells play an important role in inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis by recruitment of inflammatory cells. The cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-1beta are major inducers of endothelial cell activation and are stimulators of inflammatory signal transduction pathway involving p38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase). The present study investigated the effects of p38 MAPK inhibition on cell adhesion molecule (CAM) expression and chemokine production by endothelial cells both on mRNA and protein level. Pre-treatment of endothelial cells with the pharmacologically relevant concentration of 1 microM of the p38 MAPK inhibitor RWJ 67657 reduced TNF-alpha and IL-1beta induced mRNA and membrane expression of E-selectin. Moderate inhibitory effects on ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression were found. Significant reduction of mRNA expression and protein production of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and the chemokines IL-8 and MCP-1 was demonstrated. Treatment with RWJ 67657 could lead to reduced leukocyte infiltration by the reduction of E-selectin expression and chemokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Westra
- Department of Rheumatology, University Medical Centre Groningen, The Netherlands.
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131
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van der Voort R, van Lieshout AWT, Toonen LWJ, Slöetjes AW, van den Berg WB, Figdor CG, Radstake TRDJ, Adema GJ. Elevated CXCL16 expression by synovial macrophages recruits memory T cells into rheumatoid joints. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 52:1381-91. [PMID: 15880344 DOI: 10.1002/art.21004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Directional migration of leukocytes is orchestrated by the regulated expression of chemokine receptors and their ligands. The receptor CXCR6 is abundantly expressed by Th1-polarized effector/memory lymphocytes accumulating at inflammatory sites. This study was undertaken to examine the presence of CXCR6+ T cells and of CXCL16, the only ligand for CXCR6, in the joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS Flow cytometry analysis of the expression of CXCR6 by peripheral blood and synovial fluid (SF) T cells. In addition, by performing conventional and real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunohistochemistry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we determined the expression of CXCL16 and its protease ADAM-10 within synovium and by cultured macrophages. SF T cell migration was studied with the Transwell system. RESULTS Accumulation of CXCR6+ T cells within RA SF coincided with highly elevated levels of CXCL16+ macrophages. In vitro studies revealed that monocytes started to express CXCL16 upon differentiation into macrophages, and that RA SF and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) enhanced CXCL16 expression. Moreover, RA patients responding to anti-TNF therapy showed a strongly decreased CXCL16 expression, whereas nonresponding patients did not. Interestingly, ADAM-10, a recently identified protease of CXCL16, was abundantly expressed by CXCL16+ macrophages in vitro and in RA in vivo, which resulted in increased levels of cleaved CXCL16 in RA SF relative to controls. Finally, CXCR6+ T cells from RA SF were attracted by CXCL16. CONCLUSION These data provide evidence that enhanced production of CXCL16 in RA synovia leads to recruitment of CXCR6+ memory T cells, thereby contributing to the inflammatory cascade associated with RA pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robbert van der Voort
- Nijmegen Center for Molecular Life Sciences, University Medical Center St. Radboud, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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132
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Wieser F, Dogan S, Klingel K, Diedrich K, Taylor RN, Hornung D. Expression and regulation of CCR1 in peritoneal macrophages from women with and without endometriosis. Fertil Steril 2005; 83:1878-81. [PMID: 15950672 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2004.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2004] [Revised: 12/05/2004] [Accepted: 12/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
CCR1 is a CC chemokine receptor with high affinity for RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T cells expressed and secreted). CCR1 protein and mRNA concentrations in native peritoneal cells were twofold greater, in cultured peritoneal cells threefold greater, in patients with endometriosis compared to patients without endometriosis, as determined by Western blotting fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and in situ hybridization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Wieser
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
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133
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Voll RE, Kalden JR. Do We Need New Treatment That Goes beyond Tumor Necrosis Factor Blockers for Rheumatoid Arthritis? Ann N Y Acad Sci 2005; 1051:799-810. [PMID: 16127017 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1361.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has a prevalence of approximately 1%, making it the most common inflammatory rheumatic disease. The outcome for RA patients has significantly improved during recent years. Factors include the introduction of new therapies such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-blocking agents and new treatment strategies, especially early and aggressive therapy, including combinations of several disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). However, only 60-70% of RA patients respond to treatment with a TNF-blocking agent. In addition, most of these patients show only a partial response according to ACR20 criteria. Therefore, to ameliorate painful joint inflammation and prevent disability in RA patients, new treatment principles and more intelligent combination therapies are urgently needed. Interestingly, the strategy of switching patients who no longer respond to one of the TNF blockers to another has often turned out to be effective. Areas of ongoing research include combining TNF-blocking agents with DMARDs other than methotrexate. Also, several new biologics are being tested in clinical trials that promise to soon enhance the therapeutic armamentarium to fight RA. These biologics' mechanisms of action feature blockade of T cell costimulation by a CTLA4Ig fusion protein (abatacept); blockade of interleukin (IL)-6 signaling with an antibody to the IL-6 receptor (MRA); neutralizing IL-15 by a monoclonal antibody; and targeting B cells with an anti-CD20 antibody (rituximab). Other therapeutic approaches, such as blockade of chemokine receptors, adhesion molecules, complement components, and transcription factors regulating the inflammatory response, appear promising; however, they still need careful evaluation in placebo-controlled clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinhard E Voll
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Krankenhausstrasse 12, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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134
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Haringman JJ, Vinkenoog M, Gerlag DM, Smeets TJM, Zwinderman AH, Tak PP. Reliability of computerized image analysis for the evaluation of serial synovial biopsies in randomized controlled trials in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2005; 7:R862-7. [PMID: 15987488 PMCID: PMC1175038 DOI: 10.1186/ar1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2004] [Revised: 04/13/2005] [Accepted: 04/14/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Analysis of biomarkers in synovial tissue is increasingly used in the evaluation of new targeted therapies for patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This study determined the intrarater and inter-rater reliability of digital image analysis (DIA) of synovial biopsies from RA patients participating in clinical trials. Arthroscopic synovial biopsies were obtained before and after treatment from 19 RA patients participating in a randomized controlled trial with prednisolone. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect CD3+ T cells, CD38+ plasma cells and CD68+ macrophages. The mean change in positive cells per square millimetre for each marker was determined by different operators and at different times using DIA. Nonparametric tests were used to determine differences between observers and assessments, and to determine changes after treatment. The intraclass correlations (ICCs) were calculated to determine the intrarater and inter-rater reliability. Intrarater ICCs showed good reliability for measuring changes in T lymphocytes (R = 0.87), plasma cells (R = 0.62) and macrophages (R = 0.73). Analysis by Bland–Altman plots showed no systemic differences between measurements. The smallest detectable changes were calculated and their discriminatory power revealed good response in the prednisolone group compared with the placebo group. Similarly, inter-rater ICCs also revealed good reliability for measuring T lymphocytes (R = 0.68), plasma cells (R = 0.69) and macrophages (R = 0.72). All measurements identified the same cell types as changing significantly in the treated patients compared with the placebo group. The measurement of change in total positive cell numbers in synovial tissue can be determined reproducibly for various cell types by DIA in RA clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper J Haringman
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolein Vinkenoog
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Danielle M Gerlag
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tom JM Smeets
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Aeilko H Zwinderman
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul P Tak
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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135
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Haringman JJ, Oostendorp RL, Tak PP. Targeting cellular adhesion molecules, chemokines and chemokine receptors in rheumatoid arthritis. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2005; 10:299-310. [PMID: 15934868 DOI: 10.1517/14728214.10.2.299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The development of specific targeted therapies, such as anti-TNF-alpha treatment, for chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, has significantly improved treatment, although not all patients respond. Targeting cellular adhesion molecules and chemokines/chemokine receptors as regulators of the extravasation and migration of leukocytes may provide a novel approach for the treatment of these diseases. Moreover, the possibility of developing small-molecule antagonists offers an excellent method for the oral delivery of compounds with a short half-life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper J Haringman
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology F4-218, Department of Internal Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, NL-1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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136
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Gerlag DM, Haringman JJ, Smeets TJM, Zwinderman AH, Kraan MC, Laud PJ, Morgan S, Nash AFP, Tak PP. Effects of oral prednisolone on biomarkers in synovial tissue and clinical improvement in rheumatoid arthritis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 50:3783-91. [PMID: 15593225 DOI: 10.1002/art.20664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To create greater understanding of the changes in synovial tissue parameters that occur in conjunction with clinical response by using an effective therapy, in order to facilitate the planning of future studies with therapeutic agents for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS Twenty-one patients with active RA were randomized to receive either oral prednisolone (n = 10) or placebo (n = 11) for 2 weeks. In all patients, synovial tissue biopsy specimens were obtained by arthroscopy directly before treatment and after 14 days of treatment. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to characterize the cell infiltrate and vascularity. Stained tissue sections were analyzed by digital imaging. Statistical analysis was performed using an analysis of covariance model. RESULTS After treatment, the mean Disease Activity Score in 28 joints (DAS28) was 2.0 units lower (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.0-3.0) in patients who received prednisolone than in those who received placebo. In the prednisolone group, the mean (+/-SD) DAS28 decreased from 6.27 +/- 0.95 to 4.11 +/- 1.43 after therapy; minimal change was observed in the placebo group. For macrophages, the estimated effect of prednisolone was large. Patients receiving active treatment had fewer (mean 628 cells/mm(2) [95% CI 328-927]) macrophages after therapy compared with those receiving placebo. A reduction in the total number of CD68+ macrophages, from 1,038 +/- 283 cells/mm(2) before treatment to 533 +/- 248 cells/mm(2) after treatment, was observed in the prednisolone group. There were clear trends toward decreased infiltration by T cells, plasma cells, and fibroblast-like synoviocytes after active treatment. We observed a trend toward a reduction in alphavbeta3+ newly formed blood vessels and expression of vascular growth factors after prednisolone therapy. CONCLUSION Prednisolone therapy in RA is associated with a marked reduction in macrophage infiltration in synovial tissue, suggesting that synovial macrophage numbers could be used as a biomarker for clinical efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle M Gerlag
- Academic Medical Center/University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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137
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Koch AE. Chemokines and their receptors in rheumatoid arthritis: Future targets? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 52:710-21. [DOI: 10.1002/art.20932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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138
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Haas CS, Martinez RJ, Attia N, Haines GK, Campbell PL, Koch AE. Chemokine receptor expression in rat adjuvant-induced arthritis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 52:3718-30. [PMID: 16320322 DOI: 10.1002/art.21476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Chemokine receptors mediate leukocyte migration into inflamed rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial tissue (ST). Knowledge of their distribution is crucial for understanding the evolution of the inflammatory process. In this study, we used rat adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA), a model for RA, to define the temporospatial expression of chemokine receptors. METHODS ST from rats with AIA was immunostained, the percentage of cells expressing each receptor was determined, and findings were correlated with levels of inflammation. Chemokine receptor expression was evaluated on rat macrophages in vitro. RESULTS CCR1, a receptor for macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha (MIP-1alpha)/CCL3 and RANTES/CCL5, exhibited high constitutive expression on macrophages in AIA. CCR5, binding MIP-1alpha/CCL3 and RANTES/CCL5, was up-regulated on ST macrophages during the course of AIA, correlating with macrophage expression of CCR2, a receptor for monocyte chemoattractant protein 1/CCL2. Endothelial cell (EC) CCR2 was down-regulated as arthritis progressed, inversely correlating with inflammation. CCR3, another RANTES/CCL5 receptor, was constitutively high on macrophages in vivo and in vitro, with down-regulation during AIA. CXCR4, a receptor for stromal cell-derived factor 1/CXCL12), was prominently up-regulated on ECs, preceding the peak of inflammation. CONCLUSION These findings show that 1) constitutive expression of CCR1 on macrophages remains high during AIA; 2) CCR2 and CCR3 may play a role in initial recruitment of leukocytes to ST in AIA; 3) macrophage expression of CCR2 and CCR5 may be important for sustaining inflammatory changes; and 4) EC CXCR4 may be a harbinger of inflammatory changes. Our results may help guide chemokine receptor blockade-targeting treatment strategies in inflammatory arthritis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arthritis, Experimental/immunology
- Arthritis, Experimental/metabolism
- Cell Line
- Female
- Macrophages, Alveolar/cytology
- Macrophages, Alveolar/immunology
- Macrophages, Alveolar/metabolism
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/immunology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred Lew
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, CCR2
- Receptors, CCR3
- Receptors, CCR5/metabolism
- Receptors, CXCR4/metabolism
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Synovial Membrane/immunology
- Synovial Membrane/metabolism
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian S Haas
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0680, USA
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139
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Schmutz C, Hulme A, Burman A, Salmon M, Ashton B, Buckley C, Middleton J. Chemokine receptors in the rheumatoid synovium: upregulation of CXCR5. Arthritis Res Ther 2004; 7:R217-29. [PMID: 15743468 PMCID: PMC1065316 DOI: 10.1186/ar1475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2004] [Revised: 10/07/2004] [Accepted: 11/12/2004] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), chemokine and chemokine receptor interactions play a central role in the recruitment of leukocytes into inflamed joints. This study was undertaken to characterize the expression of chemokine receptors in the synovial tissue of RA and non-RA patients. RA synovia (n = 8) were obtained from knee joint replacement operations and control non-RA synovia (n = 9) were obtained from arthroscopic knee biopsies sampled from patients with recent meniscal or articular cartilage damage or degeneration. The mRNA expression of chemokine receptors and their ligands was determined using gene microarrays and PCR. The protein expression of these genes was demonstrated by single-label and double-label immunohistochemistry. Microarray analysis showed the mRNA for CXCR5 to be more abundant in RA than non-RA synovial tissue, and of the chemokine receptors studied CXCR5 showed the greatest upregulation. PCR experiments confirmed the differential expression of CXCR5. By immunohistochemistry we were able to detect CXCR5 in all RA and non-RA samples. In the RA samples the presence of CXCR5 was observed on B cells and T cells in the infiltrates but also on macrophages and endothelial cells. In the non-RA samples the presence of CXCR5 was limited to macrophages and endothelial cells. CXCR5 expression in synovial fluid macrophages and peripheral blood monocytes from RA patients was confirmed by PCR. The present study shows that CXCR5 is upregulated in RA synovial tissue and is expressed in a variety of cell types. This receptor may be involved in the recruitment and positioning of B cells, T cells and monocytes/macrophages in the RA synovium. More importantly, the increased level of CXCR5, a homeostatic chemokine receptor, in the RA synovium suggests that non-inflammatory receptor–ligand pairs might play an important role in the pathogenesis of RA.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Animals
- Antigens, CD20/analysis
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/genetics
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/immunology
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/metabolism
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/pathology
- Autoimmune Diseases/genetics
- Autoimmune Diseases/immunology
- Autoimmune Diseases/metabolism
- Autoimmune Diseases/pathology
- CD3 Complex/analysis
- Endothelium, Vascular/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Humans
- Knee
- Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- Macrophages/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Middle Aged
- Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, CXCR5
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Cytokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cytokine/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Synovial Membrane/immunology
- Synovial Membrane/metabolism
- Synovial Membrane/pathology
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Schmutz
- Leopold Muller Arthritis Research Centre, Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital, Oswestry, UK
| | - Alison Hulme
- Leopold Muller Arthritis Research Centre, Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital, Oswestry, UK
| | - Angela Burman
- Division of Immunity and Infection, Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK
| | - Mike Salmon
- Division of Immunity and Infection, Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK
| | - Brian Ashton
- Leopold Muller Arthritis Research Centre, Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital, Oswestry, UK
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine, Medical School, Keele University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK
| | - Christopher Buckley
- Division of Immunity and Infection, Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK
| | - Jim Middleton
- Leopold Muller Arthritis Research Centre, Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital, Oswestry, UK
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine, Medical School, Keele University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK
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140
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García-Vicuña R, Gómez-Gaviro MV, Domínguez-Luis MJ, Pec MK, González-Alvaro I, Alvaro-Gracia JM, Díaz-González F. CC and CXC chemokine receptors mediate migration, proliferation, and matrix metalloproteinase production by fibroblast-like synoviocytes from rheumatoid arthritis patients. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 50:3866-77. [PMID: 15593223 DOI: 10.1002/art.20615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the potential involvement of the chemokine system in synoviocyte-mediated tissue destruction in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), we studied the expression profile of chemokine receptors and their function in the migration, proliferation, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) production of cultured fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) from RA patients. METHODS The presence of CC and CXC chemokine receptors on cultured FLS was studied at the messenger RNA (mRNA) level by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and at the cell surface expression level by flow cytometry. Variations in cytosolic calcium influx induced by chemokine stimulation were assessed by flow cytometry on Fura Red-preloaded FLS. Two-compartment transwell chambers were used for FLS chemotaxis assays. Cell growth was measured by a fluorescence-based proliferation assay. Gelatinase and collagenase activities were determined by a fibril degradation assay and zymography. RESULTS FLS constitutively expressed the receptors CCR2, CCR5, CXCR3, and CXCR4, both at the cell surface and mRNA levels, but failed to express CCR3 and CCR6. Significant intracytosolic calcium influx was observed on FLS challenged with monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha (SDF-1alpha), and interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10). Stimulation with MCP-1, SDF-1alpha, IP-10, and monokine induced by interferon-gamma enhanced the migration and proliferation of FLS. These chemokines, in addition to RANTES, increased in a dose- and time-dependent manner the gelatinase and collagenase activities in cell-free supernatants of cultured FLS. Interestingly, the chemokine-mediated up-regulation of MMP activities was significantly abrogated by the presence of anti-interleukin-1beta, but not anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha, blocking antibodies. CONCLUSION These data suggest that through modulation of the migration, proliferation, and MMP production by FLS, the chemokine system may play a more direct role in the destructive phase of RA than is currently suspected, and thus emphasize the relevance of chemokines and their receptors as potential therapeutic targets in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario García-Vicuña
- Hospital Universitario de la Princesa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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141
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Haringman JJ, Gerlag DM, Zwinderman AH, Smeets TJM, Kraan MC, Baeten D, McInnes IB, Bresnihan B, Tak PP. Synovial tissue macrophages: a sensitive biomarker for response to treatment in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2004; 64:834-8. [PMID: 15576415 PMCID: PMC1755544 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2004.029751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous work identified synovial sublining macrophage numbers as a potential biomarker for clinical efficacy in rheumatoid arthritis. OBJECTIVE To investigate the association between changes in infiltration of synovial macrophages and clinical improvement after antirheumatic treatment. METHODS 88 patients who participated in various clinical trials were studied. All patients underwent serial arthroscopy before initiation of treatment and after different time intervals. Immunohistochemical and digital image analysis were performed according to standardised procedures to detect changes in CD68+ synovial sublining macrophages in relationship to changes in the 28 joint count Disease Activity Score (DAS28). Statistical analysis was performed using one way analysis of variance, the independent samples t test, linear regression, and the standardised response mean (SRM). RESULTS For good, moderate, and non-responders, according to the DAS28 response criteria, there was a significant difference in the change in sublining macrophages (mean (SEM) cells/mm(2) -643 (124), -270 (64), and -95 (60), respectively; p<0.0003). There was a significant correlation between the change in the number of macrophages and the change in DAS28 (Pearson correlation 0.874, p<0.01). The change in sublining macrophages explained 76% of the variation in the change in DAS28 (p<0.02). The sensitivity to change of the biomarker was high in patients treated actively (SRM >0.8), whereas the ability to detect changes in placebo treated patients was weak (SRM <0.3). CONCLUSION The results suggest that changes in synovial sublining macrophages can be used to predict possible efficacy of antirheumatic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Haringman
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, F4-218, Academic Medical Centre/University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, NL-1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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142
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Taylor PC, Feldmann M. Rheumatoid arthritis: pathogenic mechanisms and therapeutic targets. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ddmec.2004.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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143
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Nanki T, Urasaki Y, Imai T, Nishimura M, Muramoto K, Kubota T, Miyasaka N. Inhibition of Fractalkine Ameliorates Murine Collagen-Induced Arthritis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:7010-6. [PMID: 15557198 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.11.7010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease associated with massive infiltration of inflammatory cells in the synovium of multiple joints. We and others have shown that fractalkine (FKN/CX3CL1), a chemokine expressed on fibroblast-like synoviocytes and endothelial cells in RA synovium, may contribute to the accumulation of T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, which express CX3CR1, the receptor for FKN. This interaction might be involved in adhesion of the inflammatory cells to endothelial cells, migration into the synovium, and cytokine production. In this study, we examined the effect of FKN inhibition on murine collagen-induced arthritis. Anti-FKN mAb significantly lowered clinical arthritis score compared with control Ab, and reduced infiltration of inflammatory cells and bone erosion in the synovium. However, anti-FKN mAb did not affect the production of either serum anti-collagen type II (CII) IgG or IFN-gamma by CII-stimulated splenic T cells. Furthermore, treatment with anti-FKN mAb inhibited migration of adoptively transferred splenic macrophages into the inflamed synovium. Our results suggest that anti-FKN mAb ameliorates arthritis by inhibiting infiltration of inflammatory cells into the synovium. Thus, FKN can be a new target molecule for the treatment of RA.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Blocking/administration & dosage
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/administration & dosage
- Arthritis, Experimental/immunology
- Arthritis, Experimental/pathology
- Arthritis, Experimental/prevention & control
- CX3C Chemokine Receptor 1
- Cattle
- Cell Migration Inhibition
- Chemokine CX3CL1
- Chemokines, CX3C/antagonists & inhibitors
- Chemokines, CX3C/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CX3C/genetics
- Chemokines, CX3C/immunology
- Collagen Type II/administration & dosage
- Collagen Type II/immunology
- Immunoglobulin G/biosynthesis
- Immunoglobulin G/blood
- Immunohistochemistry
- Injections, Intraperitoneal
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Macrophages/cytology
- Macrophages/immunology
- Macrophages/metabolism
- Male
- Membrane Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Membrane Proteins/biosynthesis
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred DBA
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Spleen/cytology
- Spleen/immunology
- Spleen/metabolism
- Synovial Membrane/immunology
- Synovial Membrane/metabolism
- Synovial Membrane/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshihiro Nanki
- Department of Medicine and Rheumatology, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan.
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144
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de Mendonça FL, da Fonseca PCA, Phillips RM, Saldanha JW, Williams TJ, Pease JE. Site-directed mutagenesis of CC chemokine receptor 1 reveals the mechanism of action of UCB 35625, a small molecule chemokine receptor antagonist. J Biol Chem 2004; 280:4808-16. [PMID: 15548526 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m412267200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The chemokine receptor CCR1 and its principal ligand, CCL3/MIP-1alpha, have been implicated in the pathology of several inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and asthma. As such, these molecules are the focus of much research with the ultimate aim of developing novel therapies. We have described previously a non-competitive small molecule antagonist of CCR1 (UCB 35625), which we hypothesized interacted with amino acids located within the receptor transmembrane (TM) helices (Sabroe, I., Peck, M. J., Jan Van Keulen, B., Jorritsma, A., Simmons, G., Clapham, P. R., Williams, T. J., and Pease, J. E. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 25985-25992). Here we describe an approach to identifying the mechanism by which the molecule antagonizes CCR1. Thirty-three point mutants of CCR1 were expressed transiently in L1.2 cells, and the cells were assessed for their capacity to migrate in response to CCL3 in the presence or absence of UCB 35625. Cells expressing the mutant constructs Y41A (TM helix 1, or TM1), Y113A (TM3), and E287A (TM7) were responsive to CCL3 but resistant to the antagonist, consistent with a role for the TM helices in CCR1 interactions with UCB 35625. Subsequent molecular modeling successfully docked the compound with CCR1 and suggests that the antagonist ligates TM1, 2, and 7 of CCR1 and severely impedes access to TM2 and TM3, a region thought to be perturbed by the chemokine amino terminus during the process of receptor activation. Insights into the mechanism of action of these compounds may facilitate the development of more potent antagonists that show promise as future therapeutic agents in the treatment of inflammatory disease.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Binding Sites
- Binding, Competitive
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Cell Movement
- Chemotaxis
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Glutamic Acid/chemistry
- Humans
- Inflammation
- Models, Chemical
- Models, Molecular
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutagenesis, Site-Directed
- Mutation
- Point Mutation
- Protein Binding
- Protein Conformation
- Protein Structure, Secondary
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, Chemokine/chemistry
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Signal Transduction
- Software
- Stereoisomerism
- Transfection
- Xanthenes/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa Lopes de Mendonça
- Leukocyte Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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145
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Largo R, Díez-Ortego I, Sanchez-Pernaute O, López-Armada MJ, Alvarez-Soria MA, Egido J, Herrero-Beaumont G. EP2/EP4 signalling inhibits monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 production induced by interleukin 1beta in synovial fibroblasts. Ann Rheum Dis 2004; 63:1197-204. [PMID: 15361371 PMCID: PMC1754778 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2003.011163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Besides its proinflammatory properties, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) acts as a regulator of the expression of inducible genes. Inhibition of PGE(2) synthesis might thus result in a paradoxical deleterious effect on inflammation. OBJECTIVE To examine the effect of PGE(2) on monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) expression in cultured synovial fibroblasts (SF) stimulated with interleukin (IL)1beta. METHODS MCP-1 expression was assessed in SF stimulated with IL1beta in the presence of PGE(2) or different NSAIDs by RT-PCR or northern blot and immunocytochemistry. Expression of cyclo-oxygenase (COX) isoforms was studied by western blot techniques. The role of PGE(2) receptors (EP) in PGE(2) action was assessed employing EP receptor subtype-specific agonists. RESULTS PGE(2) significantly inhibited IL1beta induced MCP-1 expression in SF in a dose dependent manner. IL1beta increased COX-2 and did not alter COX-1 synthesis in SF. 11-Deoxy-PGE(1), an EP(2)/EP(4) agonist, reproduced PGE(2) action on MCP-1 expression. Butaprost, a selective EP(2) agonist, was less potent than PGE(2). Sulprostone, an EP(1)/EP(3) agonist, had no effect on IL1beta induced MCP-1 expression. Inhibition of endogenous PGE(2) synthesis by NSAIDs further enhanced MCP-1 mRNA expression in IL1beta stimulated SF, an effect prevented by addition of exogenous PGE(2). CONCLUSION Activation of EP(2)/EP(4) receptors down regulates the expression of MCP-1 in IL1beta stimulated SF, while PGE(2) pharmacological inhibition cuts off this signalling pathway and results in a superinduction of MCP-1 expression. The data suggest that NSAIDs may intercept a natural regulatory circuit controlling the magnitude of inflammation, which questions their continuous administration in inflammatory joint diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal/pharmacology
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokine CCL2/biosynthesis
- Chemokine CCL2/genetics
- Dinoprostone/biosynthesis
- Dinoprostone/pharmacology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Fibroblasts/drug effects
- Fibroblasts/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Humans
- Interleukin-1/pharmacology
- NF-kappa B/physiology
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Rabbits
- Receptors, Prostaglandin E/agonists
- Receptors, Prostaglandin E/physiology
- Receptors, Prostaglandin E, EP2 Subtype
- Receptors, Prostaglandin E, EP4 Subtype
- Recombinant Proteins/pharmacology
- Signal Transduction
- Synovial Membrane/cytology
- Synovial Membrane/drug effects
- Synovial Membrane/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- R Largo
- Rheumatology Department, Fundación Jiménez Díaz, Avenida Reyes Católicos 2, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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146
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van Lieshout AWT, Barrera P, Smeets RL, Pesman GJ, van Riel PLCM, van den Berg WB, Radstake TRDJ. Inhibition of TNF alpha during maturation of dendritic cells results in the development of semi-mature cells: a potential mechanism for the beneficial effects of TNF alpha blockade in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2004; 64:408-14. [PMID: 15256380 PMCID: PMC1755381 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2004.023259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dendritic cells orchestrate pivotal immunological processes mediated by the production of cytokines and chemokines. OBJECTIVE To assess whether neutralisation of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) during maturation of dendritic cells affects their phenotype and behaviour, which might explain the beneficial effects of TNF alpha neutralisation in rheumatoid arthritis. METHODS Immature and fully matured dendritic cells were cultured from blood monocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis and healthy controls following standardised protocols. TNF alpha was neutralised by addition of the p55 soluble TNF alpha receptor, PEGsTNFRI. The effect of TNF alpha neutralisation on the phenotype (CD14, CD16, CD32, CD64, CD80, CD83, CD86, and MHC) of dendritic cells was investigated by flow cytometry. Expression of chemokines (CCL17, CCL18, CCL19, CCL22, CCL3, and CXCL8) and production of IL1 beta and IL6 during dendritic cell differentiation and maturation were examined. RESULTS Neutralisation of TNF alpha during the differentiation and maturation of dendritic cells did not result in an altered dendritic cell phenotype in the rheumatoid patients or the healthy controls. In contrast, the expression of CCL17, CCL18, CCL19, CCL22, CCL3, and CXCL8 by dendritic cells was significantly reduced when TNF alpha activity was inhibited during lipopolysaccharide triggered dendritic cell maturation. The production of IL1 beta and IL6 by mature dendritic cells was inhibited by PEGsTNFRI. CONCLUSIONS Inhibition of TNF alpha activity during dendritic cell maturation leads to the development of semi-mature cells. These data suggest a novel pathway by which the neutralisation of TNF alpha might exert its therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W T van Lieshout
- Department of Rhumatology, University Medical Centre Nijmegen, Geert Grooteplein 8, 6500 HB Nijmegen, Netherlands
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147
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Wallace GR, John Curnow S, Wloka K, Salmon M, Murray PI. The role of chemokines and their receptors in ocular disease. Prog Retin Eye Res 2004; 23:435-48. [PMID: 15219876 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The migration and infiltration of cells into the eye whether blood-borne leucocytes, endothelial or epithelial cells occurs in many ocular diseases. Dysregulation of this process is apparent in chronic inflammation, corneal graft rejection, allergic eye disease and other sight-threatening conditions. Under normal and inflammatory conditions, chemokines and their receptors are important contributors to cell migration. To date, 47 chemokines and 19 chemokine receptors have been identified and characterised. In recent years, investigations into the role of chemokines and their receptors in ocular disease have generated an increasing number of publications. In the eye, the best understood action of these molecules has arisen from the study of their ability to control the infiltration of leucocytes in uveitis. However, the involvement of chemokines in angiogenesis in several ocular conditions and in the survival of corneal transplants demonstrates the multifaceted nature of their effects. Interestingly, the constitutive expression of chemokines and their receptors in ocular tissues suggests that certain chemokines have a homeostatic function. In this review, we discuss the nature and function of chemokines in health and disease, and describe the role of chemokines in the pathogenesis of different ocular conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham R Wallace
- The Birmingham and Midland Eye Centre, Sandwell and West Birmingham Hospitals NHS Trust, The University of Birmingham, City Hospital, Dudley Road, Birmingham B18 7QU, UK.
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Haringman JJ, Ludikhuize J, Tak PP. Chemokines in joint disease: the key to inflammation? Ann Rheum Dis 2004; 63:1186-94. [PMID: 15082471 PMCID: PMC1754785 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2004.020529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Targeting chemokines and/or chemokine receptors appears to be an intriguing new approach to treating chronic inflammatory disorders like rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, multiple sclerosis, and transplant rejections. The involvement of chemokines and chemokine receptors in inflammatory joint diseases, the in vitro and in vivo characteristics of the chemokine family in inflammatory joint disease, and initial clinical data on chemokine blockade in patients with rheumatoid arthritis suggest that targeting the chemokine and chemokine receptor family might provide a new, promising antirheumatic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Haringman
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, F4-218, Department of Internal Medicine, Academic Medical Centre/University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, NL-1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Haringman JJ, Tak PP. Chemokine blockade: a new era in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis? Arthritis Res Ther 2004; 6:93-7. [PMID: 15142257 PMCID: PMC416447 DOI: 10.1186/ar1172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Blockade of chemokines or chemokine receptors is emerging as a new potential treatment for various immune-mediated conditions. This review focuses on the therapeutic potential in rheumatoid arthritis, based on studies in animal models and patients. Several knockout models as well as in vivo use of chemokine antagonists are discussed. Review of these data suggests that this approach might lead to novel therapeutic strategies in rheumatoid arthritis and other chronic inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper J Haringman
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Centre/University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul P Tak
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Academic Medical Centre/University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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