Phytochrome signaling mechanisms and the control of plant development

Photoreceptor Mediated Plant Growth Responses: Implications for Photoreceptor Engineering toward Improved Performance in Crops

Rising temperatures during growing seasons coupled with altered precipitation rates presents a challenging task of improving crop productivity for overcoming such altered weather patterns and cater to a growing population. Light is a critical environmental factor that exerts a powerful influence on plant growth and development ranging from seed germination to flowering and fruiting. Higher plants utilize a suite of complex photoreceptor proteins to perceive surrounding red/far-red (phytochromes), blue/UV-A (cryptochromes, phototropins, ZTL/FKF1/LKP2), and UV-B light (UVR8). While genomic studies have also shown that light induces extensive reprogramming of gene expression patterns in plants, molecular genetic studies have shown that manipulation of one or more photoreceptors can result in modification of agronomically beneficial traits. Such information can assist researchers to engineer photoreceptors via genome editing technologies to alter expression or even sensitivity thresholds of native photoreceptors for targeting aspects of plant growth that can confer superior agronomic value to the engineered crops. Here we summarize the agronomically important plant growth processes influenced by photoreceptors in crop species, alongwith the functional interactions between different photoreceptors and phytohormones in regulating these responses. We also discuss the potential utility of synthetic biology approaches in photobiology for improving agronomically beneficial traits of crop plants by engineering designer photoreceptors.

Crosstalk between Photoreceptor and Sugar Signaling Modulates Floral Signal Transduction

Over the past decade, integrated genetic, cellular, proteomic and genomic approaches have begun to unravel the surprisingly crosstalk between photoreceptors and sugar signaling in regulation of floral signal transduction. Although a number of physiological factors in the pathway have been identified, the molecular genetic interactions of some components are less well understood. The further elucidation of the crosstalk mechanisms between photoreceptors and sugar signaling will certainly contribute to our better understanding of the developmental circuitry that controls floral signal transduction. This article summarizes our current knowledge of this crosstalk, which has not received much attention, and suggests possible directions for future research.

The Arabidopsis SWI/SNF protein BAF60 mediates seedling growth control by modulating DNA accessibility

BACKGROUND

Plant adaptive responses to changing environments involve complex molecular interplays between intrinsic and external signals. Whilst much is known on the signaling components mediating diurnal, light, and temperature controls on plant development, their influence on chromatin-based transcriptional controls remains poorly explored.

RESULTS

In this study we show that a SWI/SNF chromatin remodeler subunit, BAF60, represses seedling growth by modulating DNA accessibility of hypocotyl cell size regulatory genes. BAF60 binds nucleosome-free regions of multiple G box-containing genes, opposing in cis the promoting effect of the photomorphogenic and thermomorphogenic regulator Phytochrome Interacting Factor 4 (PIF4) on hypocotyl elongation. Furthermore, BAF60 expression level is regulated in response to light and daily rhythms.

CONCLUSIONS

These results unveil a short path between a chromatin remodeler and a signaling component to fine-tune plant morphogenesis in response to environmental conditions.

Mass Spectrometric Analyses Reveal a Central Role for Ubiquitylation in Remodeling the Arabidopsis Proteome during Photomorphogenesis

The switch from skotomorphogenesis to photomorphogenesis is a key developmental transition in the life of seed plants. While much of the underpinning proteome remodeling is driven by light-induced changes in gene expression, the proteolytic removal of specific proteins by the ubiquitin-26S proteasome system is also likely paramount. Through mass spectrometric analysis of ubiquitylated proteins affinity-purified from etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings before and after red-light irradiation, we identified a number of influential proteins whose ubiquitylation status is modified during this switch. We observed a substantial enrichment for proteins involved in auxin, abscisic acid, ethylene, and brassinosteroid signaling, peroxisome function, disease resistance, protein phosphorylation and light perception, including the phytochrome (Phy) A and phototropin photoreceptors. Soon after red-light treatment, PhyA becomes the dominant ubiquitylated species, with ubiquitin attachment sites mapped to six lysines. A PhyA mutant protected from ubiquitin addition at these sites is substantially more stable in planta upon photoconversion to Pfr and is hyperactive in driving photomorphogenesis. However, light still stimulates ubiquitylation and degradation of this mutant, implying that other attachment sites and/or proteolytic pathways exist. Collectively, we expand the catalog of ubiquitylation targets in Arabidopsis and show that this post-translational modification is central to the rewiring of plants for photoautotrophic growth.

Photoreceptor PhyB Involved in Arabidopsis Temperature Perception and Heat-Tolerance Formation

The influence of temperature on plants is essential. However, our knowledge on the intricate regulation process underlying heat stress (HS) response in plants is limited. Recently, information about thermal sensors in vivo has begun to emerge. In this study, another primary environmental stimulus, light, was verified once again to work with temperature synergistically on plants, through the modulation of numerous biological processes. With the application of transcriptomic analysis, a substantial number of heat-responsive genes were detected involved in both light- and phytohormone-mediated pathways in Arabidopsis. During this process, phytoreceptor phyB acts as a molecular switch to turn on or turn off several other genes HS response, under different light conditions. Furthermore, a morphological study showed the afunction of phyB enhanced plants thermal tolerance, confirming the important role of this phytochrome in temperature perception and response in plants. This study adds data to the picture of light and temperature signaling cross-talk in plants, which is important for the exploration of complicated HS responses or light-mediated mechanisms. Furthermore, based on its influence on Arabidopsis thermal response in both morphological and physiological levels, phyB is a photoreceptor, as revealed before, as well as an essential thermal sensor in plants.

Phytochrome diversification in cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae

Phytochromes control almost every aspect of plant biology, including germination, growth, development, and flowering, in response to red and far-red light. These photoreceptors thus hold considerable promise for engineering crop plant responses to light. Recently, structural research has shed new light on how phytochromes work. Genomic and transcriptomic studies have improved our understanding of phytochrome loss, retention, and diversification during evolution. We are also beginning to understand phytochrome function in cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae.

The phycocyanobilin chromophore of streptophyte algal phytochromes is synthesized by HY2

Land plant phytochromes perceive red and far-red light to control growth and development, using the linear tetrapyrrole (bilin) chromophore phytochromobilin (PΦB). Phytochromes from streptophyte algae, sister species to land plants, instead use phycocyanobilin (PCB). PCB and PΦB are synthesized by different ferredoxin-dependent bilin reductases (FDBRs): PΦB is synthesized by HY2, whereas PCB is synthesized by PcyA. The pathway for PCB biosynthesis in streptophyte algae is unknown. We used phylogenetic analysis and heterologous reconstitution of bilin biosynthesis to investigate bilin biosynthesis in streptophyte algae. Phylogenetic results suggest that PcyA is present in chlorophytes and prasinophytes but absent in streptophytes. A system reconstituting bilin biosynthesis in Escherichia coli was modified to utilize HY2 from the streptophyte alga Klebsormidium flaccidum (KflaHY2). The resulting bilin was incorporated into model cyanobacterial photoreceptors and into phytochrome from the early-diverging streptophyte alga Mesostigma viride (MvirPHY1). All photoreceptors tested incorporate PCB rather than PΦB, indicating that KflaHY2 is sufficient for PCB synthesis without any other algal protein. MvirPHY1 exhibits a red-far-red photocycle similar to those seen in other streptophyte algal phytochromes. These results demonstrate that streptophyte algae use HY2 to synthesize PCB, consistent with the hypothesis that PΦB synthesis arose late in HY2 evolution.

Mechanism of Dual Targeting of the Phytochrome Signaling Component HEMERA/pTAC12 to Plastids and the Nucleus

HEMERA (HMR) is a nuclear and plastidial dual-targeted protein. While it functions in the nucleus as a transcriptional coactivator in phytochrome signaling to regulate a distinct set of light-responsive, growth-relevant genes, in plastids it is known as pTAC12, which associates with the plastid-encoded RNA polymerase, and is essential for inducing the plastomic photosynthetic genes and initiating chloroplast biogenesis. However, the mechanism of targeting HMR to the nucleus and plastids is still poorly understood. Here, we show that HMR can be directly imported into chloroplasts through a transit peptide residing in the N-terminal 50 amino acids. Upon cleavage of the transit peptide and additional proteolytic processing, mature HMR, which begins from Lys-58, retains its biochemical properties in phytochrome signaling. Unexpectedly, expression of mature HMR failed to rescue not only the plastidial but also the nuclear defects of the hmr mutant. This is because the predicted nuclear localization signals of HMR are nonfunctional, and therefore mature HMR is unable to accumulate in either plastids or the nucleus. Surprisingly, fusing the transit peptide of the small subunit of Rubisco with mature HMR rescues both its plastidial and nuclear localization and functions. These results, combined with the observation that the nuclear form of HMR has the same reduced molecular mass as plastidial HMR, support a retrograde protein translocation mechanism in which HMR is targeted first to plastids, processed to the mature form, and then relocated to the nucleus.

Arabidopsis NF-YCs Mediate the Light-Controlled Hypocotyl Elongation via Modulating Histone Acetylation

Light is a crucial environmental signal that promotes photomorphogenesis, the developmental process with a series of light-dependent alterations for plants to adapt various external challenges. Chromatin modification has been proposed to be involved in such light-mediated growth, but the underlying mechanism is still elusive. In this study, we identified four Arabidopsis thaliana Nuclear Factor-YC homologs, NF-YC1, NF-YC3, NF-YC4, and NF-YC9 (NF-YCs), which function redundantly as repressors of light-controlled hypocotyl elongation via histone deacetylation. Obvious etiolation phenotypes are observed in NF-YCs loss-of-function mutant seedlings grown under light conditions, including significant elongated hypocotyls and fewer opened cotyledons. We found that NF-YCs interact with histone deacetylase HDA15 in the light, co-target the promoters of a set of hypocotyl elongation-related genes, and modulate the levels of histone H4 acetylation on the associated chromatins, thus repressing gene expression. In contrast, NF-YC-HDA15 complex is dismissed from the target genes in the dark, resulting in increased level of H4 acetylation and consequent etiolated growth. Further analyses revealed that transcriptional repression activity of NF-YCs on the light-controlled hypocotyl elongation partially depends on the deacetylation activity of HDA15, and loss of HDA15 function could rescue the short-hypocotyl phenotype of NF-YCs overexpression plants. Taken together, our results indicate that NF-YC1, NF-YC3, NF-YC4, and NF-YC9 function as transcriptional co-repressors by interacting with HDA15 to inhibit hypocotyl elongation in photomorphogenesis during the early seedling stage. Our findings highlight that NF-YCs can modulate plant development in response to environmental cues via epigenetic regulation.

Seed-specific transcription factor HSFA9 links late embryogenesis and early photomorphogenesis

HSFA9 is a seed-specific transcription factor that in sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is involved in desiccation tolerance and longevity. Here we show that the constitutive overexpression of HSFA9 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) seedlings attenuated hypocotyl growth under darkness and accelerated the initial photosynthetic development. Plants overexpressing HSFA9 increased accumulation of carotenoids, chlorophyllide, and chlorophyll, and displayed earlier unfolding of the cotyledons. HSFA9 enhanced phytochrome-dependent light responses, as shown by an intensified hypocotyl length reduction after treatments with continuous far-red or red light. This observation indicated the involvement of at least two phytochromes: PHYA and PHYB. Reduced hypocotyl length under darkness did not depend on phytochrome photo-activation; this was inferred from the lack of effect observed using far-red light pulses applied before the dark treatment. HSFA9 increased the expression of genes that activate photomorphogenesis, including PHYA, PHYB, and HY5. HSFA9 might directly upregulate PHYA and indirectly affect PHYB transcription, as suggested by transient expression assays. Converse effects on gene expression, greening, and cotyledon unfolding were observed using a dominant-negative form of HSFA9, which was overexpressed under a seed-specific promoter. This work uncovers a novel transcriptional link, through HSFA9, between seed maturation and early photomorphogenesis. In all, our data suggest that HSFA9 enhances photomorphogenesis via early transcriptional effects that start in seeds under darkness.

PIF4 Coordinates Thermosensory Growth and Immunity in Arabidopsis

Temperature is a key seasonal signal that shapes plant growth. Elevated ambient temperature accelerates growth and developmental transitions [1] while compromising plant defenses, leading to increased susceptibility [2, 3]. Suppression of immunity at elevated temperature is at the interface of trade-off between growth and defense [2, 4]. Climate change and the increase in average growth-season temperatures threaten biodiversity and food security [5, 6]. Despite its significance, the molecular mechanisms that link thermosensory growth and defense responses are not known. Here we show that PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR 4 (PIF4)-mediated thermosensory growth and architecture adaptations are directly linked to suppression of immunity at elevated temperature. PIF4 positively regulates growth and development and negatively regulates immunity. We also show that natural variation of PIF4-mediated temperature response underlies variation in the balance between growth and defense among Arabidopsis natural strains. Importantly, we find that modulation of PIF4 function alters temperature sensitivity of defense. Perturbation of PIF4-mediated growth has resulted in temperature-resilient disease resistance. This study reveals a molecular link between thermosensory growth and immunity in plants. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms that define environmental signal integration is key to the development of novel strategies for breeding temperature-resilient disease resistance in crops.

Light behind the curtain: photoregulation of nuclear architecture and chromatin dynamics in plants

Light is a powerful stimulus regulating many aspects of plant development and phenotypic plasticity. Plants sense light through the action of specialized photoreceptor protein families that absorb different wavelengths and intensities of light. Recent discoveries in the area of photobiology have uncovered photoreversible changes in nuclear organization correlated with transcriptional regulation patterns that lead to de-etiolation and photoacclimation. Novel signalling components bridging photoreceptor activation with chromatin remodelling and regulation of gene expression have been discovered. Moreover, coregulated gene loci have been shown to relocate to the nuclear periphery in response to light. The study of photoinduced changes in nuclear architecture is a flourishing area leading to major discoveries that will allow us to better understand how highly conserved mechanisms underlying genomic reprogramming are triggered by environmental and endogenous stimuli. This review aims to discuss fundamental and innovative reports demonstrating how light triggers changes in chromatin and nuclear architecture during photomorphogenesis.

Diurnal changes in the histone H3 signature H3K9ac|H3K27ac|H3S28p are associated with diurnal gene expression in Arabidopsis

Post-translational chromatin modifications are an important regulatory mechanism in light signalling and circadian clock function. The regulation of diurnal transcript level changes requires fine-tuning of the expression of generally active genes depending on the prevailing environmental conditions. We investigated the association of histone modifications H3K4me3, H3K9ac, H3K9me2, H3S10p, H3K27ac, H3K27me3 and H3S28p with diurnal changes in transcript expression using chromatin immunoprecipitations followed by sequencing (ChIP-Seq) in fully expanded leaves 6 of Arabidopsis thaliana grown in short-day optimal and water-deficit conditions. We identified a differential H3K9ac, H3K27ac and H3S28p signature between end-of-day and end-of-night that is correlated with changes in diurnal transcript levels. Genes with this signature have particular over-represented promoter elements and encode proteins that are significantly enriched for transcription factors, circadian clock and starch catabolic process. Additional activating modifications were prevalent in optimally watered (H3S10p) and in water-deficit (H3K4me3) plants. The data suggest a mechanism for diurnal transcript level regulation in which reduced binding of repressive transcription factors facilitates activating H3K9ac, H3K27ac and H3S28p chromatin modifications. The presence of activating chromatin modification patterns on genes only at times of the day when their expression is required can explain why some genes are differentially inducible during the diurnal cycle.

Mapping light-driven conformational changes within the photosensory module of plant phytochrome B

Organisms developed different photoreceptors to be able to adapt to changing environmental light conditions. Phytochromes are red/far-red (r/fr) photochromic photoreceptors that belong to the classical photoreceptors along with cryptochromes and phototropins. They convert absorbed light into a biological signal by switching between two states in a light-dependent manner therefore enabling the light control downstream signalling. Their P_fr conformation is the biological active form in plants, but until now only a structure of the ground state (P_r) was solved. Here, the authors provide information about structural changes occurring during photoconversion within phytochrome B and identify possible interaction sites for its N-terminal extension (NTE) utilising hydrogen/deuterium exchange rate analyses of its amide backbone. Especially, the newly identified light-dependency of two regions in the NTE are of particular interest for understanding the involvement of the phytochrome’s NTE in the regulation of its downstream signalling.

FAR-RED ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL3 promotes floral meristem determinacy in Arabidopsis

The transposase-derived transcription factor genes FAR-RED ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL3 (FHY3) and FAR-RED IMPAIRED RESPONSE1 (FAR1) have redundant and multifaceted roles in plant growth and development during the vegetative stage, including phytochrome A-mediated far-red light (FR) signaling and circadian clock entrainment. Little is known about their functions in the reproductive stage. We recently demonstrated that FHY3 plays important roles in shoot apical meristem (SAM) maintenance and floral meristem (FM) determinacy through its target genes CLAVATA3 (CLV3), SEPALLATA1 (SEP1) and SEP2. Here we present data that FHY3 but not its homolog, FAR1, has a distinct role in FM determinacy in a manner independent of its light signaling and circadian pathway functions. Moreover, genome-wide gene expression profiling showed that the homeostasis of the FM is critical for the regulation of FM activity.

Information Integration and Communication in Plant Growth Regulation

Plants are equipped with the capacity to respond to a large number of diverse signals, both internal ones and those emanating from the environment, that are critical to their survival and adaption as sessile organisms. These signals need to be integrated through highly structured intracellular networks to ensure coherent cellular responses, and in addition, spatiotemporal actions of hormones and peptides both orchestrate local cell differentiation and coordinate growth and physiology over long distances. Further, signal interactions and signaling outputs vary significantly with developmental context. This review discusses our current understanding of the integrated intracellular and intercellular signaling networks that control plant growth.

New Constitutively Active Phytochromes Exhibit Light-Independent Signaling Activity

Plant phytochromes are photoreceptors that mediate a variety of photomorphogenic responses. There are two spectral photoisomers, the red light-absorbing Pr and far-red light-absorbing Pfr forms, and the photoreversible transformation between the two forms is important for the functioning of phytochromes. In this study, we isolated a Tyr-268-to-Val mutant of Avena sativa phytochrome A (AsYVA) that displayed little photoconversion. Interestingly, transgenic plants of AsYVA showed light-independent phytochrome signaling with a constitutive photomorphogenic (cop) phenotype that is characterized by shortened hypocotyls and open cotyledons in the dark. In addition, the corresponding Tyr-303-to-Val mutant of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) phytochrome B (AtYVB) exhibited nuclear localization and interaction with phytochrome-interacting factor 3 (PIF3) independently of light, conferring a constitutive photomorphogenic development to its transgenic plants, which is comparable to the first constitutively active version of phytochrome B (YHB; Tyr-276-to-His mutant). We also found that chromophore ligation was required for the light-independent interaction of AtYVB with PIF3. Moreover, we demonstrated that AtYVB did not exhibit phytochrome B activity when it was localized in the cytosol by fusion with the nuclear export signal and that AsYVA exhibited the full activity of phytochrome A when localized in the nucleus by fusion with the nuclear localization signal. Furthermore, the corresponding Tyr-269-to-Val mutant of Arabidopsis phytochrome A (AtYVA) exhibited similar cop phenotypes in transgenic plants to AsYVA. Collectively, these results suggest that the conserved Tyr residues in the chromophore-binding pocket play an important role during the Pr-to-Pfr photoconversion of phytochromes, providing new constitutively active alleles of phytochromes by the Tyr-to-Val mutation.

Mapping the subcellular mechanical properties of live cells in tissues with fluorescence emission-Brillouin imaging

Extracellular matrices (ECMs) are central to the advent of multicellular life, and their mechanical properties are modulated by and impinge on intracellular signaling pathways that regulate vital cellular functions. High spatial-resolution mapping of mechanical properties in live cells is, however, extremely challenging. Thus, our understanding of how signaling pathways process physiological signals to generate appropriate mechanical responses is limited. We introduce fluorescence emission-Brillouin scattering imaging (FBi), a method for the parallel and all-optical measurements of mechanical properties and fluorescence at the submicrometer scale in living organisms. Using FBi, we showed that changes in cellular hydrostatic pressure and cytoplasm viscoelasticity modulate the mechanical signatures of plant ECMs. We further established that the measured "stiffness" of plant ECMs is symmetrically patterned in hypocotyl cells undergoing directional growth. Finally, application of this method to Arabidopsis thaliana with photoreceptor mutants revealed that red and far-red light signals are essential modulators of ECM viscoelasticity. By mapping the viscoelastic signatures of a complex ECM, we provide proof of principle for the organism-wide applicability of FBi for measuring the mechanical outputs of intracellular signaling pathways. As such, our work has implications for investigations of mechanosignaling pathways and developmental biology.

Photoreceptor effects on plant biomass, resource allocation, and metabolic state

Plants sense the light environment through an ensemble of photoreceptors. Members of the phytochrome class of light receptors are known to play a critical role in seedling establishment, and are among the best-characterized plant signaling components. Phytochromes also regulate adult plant growth; however, our knowledge of this process is rather fragmented. This study demonstrates that phytochrome controls carbon allocation and biomass production in the developing plant. Phytochrome mutants have a reduced CO2 uptake, yet overaccumulate daytime sucrose and starch. This finding suggests that even though carbon fixation is impeded, the available carbon resources are not fully used for growth during the day. Supporting this notion, phytochrome depletion alters the proportion of day:night growth. In addition, phytochrome loss leads to sizeable reductions in overall growth, dry weight, total protein levels, and the expression of CELLULOSE SYNTHASE-LIKE genes. Because cellulose and protein are major constituents of plant biomass, our data point to an important role for phytochrome in regulating these fundamental components of plant productivity. We show that phytochrome loss impacts core metabolism, leading to elevated levels of tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates, amino acids, sugar derivatives, and notably the stress metabolites proline and raffinose. Furthermore, the already growth-retarded phytochrome mutants are less responsive to growth-inhibiting abiotic stresses and have elevated expression of stress marker genes. This coordinated response appears to divert resources from energetically costly biomass production to improve resilience. In nature, this strategy may be activated in phytochrome-disabling, vegetation-dense habitats to enhance survival in potentially resource-limiting conditions.

Arabidopsis atypical kinase ABC1K1 is involved in red light-mediated development

ABC1K1 functions as a novel negative regulator downstream of phyB and HY5 in red light-mediated Arabidopsis development. Light is a key environmental factor for plant morphogenesis. To understand the role of ACTIVITY OF BC1 COMPLEX KINASE (ABC1K) family members in light-mediated Arabidopsis development, we examined the phenotype of abc1k mutants under various light conditions. We show that abc1k1 mutants display significantly short hypocotyls specifically under continuous red light and this effect is more apparent under higher red light fluence rates. The expression of PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORs (PIFs), transcription factors in red light signaling, is repressed in abc1k1 mutants under continuous red light. The expression pattern of ABC1K1 is independent of light conditions. Furthermore, genetic analysis indicates that abc1k1 almost completely suppresses the long hypocotyl phenotype of phyB and hy5. However, the mutation of ABC1K3, one homolog of ABC1K1, reverses the inhibition of hypocotyl elongation in phyB and hy5 by abc1k1. Together, our research describes novel characteristics for ABC1K1 in seedling stage and defines it as a novel negative component in red light-mediated Arabidopsis development.

Evidence that phytochrome functions as a protein kinase in plant light signalling

It has been suggested that plant phytochromes are autophosphorylating serine/threonine kinases. However, the biochemical properties and functional roles of putative phytochrome kinase activity in plant light signalling are largely unknown. Here, we describe the biochemical and functional characterization of Avena sativa phytochrome A (AsphyA) as a potential protein kinase. We provide evidence that phytochrome-interacting factors (PIFs) are phosphorylated by phytochromes in vitro. Domain mapping of AsphyA shows that the photosensory core region consisting of PAS-GAF-PHY domains in the N-terminal is required for the observed kinase activity. Moreover, we demonstrate that transgenic plants expressing mutant versions of AsphyA, which display reduced activity in in vitro kinase assays, show hyposensitive responses to far-red light. Further analysis reveals that far-red light-induced phosphorylation and degradation of PIF3 are significantly reduced in these transgenic plants. Collectively, these results suggest a positive relationship between phytochrome kinase activity and photoresponses in plants.

Phytochromes regulate plant responses to environmental light conditions but despite extensive research the initial events in phytochrome signaling remain uncertain. Here, Shin et al. provide evidence that phytochrome phosphorylates target proteins via kinase activity in the N-terminal core domain.

Arabidopsis FHY3 and FAR1 Regulate Light-Induced myo-Inositol Biosynthesis and Oxidative Stress Responses by Transcriptional Activation of MIPS1

myo-Inositol-1-phosphate synthase (MIPS) catalyzes the limiting step of inositol biosynthesis and has crucial roles in plant growth and development. In response to stress, the transcription of MIPS1 is induced and the biosynthesis of inositol or inositol derivatives is promoted by unknown mechanisms. Here, we found that the light signaling protein FAR-RED ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL3 (FHY3) and its homolog FAR-RED IMPAIRED RESPONSE1 (FAR1) regulate light-induced inositol biosynthesis and oxidative stress responses by activating the transcription of MIPS1. Disruption of FHY3 and FAR1 caused light-induced cell death after dark-light transition, precocious leaf senescence, and increased sensitivity to oxidative stress. Reduction of salicylic acid (SA) accumulation by overexpression of SALICYLIC ACID 3-HYDROXYLASE largely suppressed the cell death phenotype of fhy3 far1 mutant plants, suggesting that FHY3- and FAR1-mediated cell death is dependent on SA. Furthermore, comparative analysis of chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing and microarray results revealed that FHY3 and FAR1 directly target both MIPS1 and MIPS2. The fhy3 far1 mutant plants showed severely decreased MIPS1/2 transcript levels and reduced inositol levels. Conversely, constitutive expression of MIPS1 partially rescued the inositol contents, caused reduced transcript levels of SA-biosynthesis genes, and prevented oxidative stress in fhy3 far1. Taken together, our results indicate that the light signaling proteins FHY3 and FAR1 directly bind the promoter of MIPS1 to activate its expression and thereby promote inositol biosynthesis to prevent light-induced oxidative stress and SA-dependent cell death.

LIGHT-INDUCED RICE1 Regulates Light-Dependent Attachment of LEAF-TYPE FERREDOXIN-NADP+ OXIDOREDUCTASE to the Thylakoid Membrane in Rice and Arabidopsis

LIR1 (LIGHT-INDUCED RICE1) encodes a 13-kD, chloroplast-targeted protein containing two nearly identical motifs of unknown function. LIR1 is present in the genomes of vascular plants, mosses, liverworts, and algae, but not in cyanobacteria. Using coimmunoprecipitation assays, pull-down assays, and yeast two-hybrid analyses, we showed that LIR1 interacts with LEAF-TYPE FERREDOXIN-NADP(+) OXIDOREDUCTASE (LFNR), an essential chloroplast enzyme functioning in the last step of photosynthetic linear electron transfer. LIR1 and LFNR formed high molecular weight thylakoid protein complexes with the TIC62 and TROL proteins, previously shown to anchor LFNR to the membrane. We further showed that LIR1 increases the affinity of LFNRs for TIC62 and that the rapid light-triggered degradation of the LIR1 coincides with the release of the LFNR from the thylakoid membrane. Loss of LIR1 resulted in a marked decrease in the accumulation of LFNR-containing thylakoid protein complexes without a concomitant decrease in total LFNR content. In rice (Oryza sativa), photosynthetic capacity of lir1 plants was slightly impaired, whereas no such effect was observed in Arabidopsis thaliana knockout mutants. The consequences of LIR1 deficiency in different species are discussed.

TOPP4 Regulates the Stability of PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR5 during Photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis

In plants, photoreceptors transfer light signals to phytochrome-interacting factors (PIFs), inducing the rapid phosphorylation and degradation of PIFs to promote photomorphogenesis. However, the phosphatase responsible for PIF dephosphorylation remains unknown. In this study, we identified a type 1 protein phosphatase, TOPP4, that is essential for PIF5 protein stability in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Compared with the wild type, the dominant-negative mutant, topp4-1, displayed reduced hypocotyl length and larger apical hook and cotyledon opening angle under red light. Overexpression of topp4-1 in the wild type led to defects that were similar to those in the topp4-1 mutant. Red light induced phytochrome B (phyB)-dependent TOPP4 expression in hypocotyls. The topp4-1 mutation weakened the closed cotyledon angle of phyB-9 and phyA-211 phyB-9, while overexpression of TOPP4 significantly repressed the short hypocotyls of phyB-green fluorescent protein seedlings, indicating that TOPP4 and phyB function in an antagonistic way during photomorphogenesis. Protein interaction assays and phosphorylation studies demonstrate that TOPP4 interacts directly with PIF5 and dephosphorylates it. Furthermore, TOPP4 inhibits the red light-induced ubiquitination and degradation of PIF5. These findings demonstrate that dephosphorylation of PIF5 by TOPP4 inhibits its ubiquitin-mediated degradation during photomorphogenesis. These data outline a novel phytochrome signaling mechanism by which TOPP4-mediated dephosphorylation of PIF5 attenuates phytochrome-dependent light responses.

REDUCED CHLOROPLAST COVERAGE genes from Arabidopsis thaliana help to establish the size of the chloroplast compartment

Eukaryotic cells require mechanisms to establish the proportion of cellular volume devoted to particular organelles. These mechanisms are poorly understood. From a screen for plastid-to-nucleus signaling mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana, we cloned a mutant allele of a gene that encodes a protein of unknown function that is homologous to two other Arabidopsis genes of unknown function and to FRIENDLY, which was previously shown to promote the normal distribution of mitochondria in Arabidopsis. In contrast to FRIENDLY, these three homologs of FRIENDLY are found only in photosynthetic organisms. Based on these data, we proposed that FRIENDLY expanded into a small gene family to help regulate the energy metabolism of cells that contain both mitochondria and chloroplasts. Indeed, we found that knocking out these genes caused a number of chloroplast phenotypes, including a reduction in the proportion of cellular volume devoted to chloroplasts to 50% of wild type. Thus, we refer to these genes as REDUCED CHLOROPLAST COVERAGE (REC). The size of the chloroplast compartment was reduced most in rec1 mutants. The REC1 protein accumulated in the cytosol and the nucleus. REC1 was excluded from the nucleus when plants were treated with amitrole, which inhibits cell expansion and chloroplast function. We conclude that REC1 is an extraplastidic protein that helps to establish the size of the chloroplast compartment, and that signals derived from cell expansion or chloroplasts may regulate REC1.

The role of COP1 in repression of photoperiodic flowering

Plants use the circadian clock as a timekeeping mechanism to regulate photoperiodic flowering in response to the seasonal changes. CONSTITUTIVELY PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1), initially identified as a central repressor of seedling photomorphogenesis, was recently shown to be involved in the regulation of light input to the circadian clock, modulating the circadian rhythm and flowering. COP1 encodes a RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligase and works in concert with SUPPRESSOR of phyA-105 (SPA) proteins to repress photoperiodic flowering by regulating proteasome-mediated degradation of CONSTANS (CO), a central regulator of photoperiodic flowering. In addition, COP1 and EARLY FLOWERING 3 (ELF3) indirectly modulate CO expression via the degradation of GIGANTEA (GI). Here, we summarize the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying COP1’s role in controlling of photoperiodic flowering.

PCH1 integrates circadian and light-signaling pathways to control photoperiod-responsive growth in Arabidopsis

Plants react to seasonal change in day length through altering physiology and development. Factors that function to harmonize growth with photoperiod are poorly understood. Here we characterize a new protein that associates with both circadian clock and photoreceptor components, named PHOTOPERIODIC CONTROL OF HYPOCOTYL1 (PCH1). pch1 seedlings have overly elongated hypocotyls specifically under short days while constitutive expression of PCH1 shortens hypocotyls independent of day length. PCH1 peaks at dusk, binds phytochrome B (phyB) in a red light-dependent manner, and co-localizes with phyB into photobodies. PCH1 is necessary and sufficient to promote the biogenesis of large photobodies to maintain an active phyB pool after light exposure, potentiating red-light signaling and prolonging memory of prior illumination. Manipulating PCH1 alters PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR 4 levels and regulates light-responsive gene expression. Thus, PCH1 is a new factor that regulates photoperiod-responsive growth by integrating the clock with light perception pathways through modulating daily phyB-signaling.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13292.001

Most living things possess an internal “circadian” clock that synchronizes many behaviors, such as eating, resting or growing, with the day-night cycle. With the help of proteins that can detect light, known as photoreceptors, the clock also coordinates these behaviors as the number of daylight hours changes during the year. However, it is not known how the clock and photoreceptors are able to work together.

The circadian clocks of animals and plants have evolved separately and use different proteins. In plants, a photoreceptor called phytochrome B responds to red light and regulates the ability of plants to grow. Most plants harness sunlight during the day, but grow fastest in the dark just before dawn. In 2015, researchers identified a new protein in a plant called Arabidopsis that is associated with several plant clock proteins and photoreceptors, including phytochrome B. However, the role of this new protein was not clear.

Now, Huang et al. – including many of the researchers from the 2015 work – studied the new protein, named PCH1, in more detail. The experiments show that PCH1 is a critical link that regulates the daily growth of Arabidopsis plants in response to the number of daylight hours. PCH1 stabilizes the structure of phytochrome B so that it remains active, even in the dark. This prolonged activity acts as a molecular memory of prior exposure to light and helps to prevent plants from growing too much in the winter when there are fewer hours of daylight. Since PCH1 is also found in other species of plants, it may play the same role in regulating growth of major crop plants.

The next challenge is to understand how the binding of PCH1 to phytochrome B alters the photoreceptor’s activity. In the future, Huang et al. hope to find out if manipulating the activity of PCH1 can improve the growth of crops in places where there is a large change in day length across the seasons.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13292.002

The impact of abiotic factors on cellulose synthesis

As sessile organisms, plants require mechanisms to sense and respond to changes in their environment, including both biotic and abiotic factors. One of the most common plant adaptations to environmental changes is differential regulation of growth, which results in growth either away from adverse conditions or towards more favorable conditions. As cell walls shape plant growth, this differential growth response must be accompanied by alterations to the plant cell wall. Here, we review the impact of four abiotic factors (osmotic conditions, ionic stress, light, and temperature) on the synthesis of cellulose, an important component of the plant cell wall. Understanding how different abiotic factors influence cellulose production and addressing key questions that remain in this field can provide crucial information to cope with the need for increased crop production under the mounting pressures of a growing world population and global climate change.

Chloroplast and nuclear photorelocation movements

Chloroplasts move toward weak light to increase photosynthetic efficiency, and migrate away from strong light to protect chloroplasts from photodamage and eventual cell death. These chloroplast behaviors were first observed more than 100 years ago, but the underlying mechanism has only recently been identified. Ideal plant materials, such as fern gametophytes for photobiological and cell biological approaches, and Arabidopsis thaliana for genetic analyses, have been used along with sophisticated methods, such as partial cell irradiation and time-lapse video recording under infrared light to study chloroplast movement. These studies have revealed precise chloroplast behavior, and identified photoreceptors, other relevant protein components, and novel actin filament structures required for chloroplast movement. In this review, our findings regarding chloroplast and nuclear movements are described.

Reconstitution of an Initial Step of Phototropin Signaling in Stomatal Guard Cells

Phototropins are light-activated receptor kinases that mediate a wide range of blue light responses responsible for the optimization of photosynthesis. Despite the physiological importance of phototropins, it is still unclear how they transduce light signals into physiological responses. Here, we succeeded in reproducing a primary step of phototropin signaling in vitro using a physiological substrate of phototropin, the BLUS1 (BLUE LIGHT SIGNALING1) kinase of guard cells. When PHOT1 and BLUS1 were expressed in Escherichia coli and the resulting recombinant proteins were incubated with ATP, white and blue light induced phosphorylation of BLUS1 but red light and darkness did not. Site-directed mutagenesis of PHOT1 and BLUS1 revealed that the phosphorylation was catalyzed by phot1 kinase. Similar to stomatal blue light responses, the BLUS1 phosphorylation depended on the fluence rate of blue light and was inhibited by protein kinase inhibitors, K-252a and staurosporine. In contrast to the result in vivo, BLUS1 was not dephosphorylated in vitro, suggesting the involvement of a protein phosphatase in the response in vivo. phot1 with a C-terminal kinase domain but devoid of the N-terminal domain, constitutively phosphorylated BLUS1 without blue light, indicating that the N-terminal domain has an autoinhibitory action and prevents substrate phosphorylation. The results provide the first reconstitution of a primary step of phototropin signaling and a clue for understanding the molecular nature of this process.

Arabidopsis COP1 SUPPRESSOR 2 Represses COP1 E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Activity through Their Coiled-Coil Domains Association

CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1) functions as an E3 ubiquitin ligase and mediates a variety of developmental processes in Arabidopsis by targeting a number of key regulators for ubiquitination and degradation. Here, we identify a novel COP1 interacting protein, COP1 SUPPRESSOR 2 (CSU2). Loss of function mutations in CSU2 suppress the constitutive photomorphogenic phenotype of cop1-6 in darkness. CSU2 directly interacts with COP1 via their coiled-coil domains and is recruited by COP1 into nuclear speckles in living plant cells. Furthermore, CSU2 inhibits COP1 E3 ubiquitin ligase activity in vitro, and represses COP1 mediated turnover of HY5 in cell-free extracts. We propose that in csu2 cop1-6 mutants, the lack of CSU2’s repression of COP1 allows the low level of COP1 to exhibit higher activity that is sufficient to prevent accumulation of HY5 in the dark, thus restoring the etiolated phenotype. In addition, CSU2 is required for primary root development under normal light growth condition.

CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1) is a key regulator of light mediated developmental processes and it works as an E3 ubiquitin ligase controlling the abundance of multiple transcription factors. In the work presented here, we identified a novel repressor of COP1, the COP1 SUPPRESSOR 2 (CSU2), via a forward genetic screen. Mutations in CSU2 completely suppress cop1-6 constitutive photomorphogenic phenotype in darkness. CSU2 interacts and co-localizes with COP1 in nuclear speckles via the coiled-coil domain association. CSU2 negatively regulates COP1 E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, and repress COP1 mediated HY5 degradation in cell-free extracts.

Non-Bonded Interactions Drive the Sub-Picosecond Bilin Photoisomerization in the P(fr) State of Phytochrome Cph1

Phytochromes are protein-based photoreceptors harboring a bilin-based photoswitch in the active site. The timescale of photosignaling via C15 =C16 E-to-Z photoisomerization has been ambiguous in the far-red-absorbing Pfr state. Here we present a unified view of the structural events in phytochrome Cph1 post excitation with femtosecond precision, obtained via stimulated Raman and polarization-resolved transient IR spectroscopy. We demonstrate that photoproduct formation occurs within 700 fs, determined by a two-step partitioning process initiated by a planarization on the electronic excited state with a 300 fs time scale. The ultrafast isomerization timescale for Pfr -to-Pr conversion highlights the active role of the nonbonding methyl-methyl clash initiating the reaction in the excited state. We envision that our results will motivate the synthesis of new artificial photoswitches with precisely tuned non-bonded interactions for ultrafast response.

Short Hypocotyl in White Light1 Interacts with Elongated Hypocotyl5 (HY5) and Constitutive Photomorphogenic1 (COP1) and Promotes COP1-Mediated Degradation of HY5 during Arabidopsis Seedling Development

Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Short Hypocotyl in White Light1 (SHW1) encodes a Ser-Arg-Asp-rich protein that acts as a negative regulator of photomorphogenesis. SHW1 and Constitutive Photomorphogenic1 (COP1) genetically interact in an additive manner to suppress photomorphogenesis. Elongated Hypocotyl5 (HY5) is a photomorphogenesis promoting a basic leucine zipper transcription factor that is degraded by COP1 ubiquitin ligase in the darkness. Here, we report the functional interrelation of SHW1 with COP1 and HY5 in Arabidopsis seedling development. The in vitro and in vivo molecular interaction studies show that SHW1 physically interacts with both COP1 and HY5. The genetic studies reveal that SHW1 and HY5 work in an antagonistic manner to regulate photomorphogenic growth. Additional mutation of SHW1 in hy5 mutant background is able to suppress the gravitropic root growth defect of hy5 mutants. This study further reveals that the altered abscisic acid responsiveness of hy5 mutants is modulated by additional loss of SHW1 function. Furthermore, this study shows that SHW1 promotes COP1-mediated degradation of HY5 through enhanced ubiquitylation in the darkness. Collectively, this study highlights a mechanistic view on coordinated regulation of SHW1, COP1, and HY5 in Arabidopsis seedling development.

Plastid RNA polymerases: orchestration of enzymes with different evolutionary origins controls chloroplast biogenesis during the plant life cycle

Chloroplasts are the sunlight-collecting organelles of photosynthetic eukaryotes that energetically drive the biosphere of our planet. They are the base for all major food webs by providing essential photosynthates to all heterotrophic organisms including humans. Recent research has focused largely on an understanding of the function of these organelles, but knowledge about the biogenesis of chloroplasts is rather limited. It is known that chloroplasts develop from undifferentiated precursor plastids, the proplastids, in meristematic cells. This review focuses on the activation and action of plastid RNA polymerases, which play a key role in the development of new chloroplasts from proplastids. Evolutionarily, plastids emerged from the endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium-like ancestor into a heterotrophic eukaryote. As an evolutionary remnant of this process, they possess their own genome, which is expressed by two types of plastid RNA polymerase, phage-type and prokaryotic-type RNA polymerase. The protein subunits of these polymerases are encoded in both the nuclear and plastid genomes. Their activation and action therefore require a highly sophisticated regulation that controls and coordinates the expression of the components encoded in the plastid and nucleus. Stoichiometric expression and correct assembly of RNA polymerase complexes is achieved by a combination of developmental and environmentally induced programmes. This review highlights the current knowledge about the functional coordination between the different types of plastid RNA polymerases and provides working models of their sequential expression and function for future investigations.

Role of phytochromes A and B in the regulation of cell death and acclimatory responses to UV stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants coordinate their responses to various biotic and abiotic stresses in order to optimize their developmental and acclimatory programmes. The ultimate response to an excessive amount of stress is local induction of cell death mechanisms. The death of certain cells can help to maintain tissue homeostasis and enable nutrient remobilization, thus increasing the survival chances of the whole organism in unfavourable environmental conditions. UV radiation is one of the environmental factors that negatively affects the photosynthetic process and triggers cell death. The aim of this work was to evaluate a possible role of the red/far-red light photoreceptors phytochrome A (phyA) and phytochrome B (phyB) and their interrelations during acclimatory responses to UV stress. We showed that UV-C treatment caused a disturbance in photosystem II and a deregulation of photosynthetic pigment content and antioxidant enzymes activities, followed by increased cell mortality rate in phyB and phyAB null mutants. We also propose a regulatory role of phyA and phyB in CO2 assimilation, non-photochemical quenching, reactive oxygen species accumulation and salicylic acid content. Taken together, our results suggest a novel role of phytochromes as putative regulators of cell death and acclimatory responses to UV.

Light-regulated gene repositioning in Arabidopsis

Plant genomes are extremely sensitive to, and can be developmentally reprogrammed by environmental light cues. Here using rolling-circle amplification of gene-specific circularizable oligonucleotides coupled with fluorescence in situ hybridization, we demonstrate that light triggers a rapid repositioning of the Arabidopsis light-inducible chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins (CAB) locus from the nuclear interior to the nuclear periphery during its transcriptional activation. CAB repositioning is mediated by the red/far-red photoreceptors phytochromes (PHYs) and is inhibited by repressors of PHY signalling, including COP1, DET1 and PIFs. CAB repositioning appears to be a separate regulatory step occurring before its full transcriptional activation. Moreover, the light-inducible loci RBCS, PC and GUN5 undergo similar repositioning behaviour during their transcriptional activation. Our study supports a light-dependent gene regulatory mechanism in which PHYs activate light-inducible loci by relocating them to the nuclear periphery; it also provides evidence for the biological importance of gene positioning in the plant kingdom.

Genetic interactions between DET1 and intermediate genes in Arabidopsis ABA signalling

Seed germination is regulated positively by light and negatively by the dormancy-promoting phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA). DE-ETIOLATED 1 (DET1) is a negative regulator of light signalling in Arabidopsis thaliana. In contrast, the bZIP transcription factor LONG HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5) is a positive regulator of light signalling. HY5 also positively regulates ABA signalling by promoting the expression of ABA INSENSITIVE 5 (ABI5), a dormancy promoting transcription factor. Here we show that germination in det1 mutants is sensitive to ABA. Double mutant analysis indicates that det1 ABA sensitive germination requires HY5 and ABI5. DET1 forms a complex with DAMAGED DNA BINDING protein 1A/B (DDB1A/B). Another DDB1 complex containing DWA1 and 2 (DWD hypersensitive to ABA 1/2) has also been shown to negatively regulate ABA response. Double mutant analysis indicates that DWA1, DWA2, DDB1A, and DDB1B are also required for the det1 ABA sensitive germination phenotype. We also examined water loss in adult plants and found that the det1 rapid water loss phenotype is independent of HY5, ABI5, DWA1, DWA2, and DDB1B. These findings provide insight into interactions between ABA and light signalling in Arabidopsis.

More than meets the eye: from carotenoid biosynthesis, to new insights into apocarotenoid signaling

Carotenoids are a class of isoprenoids synthesized almost exclusively in plants involved in a myriad of roles including the provision of flower and fruit pigmentation for the attraction of pollinators and seed dispersing organisms. While carotenoids are essential throughout plant development, they are also extremely important in human diets providing necessary nutrition and aiding in the prevention of various cancers, age-related diseases and macular degeneration. Utilization of multiple plant models systems (i.e. Arabidopsis; maize; and tomato) has provided a comprehensive framework detailing the regulation of carotenogenesis throughout plant development covering all levels of genetic regulation from epigenetic to post-translational modifications. That said, the understanding of how carotenoids self-regulate remains fragmented. Recent reports demonstrate the potential influence of carotenoid-cleavage products (apocarotenoids) as signaling molecules regulating carotenoid biosynthesis in addition to various aspects of plants development (i.e. leaf and root development). This review highlights recent advances in carotenogenic regulation and insights into potential roles of novel apocarotenoids in plants.

The nexus between growth and defence signalling: auxin and cytokinin modulate plant immune response pathways

Plants deploy a finely tuned balance between growth and defence responses for better fitness. Crosstalk between defence signalling hormones such as salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonates (JAs) as well as growth regulators plays a significant role in mediating the trade-off between growth and defence in plants. Here, we specifically discuss how the mutual antagonism between the signalling of auxin and SA impacts on plant growth and defence. Furthermore, the synergism between auxin and JA benefits a class of plant pathogens. JA signalling also poses growth cuts through auxin. We discuss how the effect of cytokinins (CKs) is multifaceted and is effective against a broad range of pathogens in mediating immunity. The synergism between CKs and SA promotes defence against biotrophs. Reciprocally, SA inhibits CK-mediated growth responses. Recent reports show that CKs promote JA responses; however, in a feedback loop, JA suppresses CK responses. We also highlight crosstalk between auxin and CKs and discuss their antagonistic effects on plant immunity. Efforts to minimize the negative effects of auxin on immunity and a reduction in SA- and JA-mediated growth losses should lead to better sustainable plant protection strategies.

Phytochrome diversity in green plants and the origin of canonical plant phytochromes

Phytochromes are red/far-red photoreceptors that play essential roles in diverse plant morphogenetic and physiological responses to light. Despite their functional significance, phytochrome diversity and evolution across photosynthetic eukaryotes remain poorly understood. Using newly available transcriptomic and genomic data we show that canonical plant phytochromes originated in a common ancestor of streptophytes (charophyte algae and land plants). Phytochromes in charophyte algae are structurally diverse, including canonical and non-canonical forms, whereas in land plants, phytochrome structure is highly conserved. Liverworts, hornworts and Selaginella apparently possess a single phytochrome, whereas independent gene duplications occurred within mosses, lycopods, ferns and seed plants, leading to diverse phytochrome families in these clades. Surprisingly, the phytochrome portions of algal and land plant neochromes, a chimera of phytochrome and phototropin, appear to share a common origin. Our results reveal novel phytochrome clades and establish the basis for understanding phytochrome functional evolution in land plants and their algal relatives.

Phytochromes are red-light photoreceptors in plants that regulate key life cycle processes, yet their evolutionary origins are not well understood. Using transcriptomic and genomic data, Li et al. find that canonical plant phytochromes originated in a common ancestor of land plants and charophyte algae.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinase 3 Is Required for Regulation during Dark-Light Transition

Plant growth and development are coordinately orchestrated by environmental cues and phytohormones. Light acts as a key environmental factor for fundamental plant growth and physiology through photosensory phytochromes and underlying molecular mechanisms. Although phytochromes are known to possess serine/threonine protein kinase activities, whether they trigger a signal transduction pathway via an intracellular protein kinase network remains unknown. In analyses of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPKK, also called MKK) mutants, the mkk3 mutant has shown both a hypersensitive response in plant hormone gibberellin (GA) and a less sensitive response in red light signaling. Surprisingly, light-induced MAPK activation in wild-type (WT) seedlings and constitutive MAPK phosphorylation in dark-grown mkk3 mutant seedlings have also been found, respectively. Therefore, this study suggests that MKK3 acts in negative regulation in darkness and in light-induced MAPK activation during dark-light transition.

Natural Variation Identifies ICARUS1, a Universal Gene Required for Cell Proliferation and Growth at High Temperatures in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants are highly sensitive to environmental changes and even small variations in ambient temperature have severe consequences on their growth and development. Temperature affects multiple aspects of plant development, but the processes and mechanisms underlying thermo-sensitive growth responses are mostly unknown. Here we exploit natural variation in Arabidopsis thaliana to identify and characterize novel components and processes mediating thermo-sensitive growth responses in plants. Phenotypic screening of wild accessions identified several strains displaying pleiotropic growth defects, at cellular and organism levels, specifically at high ambient temperatures. Positional cloning and characterization of the underlying gene revealed that ICARUS1 (ICA1), which encodes a protein of the tRNA^His guanylyl transferase (Thg1) superfamily, is required for plant growth at high temperatures. Transcriptome and gene marker analyses together with DNA content measurements show that ICA1 loss-of-function results in down regulation of cell cycle associated genes at high temperatures, which is linked with a block in G2/M transition and endoreduplication. In addition, plants with mutations in ICA1 show enhanced sensitivity to DNA damage. Characterization of additional strains that carry lesions in ICA1, but display normal growth, shows that alternative splicing is likely to alleviate the deleterious effects of some natural mutations. Furthermore, analyses of worldwide and regional collections of natural accessions indicate that ICA1 loss-of-function has arisen several times independently, and that these occur at high frequency in some local populations. Overall our results suggest that ICA1-mediated-modulation of fundamental processes such as tRNA^His maturation, modify plant growth responses to temperature changes in a quantitative and reversible manner, in natural populations.

The increase in average temperatures across the globe has been predicted to have negative impacts on agricultural productivity. Therefore, there is a need to understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie plant growth responses to varying temperature regimes. At present, very little is known about the genes and pathways that modulate thermo-sensory growth responses in plants. In this article, the authors exploit natural variation in the commonly occurring weed thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana) and identify a gene referred to as ICARUS1 to be required for plant growth at higher ambient temperatures. Plants carrying lesions in this gene stop growing at high temperatures and revert to growth when temperatures reduce. Using a combination of computational, molecular and cell biological approaches, the authors demonstrate that allelic variation at ICARUS1, which encodes an enzyme required for the fundamental biochemical process of tRNA^His maturation, underlies variation in thermo-sensory growth responses of A. thaliana. Furthermore, the authors discover that the deleterious impact of a natural mutation in ICARUS1 is suppressed through alternative splicing, thus suggesting the potential for alternative splicing to buffer the impacts of some natural mutations. These results support that modulation of fundamental processes, in addition to transcriptional regulation, mediate thermo-sensory growth responses in plants.

HEMERA Couples the Proteolysis and Transcriptional Activity of PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORs in Arabidopsis Photomorphogenesis

Phytochromes (phys) are red and far-red photoreceptors that control plant development and growth by promoting the proteolysis of a family of antagonistically acting basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors, the PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORs (PIFs). We have previously shown that the degradation of PIF1 and PIF3 requires HEMERA (HMR). However, the biochemical function of HMR and the mechanism by which it mediates PIF degradation remain unclear. Here, we provide genetic evidence that HMR acts upstream of PIFs in regulating hypocotyl growth. Surprisingly, genome-wide analysis of HMR- and PIF-dependent genes reveals that HMR is also required for the transactivation of a subset of PIF direct-target genes. We show that HMR interacts with all PIFs. The HMR-PIF interaction is mediated mainly by HMR's N-terminal half and PIFs' conserved active-phytochrome B binding motif. In addition, HMR possesses an acidic nine-amino-acid transcriptional activation domain (9aaTAD) and a loss-of-function mutation in this 9aaTAD impairs the expression of PIF target genes and the destruction of PIF1 and PIF3. Together, these in vivo results support a regulatory mechanism for PIFs in which HMR is a transcriptional coactivator binding directly to PIFs and the 9aaTAD of HMR couples the degradation of PIF1 and PIF3 with the transactivation of PIF target genes.

Overexpression of LOV KELCH protein 2 confers dehydration tolerance and is associated with enhanced expression of dehydration-inducible genes in Arabidopsis thaliana

The overexpression of LKP2 confers dehydration tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana ; this is likely due to enhanced expression of dehydration-inducible genes and reduced stomatal opening. LOV KELCH protein 2 (LKP2) modulates the circadian rhythm and flowering time in plants. In this study, we observed that LKP2 overexpression enhanced dehydration tolerance in Arabidopsis. Microarray analysis demonstrated that expression of water deprivation-responsive genes was higher in the absence of dehydration stress in transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing green fluorescent protein-tagged LKP2 (GFP-LKP2) than in control transgenic plants expressing GFP. After dehydration followed by rehydration, GFP-LKP2 plants developed more leaves and roots and exhibited higher survival rates than control plants. In the absence of dehydration stress, four dehydration-inducible genes, namely DREB1A, DREB1B, DREB1C, and RD29A, were expressed in GFP-LKP2 plants, whereas they were not expressed or were expressed at low levels in control plants. Under dehydration stress, the expression of DREB2B and RD29A peaked faster in the GFP-LKP2 plants than in control plants. The stomatal aperture of GFP-LKP2 plants was smaller than that of control plants. These results suggest that the dehydration tolerance of GFP-LKP2 plants is caused by upregulation of DREB1A-C/CBF1-3 and their downstream targets; restricted stomatal opening in the absence of dehydration stress also appears to contribute to the phenotype. The rapid and high expression of DREB2B and its downstream target genes also likely accounts for some features of the GFP-LKP2 phenotype. Our results suggest that LKP2 can be used for biotechnological applications not only to adjust the flowering time control but also to enhance dehydration tolerance.

Plant flavoprotein photoreceptors

Plants depend on the surrounding light environment to direct their growth. Blue light (300-500 nm) in particular acts to promote a wide variety of photomorphogenic responses including seedling establishment, phototropism and circadian clock regulation. Several different classes of flavin-based photoreceptors have been identified that mediate the effects of blue light in the dicotyledonous genetic model Arabidopsis thaliana. These include the cryptochromes, the phototropins and members of the Zeitlupe family. In this review, we discuss recent advances, which contribute to our understanding of how these photosensory systems are activated by blue light and how they initiate signaling to regulate diverse aspects of plant development.