Trophic actions of GABA on neuronal development

The developmental switch in GABA polarity is delayed in fragile X mice

Delays in synaptic and neuronal development in the cortex are key hallmarks of fragile X syndrome, a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder that causes intellectual disability and sensory deficits and is the most common known cause of autism. Previous studies have demonstrated that the normal progression of plasticity and synaptic refinement during the critical period is altered in the cortex of fragile X mice. Although the disruptions in excitatory synapses are well documented in fragile X, there is less known about inhibitory neurotransmission during the critical period. GABAergic transmission plays a crucial trophic role in cortical development through its early depolarizing action. At the end of cortical critical period, response properties of GABA transform into their mature hyperpolarizing type due to developmental changes in intracellular chloride homeostasis. We found that the timing of the switch from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing GABA is delayed in the cortex of fragile X mice and there is a concurrent alteration in the expression of the neuronal chloride cotransporter NKCC1 that promotes the accumulation of intracellular chloride. Disruption of the trophic effects of GABA during cortical development could contribute to the altered trajectory of synaptic maturation in fragile X syndrome.

Strain-dependent effects of prenatal maternal immune activation on anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in offspring

There is converging evidence that prenatal maternal infection can increase the risk of occurrence of neuropsychiatric disorders like schizophrenia, autism, anxiety and depression in later life. Experimental studies have shown conflicting effects of prenatal maternal immune activation on anxiety-like behavior and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis development in offspring. We investigated the effects of maternal immune activation during pregnancy on anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in pregnant mice and their offspring to determine whether these effects are dependent on strain. NMRI and C57BL/6 pregnant mice were treated with either saline or lipopolysaccharide on gestational day 17 and then interleukin (IL)-6 and corticosterone (COR) levels; anxiety or depression in the pregnant mice and their offspring were evaluated. The results indicate that maternal inflammation increased the levels of COR and anxiety-like behavior in NMRI pregnant mice, but not in C57BL/6 dams. Our data also demonstrate that maternal inflammation elevated the levels of anxiety-and depression-like behaviors in NMRI offspring on the elevated plus-maze, elevated zero-maze, tail suspension test and forced swimming test respectively, but not in the open field and light-dark box. In addition, we did not find any significant change in anxiety- and depression-like behaviors of adult C57BL/6 offspring. Our findings suggest that prenatal maternal immune activation can alter the HPA axis activity, anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in a strain- and task-dependent manner in offspring and further comprehensive studies are needed to prove the causal relationship between the findings found here and to validate their relevance to neuropsychiatric disorders in humans.

Motor dysfunction in cerebellar Purkinje cell-specific vesicular GABA transporter knockout mice

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult mammalian central nervous system and plays modulatory roles in neural development. The vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT) is an essential molecule for GABAergic neurotransmission due to its role in vesicular GABA release. Cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs) are GABAergic projection neurons that are indispensable for cerebellar function. To elucidate the significance of VGAT in cerebellar PCs, we generated and characterized PC-specific VGAT knockout (L7-VGAT) mice. VGAT mRNAs and proteins were specifically absent in the 40-week-old L7-VGAT PCs. The morphological characteristics, such as lamination and foliation of the cerebellar cortex, of the L7-VGAT mice were similar to those of the control littermate mice. Moreover, the protein expression levels and patterns of pre- (calbindin and parvalbumin) and postsynaptic (GABA-A receptor α1 subunit and gephyrin) molecules between the L7-VGAT and control mice were similar in the deep cerebellar nuclei that receive PC projections. However, the L7-VGAT mice performed poorly in the accelerating rotarod test and displayed ataxic gait in the footprint test. The L7-VGAT mice also exhibited severer ataxia as VGAT deficits progressed. These results suggest that VGAT in cerebellar PCs is not essential for the rough maintenance of cerebellar structure, but does play an important role in motor coordination. The L7-VGAT mice are a novel model of ataxia without PC degeneration, and would also be useful for studying the role of PCs in cognition and emotion.

Modulation of neuronal activity by phosphorylation of the K-Cl cotransporter KCC2

The K-Cl cotransporter KCC2 establishes the low intraneuronal Cl- levels required for the hyperpolarizing inhibitory postsynaptic potentials mediated by ionotropic γ-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABAARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs). Decreased KCC2-mediated Cl- extrusion and impaired hyperpolarizing GABAAR- and/or GlyR-mediated currents have been implicated in epilepsy, neuropathic pain, and spasticity. Recent evidence suggests that the intrinsic ion transport rate, cell surface stability, and plasmalemmal trafficking of KCC2 are rapidly and reversibly modulated by the (de)phosphorylation of critical serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues in the C terminus of this protein. Alterations in KCC2 phosphorylation have been associated with impaired KCC2 function in several neurological diseases. Targeting KCC2 phosphorylation directly or indirectly via upstream regulatory kinases might be a novel strategy to modulate GABA- and/or glycinergic signaling for therapeutic benefit.

Glycine receptors and brain development

Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are ligand-gated chloride ion channels that mediate fast inhibitory neurotransmission in the spinal cord and the brainstem. There, they are mainly involved in motor control and pain perception in the adult. However, these receptors are also expressed in upper regions of the central nervous system, where they participate in different processes including synaptic neurotransmission. Moreover, GlyRs are present since early stages of brain development and might influence this process. Here, we discuss the current state of the art regarding GlyRs during embryonic and postnatal brain development in light of recent findings about the cellular and molecular mechanisms that control brain development.

NKCC1 and KCC2 protein expression is sexually dimorphic in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex of neonatal rats

Seizure susceptibility appears to be greater in males than females during the early developmental stages of the brain when the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), acting through its GABA-A receptor, predominantly produces neuronal depolarization. GABA-mediated excitation has been observed when the NKCC1 (chloride importer) expression level is higher than KCC2 (chloride exporter). In this study, the relative protein expression of NKCC1 and KCC2 over β-actin was evaluated in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex of male and female rats during postnatal days (PND) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 using Western blotting assays. For both cerebral regions in the females, the NKCC1/β-actin expression ratio was constant during all evaluated ages, whereas the KCC2/β-actin expression ratio increased gradually until reaching a maximal level at PND9 that was nearly three- and ten-fold higher in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, respectively, compared with the initial level. In males, the NKCC1/β-actin expression ratio was constant during the first week, peaking almost three-fold higher than the initial level at PND9 in the hippocampus and at PND11 in the entorhinal cortex and then returning to the initial values at PND13, whereas the KCC2/β-actin expression ratio increased gradually to reach a maximal and steady level at PND5, which were nearly two- and four-fold higher in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, respectively, compared with the intial level. In conclusion, the NKCC1/β-actin and KCC2/β-actin expression ratios displayed a specific expression profile for each gender and cerebral region, which could be related with the differences in seizure susceptibility observed between genders.

GABAA receptor-mediated tonic depolarization in developing neural circuits

The activation of GABAA receptors (the type A receptors for γ-aminobutyric acid) produces two distinct forms of responses, phasic (i.e., transient) and tonic (i.e., persistent), that are mediated by synaptic and extrasynaptic GABAA receptors, respectively. During development, the intracellular chloride levels are high so activation of these receptors causes a net outward flow of anions that leads to neuronal depolarization rather than hyperpolarization. Therefore, in developing neural circuits, tonic activation of GABAA receptors may provide persistent depolarization. Recently, it became evident that GABAA receptor-mediated tonic depolarization alters the structure of patterned spontaneous activity, a feature that is common in developing neural circuits and is important for neural circuit refinement. Thus, this persistent depolarization may lead to a long-lasting increase in intracellular calcium level that modulates network properties via calcium-dependent signaling cascades. This article highlights the features of GABAA receptor-mediated tonic depolarization, summarizes the principles for discovery, reviews the current findings in diverse developing circuits, examines the underlying molecular mechanisms and modulation systems, and discusses their functional specializations for each developing neural circuit.

Role of tonic GABAergic currents during pre- and early postnatal rodent development

In the last three decades it became evident that the GABAergic system plays an essential role for the development of the central nervous system, by influencing the proliferation of neuronal precursors, neuronal migration and differentiation, as well as by controlling early activity patterns and thus formation of neuronal networks. GABA controls neuronal development via depolarizing membrane responses upon activation of ionotropic GABA receptors. However, many of these effects occur before the onset of synaptic GABAergic activity and thus require the presence of extrasynaptic tonic currents in neuronal precursors and immature neurons. This review summarizes our current knowledge about the role of tonic GABAergic currents during early brain development. In this review we compare the temporal sequence of the expression and functional relevance of different GABA receptor subunits, GABA synthesizing enzymes and GABA transporters. We also refer to other possible endogenous agonists of GABAA receptors. In addition, we describe functional consequences mediated by the GABAergic system during early developmental periods and discuss current models about the origin of extrasynaptic GABA and/or other endogenous GABAergic agonists during early developmental states. Finally, we present evidence that tonic GABAergic activity is also critically involved in the generation of physiological as well as pathophysiological activity patterns before and after the establishment of functional GABAergic synaptic connections.

Expression of SV2 isoforms during rodent brain development

Background

SV2A, SV2B and SV2C are synaptic vesicle proteins that are structurally related to members of the major facilitator superfamily (MFS). The function and transported substrate of the SV2 proteins is not clearly defined although they are linked to neurotransmitters release in a presynaptic calcium concentration-dependent manner. SV2A and SV2B exhibit broad expression in the central nervous system while SV2C appears to be more restricted in defined areas such as striatum. SV2A knockout mice start to display generalized seizures at a late developmental stage, around post-natal day 7 (P7), and die around P15. More recently, SV2A was demonstrated to be the molecular target of levetiracetam, an approved anti-epileptic drug (AED). The purpose of this work was to precisely analyze and quantify the SV2A, SV2B and SV2C expression during brain development to understand the contribution of these proteins in brain development and their impact on epileptic seizures.

Results

First, we systematically analyzed by immunohistofluorescence, the SV2A, SV2B and SV2C expression during mouse brain development, from embryonic day 12 (E12) to P30. This semi-quantitative approach suggests a modulation of SV2A and SV2B expression in hippocampus around P7. This is the reason why we used various quantitative approaches (laser microdissection of whole hippocampus followed by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis) indicating that SV2A and SV2B expression increased between P5 and P7 and remained stable between P7 and P10. Moreover, the increase of SV2A expression in the hippocampus at P7 was mainly observed in the CA1 region while SV2B expression in this region remains stable.

Conclusions

The observed alterations of SV2A expression in hippocampus are consistent with the appearance of seizures in SV2A−/− animals at early postnatal age and the hypothesis that SV2A absence favors epileptic seizures around P7.

Neonatal neurosteroid levels are determinant in shaping adult prepulse inhibition response to hippocampal allopregnanolone in rats

Diverse studies indicate that the alteration of the physiological levels of neurosteroids in early neonatal phases provokes alterations in the maturation of certain cerebral structures. Allopregnanolone (ALLO) has important modulatory effects in the hippocampus during the postnatal period where the adult pattern of inhibitory transmission is being established. In order to study whether endogenous neonatal ALLO levels would be a determinant parameter involved in mediating adult hippocampal GABAA system maturation, we investigated the effects of neonatal finasteride (50mg/kg, SC) treatment and ALLO (ALLO; 20mg/kg, SC) supplementation on an animal behavioural model with relevance to neurodevelopmental disorder, such as schizophrenia. Two sets of experiments were conducted. Neonatal treatment (from postnatal day (pnd) 5 to pnd9) was performed in 23 male Wistar rats and steroid quantification was performed in hippocampal homogenates at pnd9. A second group (n=127) underwent neonatal treatment (pnd5-pnd9) and were submitted to hippocampal surgery at 80d. The behavioural response to bilateral intrahippocampal neurosteroid administration (ALLO, 0.2μg/0.5μl per side or pregnenolone sulphate 5ng/0.5μl per side) on novelty-induced exploration activity and prepulse inhibition (PPI) was assessed at 95d. Results showed that neonatal ALLO and finasteride administration decreased novelty directed exploratory behaviour and impaired the prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response at 95 days of age. Moreover, intrahippocampal ALLO increased head-dipping behaviour independently of the neonatal treatment, while intrahippocampal ALLO decreased PPI only in finasteride and ALLO groups. The results obtained in the present study indicate the importance of neonatal neurosteroid levels in the development of hippocampal function and their relevance in a behavioural phenotype that some have likened to that present in schizophrenia.

A common susceptibility factor of both autism and epilepsy: functional deficiency of GABA A receptors

Autism and epilepsy are common childhood neurological disorders with a great heterogeneity of clinical phenotypes as well as risk factors. There is a high co-morbidity of autism and epilepsy. The neuropathology of autism and epilepsy has similar histology implicating the processes of neurogenesis, neural migration, programmed cell death, and neurite outgrowth. Genetic advances have identified multiple molecules that participate in neural development, brain network connectivity, and synaptic function which are involved in the pathogenesis of autism and epilepsy. Mutations in GABA(A) receptor subunit have been frequently associated with epilepsy, autism, and other neuropsychiatric disorders. In this paper, we address the hypothesis that functional deficiency of GABAergic signaling is a potential common molecular mechanism underpinning the co-morbidity of autism and epilepsy.

GABA depolarization is required for experience-dependent synapse unsilencing in adult-born neurons

Neural activity enhances adult neurogenesis, enabling experience to influence the construction of new circuits. GABAA receptor-mediated depolarization of newborn neurons in the adult and developing brain promotes glutamatergic synaptic integration since chronic reduction of GABA depolarization impairs morphological maturation and formation of glutamatergic synapses. Here we demonstrate an acute role of GABA depolarization in glutamatergic synaptic integration. Using proopiomelanocortin enhanced-green fluorescent protein reporter mice, we identify a developmental stage when adult-generated neurons have glutamatergic synaptic transmission mediated solely by NMDA receptors (NMDARs), representing the initial silent synapses before AMPA receptor (AMPAR)-mediated functional transmission. We show that pairing synaptic stimulation with postsynaptic depolarization results in synapse unsilencing that requires NMDAR activation. GABA synaptic depolarization enables activation of NMDARs in the absence of AMPAR-mediated transmission and is required for synapse unsilencing induced by synaptic activity in vitro as well as a brief exposure to an enriched environment in vivo. The rapid appearance of AMPAR-mediated EPSCs and the lack of maturational changes show that GABA depolarization acutely allows NMDAR activation required for initial synapse unsilencing. Together, these results also reveal that adult-generated neurons in a critical period for survival use GABA signaling to rapidly initiate functional glutamate-mediated transmission in response to experience.

Dynamic regulation of glycine-GABA co-transmission at spinal inhibitory synapses by neuronal glutamate transporter

Fast inhibitory neurotransmission in the central nervous system is mediated by γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine, which are accumulated into synaptic vesicles by a common vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT) and are then co-released. However, the mechanisms that control the packaging of GABA + glycine into synaptic vesicles are not fully understood. In this study, we demonstrate the dynamic control of the GABA-glycine co-transmission by the neuronal glutamate transporter, using paired whole-cell patch recording from monosynaptically coupled cultured spinal cord neurons derived from VIAAT-Venus transgenic rats. Short step depolarization of presynaptic neurons evoked unitary (cell-to-cell) inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). Under normal conditions, the fractional contribution of postsynaptic GABA or glycine receptors to the unitary IPSCs did not change during a 1 h recording. Intracellular loading of GABA or glycine via a patch pipette enhanced the respective components of inhibitory transmission, indicating the importance of the cytoplasmic concentration of inhibitory transmitters. Raised extracellular glutamate levels increased the amplitude of GABAergic IPSCs but reduced glycine release by enhancing glutamate uptake. Similar effects were observed when presynaptic neurons were intracellularly perfused with glutamate. Interestingly, high-frequency trains of stimulation decreased glycinergic IPSCs more than GABAergic IPSCs, and repetitive stimulation occasionally failed to evoke glycinergic but not GABAergic IPSCs. The present results suggest that the enhancement of GABA release by glutamate uptake may be advantageous for rapid vesicular refilling of the inhibitory transmitter at mixed GABA/glycinergic synapses and thus may help prevent hyperexcitability.

Methamidophos exposure during the early postnatal period of mice: immediate and late-emergent effects on the cholinergic and serotonergic systems and behavior

Organophosphates (OPs) are among the most used pesticides. Although some OPs have had their use progressively more restricted, other OPs are being used without sufficient investigation of their effects. Here, we investigated the immediate neurochemical and delayed neurochemical and behavioral actions of the OP methamidophos to verify whether there are concerns regarding exposure during early postnatal development. From the third to the nineth postnatal day (PN), Swiss mice were sc injected with methamidophos (1mg/kg). At PN10, we assessed cholinergic and serotonergic biomarkers in the cerebral cortex and brainstem. From PN60 to PN63, mice were submitted to a battery of behavioral tests and subsequently to biochemical analyses. At PN10, the effects were restricted to females and to the cholinergic system: Methamidophos promoted increased choline transporter binding in the brainstem. At PN63, in the brainstem, there was a decrease in choline transporter, a female-only decrease in 5HT1A and a male-only increase in 5HT2 receptor binding. In the cortex, choline acetyltransferase activity was decreased and 5HT2 receptor binding was increased both in males and females. Methamidophos elicited behavioral alterations, suggestive of increased depressive-like behavior and impaired decision making. There were no significant alterations on anxiety-related measures and on memory/learning. Methamidophos elicited cholinergic and serotonergic alterations that depended on brain region, sex, and age of the animals. These outcomes, together with the behavioral effects, indicate that this OP is deleterious to the developing brain and that alterations are indeed identified long after the end of exposure.

Translational approaches to the biology of Autism: false dawn or a new era?

Discovering novel treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is a challenge. Its etiology and pathology remain largely unknown, the condition shows wide clinical diversity, and case identification is still solely based on symptomatology. Hence clinical trials typically include samples of biologically and clinically heterogeneous individuals. 'Core deficits', that is, deficits common to all individuals with ASD, are thus inherently difficult to find. Nevertheless, recent reports suggest that new opportunities are emerging, which may help develop new treatments and biomarkers for the condition. Most important, several risk gene variants have now been identified that significantly contribute to ASD susceptibility, many linked to synaptic functioning, excitation-inhibition balance, and brain connectivity. Second, neuroimaging studies have advanced our understanding of the 'wider' neural systems underlying ASD; and significantly contributed to our knowledge of the complex neurobiology associated with the condition. Last, the recent development of powerful multivariate analytical techniques now enable us to use multi-modal information in order to develop complex 'biomarker systems', which may in the future be used to assist the behavioral diagnosis, aid patient stratification and predict response to treatment/intervention. The aim of this review is, therefore, to summarize some of these important new findings and highlight their potential significant translational value to the future of ASD research.

The brain, seizures and epilepsy throughout life: understanding a moving target

The human brain is a tremendously complex and still enigmatic three-dimensional structure, composed of countless interconnected neurons and glia. The temporal evolution of the brain throughout life provides a fourth dimension, one that influences every element of the brain's function in health and disease. This temporal evolution contributes to the probability of seizure generation and to the type and the nature of these seizures. The age-specific properties of the brain also influence the consequences of seizures on neuronal structure and behavior. These, in turn, govern epileptic activity and cognitive and emotional functions, contributing to the diverse consequences of seizures and epilepsy throughout life.

Bisphenol A delays the perinatal chloride shift in cortical neurons by epigenetic effects on the Kcc2 promoter

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous compound that is emerging as a possible toxicant during embryonic development. BPA has been shown to epigenetically affect the developing nervous system, but the molecular mechanisms are not clear. Here we demonstrate that BPA exposure in culture led to delay in the perinatal chloride shift caused by significant decrease in potassium chloride cotransporter 2 (Kcc2) mRNA expression in developing rat, mouse, and human cortical neurons. Neuronal chloride increased correspondingly. Treatment with epigenetic compounds decitabine and trichostatin A rescued the BPA effects as did knockdown of histone deacetylase 1 and combined knockdown histone deacetylase 1 and 2. Furthermore, BPA evoked increase in tangential interneuron migration and increased chloride in migrating neurons. Interestingly, BPA exerted its effect in a sexually dimorphic manner, with a more accentuated effect in females than males. By chromatin immunoprecipitation, we found a significant increase in binding of methyl-CpG binding protein 2 to the "cytosine-phosphate-guanine shores" of the Kcc2 promoter, and decrease in binding of acetylated histone H3K9 surrounding the transcriptional start site. Methyl-CpG binding protein 2-expressing neurons were more abundant resulting from BPA exposure. The sexually dimorphic effect of BPA on Kcc2 expression was also demonstrated in cortical neurons cultured from the offspring of BPA-fed mouse dams. In these neurons and in cortical slices, decitabine was found to rescue the effect of BPA on Kcc2 expression. Overall, our results indicate that BPA can disrupt Kcc2 gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms. Beyond increase in basic understanding, our findings have relevance for identifying unique neurodevelopmental toxicity mechanisms of BPA, which could possibly play a role in pathogenesis of human neurodevelopmental disorders.

Effects of the inhibitor of the γ-aminobutyrate-transaminase, vinyl-γ-aminobutyrate, on development and nitrogen metabolism in Brassica napus seedlings

γ-aminobutyrate-transaminase (EC 2.6.1.19) catalyzes the first step of the catabolism of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a non-protein amino acid well-known to accumulate in plant in response to environmental stimuli. Recent studies reinforce more and more the role of its metabolism in carbon and/or nitrogen metabolisms and as a signalling molecule in developmental processes. Here we investigated the effects of inhibition of γ-aminobutyrate-transaminase (GABA-T) in seedlings of Brassica napus, using vinyl-GABA (VGB) as a specific inhibitor of GABA-T to prevent enzyme activity. Root growth was reduced by 44% in VGB-treated seedlings but was less inhibited when VGB was associated with exogenous GABA and was not reduced with exogenous GABA alone. Measurements of GABA content in seedlings grown on VGB, GABA or VGB + GABA demonstrated that GABA level in root was not linked with the root length reduction, suggesting that GABA was not the sole component acting in root growth inhibition. Besides, metabolic profiling revealed that in root, VGB-treatment caused a twofold increase in content of almost all amino acids, except for alanine whose content was 19-fold higher than in control. In order to test the involvement of alanine accumulation on growth we studied the effects of exogenous alanine. High alanine content slightly reduced root growth suggesting that VGB-induced alanine accumulation was not responsible for root length reduction. We conclude that root growth inhibition in plants whose GABA catabolism was impaired could result at least partly from the disruption of the primary metabolism as a whole rather than direct effect of GABA on cellular growth process.

Immunoreactivity for GABA, GAD65, GAD67 and Bestrophin-1 in the meninges and the choroid plexus: implications for non-neuronal sources for GABA in the developing mouse brain

Neural progenitors in the developing neocortex, neuroepithelial cells and radial glial cells, have a bipolar shape with a basal process contacting the basal membrane of the meninge and an apical plasma membrane facing the lateral ventricle, which the cerebrospinal fluid is filled with. Recent studies revealed that the meninges and the cerebrospinal fluid have certain roles to regulate brain development. γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a neurotransmitter which appears first during development and works as a diffusible factor to regulate the properties of neural progenitors. In this study, we examined whether GABA can be released from the meninges and the choroid plexus in the developing mouse brain. Immunohistochemical analyses showed that glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 and 67 (GAD65 and GAD67), both of which are GABA-synthesizing enzymes, are expressed in the meninges. The epithelial cells in the choroid plexus express GAD65. GABA immunoreactivity could be observed beneath the basal membrane of the meninge and in the epithelial cells of the choroid plexus. Expression analyses on Bestrophin-1, which is known as a GABA-permeable channel in differentiated glial cells, suggested that the cells in the meninges and the epithelial cells in the choroid plexus have the channels able to permeate non-synaptic GABA into the extracellular space. Further studies showed that GAD65/67-expressing meningeal cells appear in a manner with rostral to caudal and lateral to dorsal gradient to cover the entire neocortex by E14.5 during development, while the cells in the choroid plexus in the lateral ventricle start to express GAD65 on E11-E12, the time when the choroid plexus starts to develop in the developing brain. These results totally suggest that the meninges and the choroid plexus can work as non-neuronal sources for ambient GABA which can modulate the properties of neural progenitors during neocortical development.

Synaptic competition sculpts the development of GABAergic axo-dendritic but not perisomatic synapses

The neurotransmitter GABA regulates many aspects of inhibitory synapse development. We tested the hypothesis that GABA_A receptors (GABA_ARs) work together with the synaptic adhesion molecule neuroligin 2 (NL2) to regulate synapse formation in different subcellular compartments. We investigated mice (“γ2 knockdown mice”) with an engineered allele of the GABA_AR γ2 subunit gene which produced a mosaic expression of synaptic GABA_ARs in neighboring neurons, causing a strong imbalance in synaptic inhibition. Deletion of the γ2 subunit did not abolish synapse formation or the targeting of NL2 to distinct types of perisomatic and axo-dendritic contacts. Thus synaptic localization of NL2 does not require synaptic GABA_ARs. However, loss of the γ2 subunit caused a selective decrease in the number of axo-dendritic synapses on cerebellar Purkinje cells and cortical pyramidal neurons, whereas perisomatic synapses were not significantly affected. Notably, γ2-positive cells had increased axo-dendritic innervation compared with both γ2-negative and wild-type counterparts. Moreover heterologous synapses on spines, that are found after total deletion of GABA_ARs from all Purkinje cells, were rare in cerebella of γ2 knockdown mice. These findings reveal a selective role of γ2 subunit-containing GABA_ARs in regulating synapse development in distinct subcellular compartments, and support the hypothesis that the refinement of axo-dendritic synapses is regulated by activity-dependent competition between neighboring neurons.

Distinct neurochemical and functional properties of GAD67-containing 5-HT neurons in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus

The serotonergic (5-HTergic) system arising from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) is implicated in various physiological and behavioral processes, including stress responses. The DRN is comprised of several subnuclei, serving specific functions with distinct afferent and efferent connections. Furthermore, subsets of 5-HTergic neurons are known to coexpress other transmitters, including GABA, glutamate, or neuropeptides, thereby generating further heterogeneity. However, despite the growing evidence for functional variations among DRN subnuclei, relatively little is known about how they map onto neurochemical diversity of 5-HTergic neurons. In the present study, we characterized functional properties of GAD67-expressing 5-HTergic neurons (5-HT/GAD67 neurons) in the rat DRN, and compared with those of neurons expressing 5-HTergic molecules (5-HT neurons) or GAD67 alone. While 5-HT/GAD67 neurons were absent in the dorsomedial (DRD) or ventromedial (DRV) parts of the DRN, they were selectively distributed in the lateral wing of the DRN (DRL), constituting 12% of the total DRL neurons. They expressed plasmalemmal GABA transporter 1, but lacked vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter. By using whole-cell patch-clamp recording, we found that 5-HT/GAD67 neurons had lower input resistance and firing frequency than 5-HT neurons. As revealed by c-Fos immunohistochemistry, neurons in the DRL, particularly 5-HT/GAD67 neurons, showed higher responsiveness to exposure to an open field arena than those in the DRD and DRV. By contrast, exposure to contextual fear conditioning stress showed no such regional differences. These findings indicate that 5-HT/GAD67 neurons constitute a unique neuronal population with distinctive neurochemical and electrophysiological properties and high responsiveness to innocuous stressor.

Recent progress in GABAergic excitation from mature brain

The excitatory effect of γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) has been recognized in very young animals and in seizure generation, but not so much in animals after weaning age or in adults. The existence of this phenomenon in mature brain is still controversial. In the course of debate, creative studies have identified and characterized the phenomenon in suprachiasmatic nucleus, cortex, hippocampus and basolateral amygdala, albeit mostly in single neurons. In neural circuit activity, presumed GABAergic excitation was observed in basolateral amygdala during the study of a neuropeptide, cholecystokinin. Though the functional meaning of this phenomenon in vivo remains to be uncovered, it may be implicated in epilepsy or anxiety in the adult brain.

SDF and GABA interact to regulate axophilic migration of GnRH neurons

Stromal derived growth factor (SDF-1) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are two extracellular cues that regulate the rate of neuronal migration during development and may act synergistically. The molecular mechanisms of this interaction are still unclear. Gonadotropin releasing hormone-1 (GnRH) neurons are essential for vertebrate reproduction. During development, these neurons emerge from the nasal placode and migrate through the cribriform plate into the brain. Both SDF-1 and GABA have been shown to regulate the rate of GnRH neuronal migration by accelerating and slowing migration, respectively. As such, this system was used to explore the mechanism by which these molecules act to produce coordinated cell movement during development. In the present study, GABA and SDF-1 are shown to exert opposite effects on the speed of cell movement by activating depolarizing or hyperpolarizing signaling pathways, GABA via changes in chloride and SDF-1 via changes in potassium. GABA and SDF-1 were also found to act synergistically to promote linear rather than random movement. The simultaneous activation of these signaling pathways, therefore, results in tight control of cellular speed and improved directionality along the migratory pathway of GnRH neurons.

Distinct development of GABA system in the ventral and dorsal horns in the embryonic mouse spinal cord

In the adult brain, γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, whereas it acts as an excitatory transmitter in the immature brain, and may be involved in morphogenesis. In the present study, we immunohistochemically examined the developmental changes in GABA signaling in the embryonic mouse cervical spinal cord. Glutamic acid decarboxylase and GABA were markers for GABA neurons. Vesicular GABA transporter was a marker for GABAergic and glycinergic terminals. Potassium chloride cotransporter 2 was a marker for GABAergic inhibition. We found five points: (1) In the ventral part, GABA neurons were divided into three groups. The first differentiated group sent commissural axons after embryonic day 11 (E11), but disappeared or changed their transmitter by E15. The second and third differentiated groups were localized in the ventral horn after E12, and sent axons to the ipsilateral marginal zone. There was a distal-to-proximal gradient in varicosity formation in GABAergic axons and a superficial-to-deep gradient in GABAergic synapse formation in the ventral horn; (2) In the dorsal horn, GABA neurons were localized after E13, and synapses were diffusely formed after E15; (3) GABA may be excitatory for several days before synapses formation; (4) There was a ventral-to-dorsal gradient in the development of GABA signaling. The GABAergic inhibitory network may develop in the ventral horn between E15 and E17, and GABA may transiently play crucial roles in inhibitory regulation of the motor system in the mouse fetus; (5) GABA signaling continued to develop after birth, and GABAergic system diminished in the ventral horn.

Effects of sex and chronic neonatal nicotine treatment on Na²⁺/K⁺/Cl⁻ co-transporter 1, K⁺/Cl⁻ co-transporter 2, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, NMDA receptor subunit 2A and NMDA receptor subunit 2B mRNA expression in the postnatal rat hippocampus

Chronic exposure to nicotine during the first postnatal week in rats, a developmental period that corresponds to the third trimester of human gestation, results in sexually dimorphic long-term functional defects in the adult hippocampus. One potential cause could be the sex-specific differences in the maturation of GABA(A) receptor-mediated responses from excitatory to inhibitory, which depends on the expression of the Na(2+)/K(+)/Cl(-) co-transporter 1 (NKCC1) and the K(+)/Cl(-) co-transporter 2 (KCC2). In the rat hippocampus, this switch occurs during the first and second postnatal week in females and males, respectively, and is regulated by nicotinic receptor activation. Excitatory GABAergic signaling can increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, which might exacerbate sex differences by impacting synaptogenesis. We hypothesized that chronic neonatal nicotine (CNN) exposure differentially regulates the expression of these co-transporters and BDNF in males and females. We use quantitative isotopic in situ hybridization to examine the expression of mRNAs for NKCC1, KCC2, BDNF, and NMDA receptor subunit 2A (NR2A) and NMDA receptor subunit 2B (NR2B) in the postnatal day (P) 5 and 8 rat hippocampi in both sexes that were either control-treated or with 6mg/kg/day nicotine in milk formula (CNN) via gastric intubation starting at P1. In line with prolonged GABAergic excitation, we found that at P5 males had significantly higher mRNA expression of NKCC1 and BDNF than females. CNN treatment resulted in a significant increase in KCC2 and BDNF mRNA expression in male but not female hippocampus (p<0.05). Males also had higher expression of NR2A and lower expression of NR2B at P5 compared to females (p<0.05). At P8, there were neither sex nor treatment effects on mRNA expression, indicating the end of a critical period for sensitivity to nicotine. These results suggest that differential maturation of GABA(A)R-mediated responses result in sex-specific sensitivity to nicotine during early postnatal development, potentially explaining the differential long-term effects of CNN on hippocampal function.

Alterations of neocortical development and maturation in autism: insight from valproic acid exposure and animal models of autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a behaviourally defined brain disorder affecting approximately 1 in 88 children. Many pathological studies have shown that ASD is frequently associated with grey and white matter changes that can be described by their deviations from the normal trajectory of cortical maturation. For example, during the early (i.e. <2 years) postnatal period there is marked and selective tissue overgrowth in the higher-order temporal and frontal networks involved in emotional, social, and communication functions. In this focused review we first summarize some basic principles of neocortical neural organization and how they are disrupted in ASD. We will then highlight some of the potential mechanisms by which the normal developmental trajectory and organization of neocortical networks can be altered based on animal studies of valproic acid, a teratogen widely used in animal models of ASD. We argue that the trajectory of postnatal cerebral neocortex development may be influenced by several cellular and molecular mechanisms that may all converge to produce a neuropathology characterized by premature or accelerated neuronal growth.

Ablation of TNAP function compromises myelination and synaptogenesis in the mouse brain

Mutations in the tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) gene can result in skeletal and dental hypomineralization and severe neurological symptoms. TNAP is expressed in the synaptic cleft and the node of Ranvier in normal adults. Using TNAP knockout (KO) mice (Akp2(-/-)), we studied synaptogenesis and myelination with light- and electron microscopy during the early postnatal days. Ablation of TNAP function resulted in a significant decrease of the white matter of the spinal cord accompanied by ultrastructural evidence of cellular degradation around the paranodal regions and a decreased ratio and diameter of the myelinated axons. In the cerebral cortex, myelinated axons, while present in wild-type, were absent in the Akp2( -/- ) mice and these animals also displayed a significantly increased proportion of immature cortical synapses. The results suggest that TNAP deficiency could contribute to neurological symptoms related to myelin abnormalities and synaptic dysfunction, among which epilepsy, consistently present in the Akp2(-/-) mice and observed in severe cases of hypophosphatasia.

Glutamate transporters and presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors protect neocortical Cajal-Retzius cells against over-excitation

Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells, early generated neurons in the marginal zone of developing neocortex, are reported to be highly vulnerable to excitotoxic damage. Because extracellular glutamate concentration in the central nervous system is mainly controlled by glutamate transporters (EAATs), we studied the effects of EAAT blockade on CR cells. DL: -TBOA, a specific EAAT antagonist, induced NMDA receptor-dependent bursting discharges in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons, indicating that EAATs operate in the uptake mode and their blockade leads to elevation of extracellular glutamate concentration. In CR cells, however, DL: -TBOA failed to change either the membrane resistance or holding current, and moreover, it reduced the frequency of spontaneous GABAergic postsynaptic currents. DL: -TBOA decreased the mean amplitude and increased paired-pulse ratio of evoked GABAergic postsynaptic currents, indicating the presynaptic locus of its action. Indeed, LY379268, a specific agonist of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR-II), mimicked the DL: -TBOA-mediated effects, and LY341495, an unspecific mGluR antagonist, eliminated the DL: -TBOA-induced effects. As dihydrokainic acid, a specific EAAT2 blocker, failed to affect evoked GABAergic postsynaptic currents, whereas TFB-TBOA, a selective blocker of EAAT1 and EAAT2, produced effects similar to that of DL: -TBOA, extracellular glutamate concentration in the marginal zone is mainly controlled by EAAT1 (GLAST). Thus, even though CR cells are highly vulnerable to excitotoxic damage, a number of mechanisms serve to protect them against excessive extracellular glutamate concentration including a lack of functional glutamatergic synapses, Mg(2+) blockade of NMDA receptors, and presynaptic mGluRs that inhibit transmission at GABAergic synapses.

An epilepsy-related ARX polyalanine expansion modifies glutamatergic neurons excitability and morphology without affecting GABAergic neurons development

Epileptic encephalopathies comprise a heterogeneous group of severe infantile disorders for which the pathophysiological basis of epilepsy is inaccurately clarified by genotype-phenotype analysis. Because a deficit of GABA neurons has been found in some of these syndromes, notably in patients with X-linked lissencephaly with abnormal genitalia, epilepsy was suggested to result from an imbalance in GABAergic inhibition, and the notion of "interneuronopathy" was proposed. Here, we studied the impact of a polyalanine expansion of aristaless-related homeobox (ARX) gene, a mutation notably found in West and Ohtahara syndromes. Analysis of Arx((GCG)7/Y) knock-in mice revealed that GABA neuron development is not affected. Moreover, pyramidal cell migration and cortical layering are unaltered in these mice. Interestingly, electrophysiological recordings show that hippocampal pyramidal neurons displayed a frequency of inhibitory postsynaptic currents similar to wild-type (WT) mice. However, these neurons show a dramatic increase in the frequency of excitatory inputs associated with a remodeling of their axonal arborization, suggesting that epilepsy in Arx((GCG)7/Y)mice would result from a glutamate network remodeling. We therefore propose that secondary alterations are instrumental for the development of disease-specific phenotypes and should be considered to explain the phenotypic diversity associated with epileptogenic mutations.

Postnatal development of Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) co-transporter 1 and K(+)-Cl(-) co-transporter 2 immunoreactivity in multiple brain stem respiratory nuclei of the rat

Previously, we reported that in rats, GABA(A) and glycine receptor immunoreactivity increased markedly in multiple brain stem respiratory nuclei around postnatal days (P) 12-13, a critical period when abrupt neurochemical, metabolic, ventilatory, and electrophysiological changes occur in the respiratory network and when the system is under greater inhibition than excitation. Since Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) co-transporter 1 (NKCC1) and K(+)-Cl(-) co-transporter 2 (KCC2) play pivotal roles in determining the responses of GABA(A) and glycine receptors, we hypothesized that NKCC1 and KCC2 undergo significant changes during the critical period. An in-depth immunohistochemical and single neuron optical densitometric study of neurons in seven respiratory-related nuclei (the pre-Bötzinger complex [PBC], nucleus ambiguus [Amb], hypoglossal nucleus [XII], ventrolateral subnucleus of solitary tract nucleus [NTS(VL)], retrotrapezoid nucleus/parafacial respiratory group [retrotrapezoid nucleus/parafacial respiratory group (RTN/pFRG)], dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve [dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve (DMNX)], and inferior olivary nucleus [IO]) and a non-respiratory cuneate nucleus (CN, an internal control) was undertaken in P0-P21 rats. Our data revealed that (1) NKCC1 immunoreactivity exhibited a developmental decrease from P0 to P21 in all eight nuclei examined, being relatively high during the first 1½ postnatal weeks and decreased thereafter. The decrease was abrupt and statistically significant at P12 in the PBC, Amb, and XII; (2) KCC2 immunoreactivity in these eight nuclei showed a developmental increase from P0 to P21; and (3) the significant reduction in NKCC1 and the greater dominance of KCC2 around P12 in multiple respiratory nuclei of the brain stem may form the basis of an enhanced inhibition in the respiratory network during the critical period before the system stabilizes to a more mature state.

GABA/glycine signaling during degeneration and regeneration of mouse hypoglossal nerves

In the adult central nervous system (CNS), GABA and glycine (Gly) are predominant inhibitory neurotransmitters, negatively regulating glutamatergic transmission. In the immature CNS, on the other hand, they act as trophic factors, mediating morphogenesis. In the present study, to investigate their involvement in axonal regeneration, we morphologically examined changes in their signaling in mouse hypoglossal nuclei during degeneration and regeneration of hypoglossal nerves. We found that (1) expression and localization of presynaptic elements were not changed, (2) localization of gephyrin, which anchors GABA and Gly receptors, was spread on the surface of motor neuron cell bodies and dendrites, (3) KCC2-expression markedly decreased, (4) choline acetyltransferase, which mediates acetylcholine-synthesis, immediately disappeared from the motor neurons, and (5) the synaptic cleft of both excitatory and inhibitory synapses became irregularly wider, in the hypoglossal nuclei of the sutured side after the operation. These changes gradually normalized during regeneration. These results suggested that synthesis of acetylcholine may be stopped in the motor neuron after axotomy. GABA/Gly may be normally released from presynaptic terminals, be spilled over the original synaptic cleft, be diffused into the neighboring space, bind to extrasynaptically localized receptors, and mediate depolarization of the membrane potential of motor neurons during degeneration and regeneration. Furthermore, it was suggested that GABA/Gly signaling in postsynaptic motor neurons went back to being immature after axotomy, and may play an important role in axonal regeneration.

Calcium-activated chloride current expression in axotomized sensory neurons: what for?

Calcium-activated chloride currents (CaCCs) are activated by an increase in intracellular calcium concentration. Peripheral nerve injury induces the expression of CaCCs in a subset of adult sensory neurons in primary culture including mechano- and proprioceptors, though not nociceptors. Functional screenings of potential candidate genes established that Best1 is a molecular determinant for CaCC expression among axotomized sensory neurons, while Tmem16a is acutely activated by inflammatory mediators in nociceptors. In nociceptors, such CaCCs are preferentially activated under receptor-induced calcium mobilization contributing to cell excitability and pain. In axotomized mechano- and proprioceptors, CaCC activation does not promote electrical activity and prevents firing, a finding consistent with electrical silencing for growth competence of adult sensory neurons. In favor of a role in the process of neurite growth, CaCC expression is temporally correlated to neurons displaying a regenerative mode of growth. This perspective focuses on the molecular identity and role of CaCC in axotomized sensory neurons and the future directions to decipher the cellular mechanisms regulating CaCC during neurite (re)growth.

Intracellular chloride concentration influences the GABAA receptor subunit composition

GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A)Rs) exist as different subtype variants showing unique functional properties and defined spatio-temporal expression pattern. The molecular mechanisms underlying the developmental expression of different GABA(A)R are largely unknown. The intracellular concentration of chloride ([Cl(-)](i)), the main ion permeating through GABA(A)Rs, also undergoes considerable changes during maturation, being higher at early neuronal stages with respect to adult neurons. Here we investigate the possibility that [Cl(-)](i) could modulate the sequential expression of specific GABA(A)Rs subtypes in primary cerebellar neurons. We show that [Cl(-)](i) regulates the expression of α3-1 and δ-containing GABA(A) receptors, responsible for phasic and tonic inhibition, respectively. Our findings highlight the role of [Cl(-)](i) in tuning the strength of GABAergic responses by acting as an intracellular messenger.

GABA is excitatory in adult vasopressinergic neuroendocrine cells

Neuronal excitability in the adult brain is controlled by a balance between synaptic excitation and inhibition mediated by glutamate and GABA, respectively. While generally inhibitory in the adult brain, GABA(A) receptor activation is excitatory under certain conditions in which the GABA reversal potential is shifted positive due to intracellular Cl(-) accumulation, such as during early postnatal development and brain injury. However, the conditions under which GABA is excitatory are generally either transitory or pathological. Here, we reveal GABAergic synaptic inputs to be uniformly excitatory in vasopressin (VP)-secreting magnocellular neurons in the adult hypothalamus under normal conditions. The GABA reversal potential (E(GABA)) was positive to resting potential and spike threshold in VP neurons, but not in oxytocin (OT)-secreting neurons. The VP neurons lacked expression of the K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter 2 (KCC2), the predominant Cl(-) exporter in the adult brain. The E(GABA) was unaffected by inhibition of KCC2 in VP neurons, but was shifted positive in OT neurons, which express KCC2. Alternatively, inhibition of the Na(+)-K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter 1 (NKCC1), a Cl(-) importer expressed in most cell types mainly during postnatal development, caused a negative shift in E(GABA) in VP neurons, but had no effect on GABA currents in OT neurons. GABA(A) receptor blockade caused a decrease in the firing rate of VP neurons, but an increase in firing in OT neurons. Our findings demonstrate that GABA is excitatory in adult VP neurons, suggesting that the classical excitation/inhibition paradigm of synaptic glutamate and GABA control of neuronal excitability does not apply to VP neurons.

The emergence of somatotopic maps of the body in S1 in rats: the correspondence between functional and anatomical organization

Most of what we know about cortical map development and plasticity comes from studies in mice and rats, and for the somatosensory cortex, almost exclusively from the whisker-dominated posteromedial barrel fields. Whiskers are the main effector organs of mice and rats, and their representation in cortex and subcortical pathways is a highly derived feature of murine rodents. This specialized anatomical organization may therefore not be representative of somatosensory cortex in general, especially for species that utilize other body parts as their main effector organs, like the hands of primates. For these reasons, we examined the emergence of whole body maps in developing rats using electrophysiological recording techniques. In P5, P10, P15, P20 and adult rats, multiple recordings were made in the medial portion of S1 in each animal. Subsequently, these functional maps were related to anatomical parcellations of S1 based on a variety of histological stains. We found that at early postnatal ages (P5) medial S1 was composed almost exclusively of the representation of the vibrissae. At P10, other body part representations including the hindlimb and forelimb were present, although these were not topographically organized. By P15, a clear topographic organization began to emerge coincident with a reduction in receptive field size. By P20, body maps were adult-like. This study is the first to describe how topography of the body develops in S1 in any mammal. It indicates that anatomical parcellations and functional maps are initially incongruent but become tightly coupled by P15. Finally, because anatomical and functional specificity of developing barrel cortex appears much earlier in postnatal life than the rest of the body, the entire primary somatosensory cortex should be considered when studying general topographic map formation in development.

Altered postnatal development of cortico-hippocampal neuronal electric activity in mice deficient for the mitochondrial aspartate-glutamate transporter

The deficiency in the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate transporter Aralar/AGC1 results in a loss of the malate-aspartate NADH shuttle in the brain neurons, hypomyelination, and additional defects in the brain metabolism. We studied the development of cortico/hippocampal local field potential (LFP) in Aralar/AGC1 knockout (KO) mice. Laminar profiles of LFP, evoked potentials, and unit activity were recorded under anesthesia in young (P15 to P22) Aralar-KO and control mice as well as control adults. While LFP power increased 3 to 7 times in both cortex and hippocampus of control animals during P15 to P22, the Aralar-KO specimens hardly progressed. The divergence was more pronounced in the CA3/hilus region. In parallel, spontaneous multiunit activity declined severely in KO mice. Postnatal growth of hippocampal-evoked potentials was delayed in KO mice, and indicated abnormal synaptic and spike electrogenesis and reduced output at P20 to P22. The lack of LFP development in KO mice was accompanied by the gradual appearance of epileptic activity in the CA3/hilus region that evolved to status epilepticus. Strikingly, CA3 bursts were poorly conducted to the CA1 field. We conclude that disturbed substrate supply to neuronal mitochondria impairs development of cortico-hippocampal LFPs. Aberrant neuronal electrogenesis and reduced neuron output may explain circuit dysfunction and phenotype deficiencies.

Regulation of spinal interneuron differentiation by the paracrine action of glycine

Glycine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are depolarizing during early development but the purpose is unclear. We tested the effect of altering glycine signaling in zebrafish embryos by overexpressing the potassium-chloride co-transporter type 2 (KCC2) to reverse the chloride gradient or by blocking glycine receptors with strychnine or by selectively knocking down the embryonic glycine receptor (GlyR KD). Using a variety of markers we observed in all three cases a reduction of all types of spinal interneuron populations examined, indicating that glycine modulates their overall differentiation rather than choice of cell fate. Other cell populations (motor, sensory, and glial cells) were unaffected. As glycine appeared to act preceding neural and synaptic development, we examined the bandoneon (beo) mutant in which glycine receptors are functional but not clustered at synapses. Neural populations in beo embryos appeared normal, suggesting a paracrine action of circulating glycine in promoting interneuron differentiation.

Do inhalational anesthetics cause cognitive dysfunction?

Increasing evidence indicates that inhalational anesthetics may cause or increase the risk of developing postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD), especially in the elderly population. POCD may exist as a transient or long-term complication of surgery and anesthesia and is associated with reduced quality of life. There remains great discrepancy between clinical studies investigating the prevalence of POCD and inhalational anesthetics as many fail to show an association. However, numerous animal studies have suggested that inhalational anesthetics may alter cognitive function via amyloid β accumulation, modified neurotransmission, synaptic changes and dysregulated calcium homeostasis. Other factors such as neuroinflammation and pro-inflammatory cytokines may also play a role. This paper reviews the role of inhalational anesthetics in the etiology and underlying mechanisms that result in POCD.

Neurosteroids and GABA(A) Receptor Interactions: A Focus on Stress

Since the pioneering discovery of the rapid CNS depressant actions of steroids by the "father of stress," Hans Seyle 70 years ago, brain-derived "neurosteroids" have emerged as powerful endogenous modulators of neuronal excitability. The majority of the intervening research has focused on a class of naturally occurring steroids that are metabolites of progesterone and deoxycorticosterone, which act in a non-genomic manner to selectively augment signals mediated by the main inhibitory receptor in the CNS, the GABA(A) receptor. Abnormal levels of such neurosteroids associate with a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders, suggesting that they serve important physiological and pathophysiological roles. A compelling case can be made to implicate neurosteroids in stress-related disturbances. Here we will critically appraise how brain-derived neurosteroids may impact on the stress response to acute and chronic challenges, both pre- and postnatally through to adulthood. The pathological implications of such actions in the development of psychiatric disturbances will be discussed, with an emphasis on the therapeutic potential of neurosteroids for the treatment of stress-associated disorders.

Developmental mechanisms for the generation of telencephalic interneurons

Interneurons, which release the neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), are the major inhibitory cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Despite comprising only 20-30% of the cerebral cortical neuronal population, these cells play an essential and powerful role in modulating the electrical activity of the excitatory pyramidal cells onto which they synapse. Although interneurons are present in all regions of the mature telencephalon, during embryogenesis these cells are generated in specific compartments of the ventral (subpallial) telencephalon known as ganglionic eminences. To reach their final destinations in the mature brain, immature interneurons migrate from the ganglionic eminences to developing telencephalic structures that are both near and far from their site of origin. The specification and migration of these cells is a complex but precisely orchestrated process that is regulated by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic signals. The final outcome of which is the wiring together of excitatory and inhibitory neurons that were born in separate regions of the developing telencephalon. Disruption of any aspect of this sequence of events during development, either from an environmental insult or due to genetic mutations, can have devastating consequences on normal brain function.