Real-time imaging of cellulose reorientation during cell wall expansion in Arabidopsis roots

Processes Underlying a Reproductive Barrier in indica-japonica Rice Hybrids Revealed by Transcriptome Analysis

In rice (Oryza sativa), hybrids between indica and japonica subspecies are usually highly sterile, which provides a model system for studying postzygotic reproductive isolation. A killer-protector system, S5, composed of three adjacent genes (ORF3, ORF4, and ORF5), regulates female gamete fertility of indica-japonica hybrids. To characterize the processes underlying this system, we performed transcriptomic analyses of pistils from rice variety Balilla (BL), Balilla with transformed ORF5+ (BL5+) producing sterile female gametes, and Balilla with transformed ORF3+ and ORF5+ (BL3+5+) producing fertile gametes. RNA sequencing of tissues collected before (MMC), during (MEI), and after (AME) meiosis of the megaspore mother cell detected 19,269 to 20,928 genes as expressed. Comparison between BL5+ and BL showed that ORF5+ induced differential expression of 8,339, 6,278, and 530 genes at MMC, MEI, and AME, respectively. At MMC, large-scale differential expression of cell wall-modifying genes and biotic and abiotic response genes indicated that cell wall integrity damage induced severe biotic and abiotic stresses. The processes continued to MEI and induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress as indicated by differential expression of ER stress-responsive genes, leading to programmed cell death at MEI and AME, resulting in abortive female gametes. In the BL3+5+/BL comparison, 3,986, 749, and 370 genes were differentially expressed at MMC, MEI, and AME, respectively. Large numbers of cell wall modification and biotic and abiotic response genes were also induced at MMC but largely suppressed at MEI without inducing ER stress and programed cell death , producing fertile gametes. These results have general implications for the understanding of biological processes underlying reproductive barriers.

Whole-seed Immunolabeling of Arabidopsis Mucilage Polysaccharides

In addition to synthesizing and secreting copious amounts of pectic polymers ( Young et al., 2008 ), Arabidopsis thaliana seed coat epidermal cells produce small amounts of cellulose and hemicelluloses typical of secondary cell walls ( Voiniciuc et al., 2015c ). These components are intricately linked and are released as a large mucilage capsule upon hydration of mature seeds. Alterations in the structure of minor mucilage components can have dramatic effects on the architecture of this gelatinous cell wall. The immunolabeling protocol described here makes it possible to visualize the distribution of specific polysaccharides in the seed mucilage capsule.

A Rice PECTATE LYASE-LIKE Gene Is Required for Plant Growth and Leaf Senescence

To better understand the molecular mechanisms behind plant growth and leaf senescence in monocot plants, we identified a mutant exhibiting dwarfism and an early-senescence leaf phenotype, termed dwarf and early-senescence leaf1 (del1). Histological analysis showed that the abnormal growth was caused by a reduction in cell number. Further investigation revealed that the decline in cell number in del1 was affected by the cell cycle. Physiological analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and TUNEL assays showed that leaf senescence was triggered by the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. The DEL1 gene was cloned using a map-based approach. It was shown to encode a pectate lyase (PEL) precursor that contains a PelC domain. DEL1 contains all the conserved residues of PEL and has strong similarity with plant PelC. DEL1 is expressed in all tissues but predominantly in elongating tissues. Functional analysis revealed that mutation of DEL1 decreased the total PEL enzymatic activity, increased the degree of methylesterified homogalacturonan, and altered the cell wall composition and structure. In addition, transcriptome assay revealed that a set of cell wall function- and senescence-related gene expression was altered in del1 plants. Our research indicates that DEL1 is involved in both the maintenance of normal cell division and the induction of leaf senescence. These findings reveal a new molecular mechanism for plant growth and leaf senescence mediated by PECTATE LYASE-LIKE genes.

Pea Border Cell Maturation and Release Involve Complex Cell Wall Structural Dynamics

The adhesion of plant cells is vital for support and protection of the plant body and is maintained by a variety of molecular associations between cell wall components. In some specialized cases, though, plant cells are programmed to detach, and root cap-derived border cells are examples of this. Border cells (in some species known as border-like cells) provide an expendable barrier between roots and the environment. Their maturation and release is an important but poorly characterized cell separation event. To gain a deeper insight into the complex cellular dynamics underlying this process, we undertook a systematic, detailed analysis of pea (Pisum sativum) root tip cell walls. Our study included immunocarbohydrate microarray profiling, monosaccharide composition determination, Fourier-transformed infrared microspectroscopy, quantitative reverse transcription-PCR of cell wall biosynthetic genes, analysis of hydrolytic activities, transmission electron microscopy, and immunolocalization of cell wall components. Using this integrated glycobiology approach, we identified multiple novel modes of cell wall structural and compositional rearrangement during root cap growth and the release of border cells. Our findings provide a new level of detail about border cell maturation and enable us to develop a model of the separation process. We propose that loss of adhesion by the dissolution of homogalacturonan in the middle lamellae is augmented by an active biophysical process of cell curvature driven by the polarized distribution of xyloglucan and extensin epitopes.

Expanding the Scope of Metabolic Glycan Labeling in Arabidopsis thaliana

Metabolic glycan labeling (MGL) has gained wide utility and has become a useful tool for probing glycosylation in living systems. For the past three decades, the development and application of MGL have mostly focused on animal glycosylation. Recently, exploiting MGL for studying plant glycosylation has gained interest. Here, we describe a systematic evaluation of MGL for fluorescence imaging of root glycans in Arabidopsis thaliana. Nineteen monosaccharide analogues containing a bioorthogonal group (azide, alkyne, or cyclopropene) were synthesized and evaluated for metabolic incorporation into root glycans. Among these unnatural sugars, 14 (including three new compounds) were evaluated in plants for the first time. Our results showed that five unnatural sugars metabolically labeled root glycans efficiently, and enabled fluorescence imaging by bioorthogonal conjugation with fluorophores. We optimized the experimental procedures for MGL in Arabidopsis. Finally, distinct distribution patterns of the newly synthesized glycans were observed along the root developmental zones, thus indicating regulated biosynthesis of glycans during root development. We envision that MGL will find broad applications in plant glycobiology.

Nanoscale movements of cellulose microfibrils in primary cell walls

The growing plant cell wall is commonly considered to be a fibre-reinforced structure whose strength, extensibility and anisotropy depend on the orientation of crystalline cellulose microfibrils, their bonding to the polysaccharide matrix and matrix viscoelasticity1-4. Structural reinforcement of the wall by stiff cellulose microfibrils is central to contemporary models of plant growth, mechanics and meristem dynamics4-12. Although passive microfibril reorientation during wall extension has been inferred from theory and from bulk measurements13-15, nanometre-scale movements of individual microfibrils have not been directly observed. Here we combined nanometre-scale imaging of wet cell walls by atomic force microscopy (AFM) with a stretching device and endoglucanase treatment that induces wall stress relaxation and creep, mimicking wall behaviours during cell growth. Microfibril movements during forced mechanical extensions differ from those during creep of the enzymatically loosened wall. In addition to passive angular reorientation, we observed a diverse repertoire of microfibril movements that reveal the spatial scale of molecular connections between microfibrils. Our results show that wall loosening alters microfibril connectivity, enabling microfibril dynamics not seen during mechanical stretch. These insights into microfibril movements and connectivities need to be incorporated into refined models of plant cell wall structure, growth and morphogenesis.

Development of gravitropic response: unusual behavior of flax phloem G-fibers

The major mechanism of gravitropism that is discussed for herbal plants is based on the nonuniform elongation of cells located on the opposite stem sides, occurring in the growing zone of an organ. However, gravitropic response of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is well-pronounced in the lower half of developing stem, which has ceased elongation long in advance of plant inclination. We have analyzed the stem curvature region by various approaches of microscopy and found the undescribed earlier significant modifications in primary phloem fibers that have constitutively developed G-layer. In fibers on the pulling stem side, cell portions were widened with formation of "bottlenecks" between them, leading to the "sausage-like" shape of a cell. Lumen diameter in fiber widening increased, while cell wall thickness decreased. Callose was deposited in proximity to bottlenecks and sometimes totally occluded their lumen. Structure of fiber cell wall changed considerably, with formation of breaks between G- and S-layers. Thick fibrillar structures that were revealed in fiber cell wall by light microscopy got oblique orientation instead of parallel to the fiber axis one in control plants. The described changes occurred at various combinations of gravitational and mechanical stimuli. Thus, phloem fibers with constitutively formed gelatinous cell wall, located in nonelongating parts of herbal plant, are involved in gravitropism and may become an important element in general understanding of the gravity effects on plants. We suggest flax phloem fibers as the model system to study the mechanism of plant position correction, including signal perception and transduction.

Multi-layer mucilage of Plantago ovata seeds: Rheological differences arise from variations in arabinoxylan side chains

Mucilages are hydrocolloid solutions produced by plants for a variety of functions, including the creation of a water-holding barrier around seeds. Here we report our discovery of the formation of three distinct mucilage layers around Plantago ovata seeds upon their hydration. Each layer is dominated by different arabinoxylans (AXs). These AXs are unusual because they are highly branched and contain β-1,3-linked xylose in their side chains. We show that these AXs have similar monosaccharide and linkage composition, but vary in their polymer conformation. They also exhibit distinct rheological properties in aqueous solution, despite analytical techniques including NMR showing little difference between them. Using enzymatic hydrolysis and chaotropic solvents, we reveal that hydrogen bonding and side chain distribution are key factors underpinning the distinct rheological properties of these complex AXs.

The role of peltate scales in desiccation tolerance of Pleopeltis polypodioides

The extreme drought tolerance of the resurrection fern is in part the result of the dorsal scales that assist in water distribution and controlled desiccation. We studied the effect of peltate scales on water uptake and loss of the desiccation-tolerant epiphytic fern Pleopeltis polypodioides using optical and FTIR microscopy and staining with calcofluor, solophenyl flavine7GFE, and Ruthenium Red. We provide information on structure, property, and function of the scales by measuring water uptake and dehydration, contact angles, and metabolic activity. Peltate scales mainly contain cellulose, xylogalactans, and pectin. Water is absorbed from the center of scales, and the overlapping arrangement of scales facilitates surface spreading of water. Intact fronds hydrated fully within 5 h of imbibition of the apical pinna, without scales water uptake stopped after 1 h. Hydration rates via rhizomes followed a longer time course but also improved in the presence of scales. Fronds with and without scales lost half of their water content in 15 or 4 h, respectively. The overall metabolism of rapidly dehydrated fronds was significantly reduced compared with slowly dehydrated fronds. Thus, water management and metabolism of Pleopeltis are dependent on surface properties determined by peltate scales.

Cellulose and callose synthesis and organization in focus, what's new?

Plant growth and development are supported by plastic but strong cell walls. These walls consist largely of polysaccharides that vary in content and structure. Most of the polysaccharides are produced in the Golgi apparatus and are then secreted to the apoplast and built into the growing walls. However, the two glucan polymers cellulose and callose are synthesized at the plasma membrane by cellulose or callose synthase complexes, respectively. Cellulose is the most common cell wall polymer in land plants and provides strength to the walls to support directed cell expansion. In contrast, callose is integral to specialized cell walls, such as the cell plate that separates dividing cells and growing pollen tube walls, and maintains important functions during abiotic and biotic stress responses. The last years have seen a dramatic increase in our understanding of how cellulose and callose are manufactured, and new factors that regulate the synthases have been identified. Much of this knowledge has been amassed via various microscopy-based techniques, including various confocal techniques and super-resolution imaging. Here, we summarize and synthesize recent findings in the fields of cellulose and callose synthesis in plant biology.

Arabidopsis Regenerating Protoplast: A Powerful Model System for Combining the Proteomics of Cell Wall Proteins and the Visualization of Cell Wall Dynamics

The development of a range of sub-proteomic approaches to the plant cell wall has identified many of the cell wall proteins. However, it remains difficult to elucidate the precise biological role of each protein and the cell wall dynamics driven by their actions. The plant protoplast provides an excellent means not only for characterizing cell wall proteins, but also for visualizing the dynamics of cell wall regeneration, during which cell wall proteins are secreted. It therefore offers a unique opportunity to investigate the de novo construction process of the cell wall. This review deals with sub-proteomic approaches to the plant cell wall through the use of protoplasts, a methodology that will provide the basis for further exploration of cell wall proteins and cell wall dynamics.

The Impact of Microfibril Orientations on the Biomechanics of Plant Cell Walls and Tissues

The microscopic structure and anisotropy of plant cell walls greatly influence the mechanical properties, morphogenesis, and growth of plant cells and tissues. The microscopic structure and properties of cell walls are determined by the orientation and mechanical properties of the cellulose microfibrils and the mechanical properties of the cell wall matrix. Viewing the shape of a plant cell as a square prism with the axis aligning with the primary direction of expansion and growth, the orientation of the microfibrils within the side walls, i.e. the parts of the cell walls on the sides of the cells, is known. However, not much is known about their orientation at the upper and lower ends of the cell. Here we investigate the impact of the orientation of cellulose microfibrils within the upper and lower parts of the plant cell walls by solving the equations of linear elasticity numerically. Three different scenarios for the orientation of the microfibrils are considered. We also distinguish between the microstructure in the side walls given by microfibrils perpendicular to the main direction of the expansion and the situation where the microfibrils are rotated through the wall thickness. The macroscopic elastic properties of the cell wall are obtained using homogenization theory from the microscopic description of the elastic properties of the cell wall microfibrils and wall matrix. It is found that the orientation of the microfibrils in the upper and lower parts of the cell walls affects the expansion of the cell in the lateral directions and is particularly important in the case of forces acting on plant cell walls and tissues.

The Developmental Regulator SEEDSTICK Controls Structural and Mechanical Properties of the Arabidopsis Seed Coat

Although many transcription factors involved in cell wall morphogenesis have been identified and studied, it is still unknown how genetic and molecular regulation of cell wall biosynthesis is integrated into developmental programs. We demonstrate by molecular genetic studies that SEEDSTICK (STK), a transcription factor controlling ovule and seed integument identity, directly regulates PMEI6 and other genes involved in the biogenesis of the cellulose-pectin matrix of the cell wall. Based on atomic force microscopy, immunocytochemistry, and chemical analyses, we propose that structural modifications of the cell wall matrix in the stk mutant contribute to defects in mucilage release and seed germination under water-stress conditions. Our studies reveal a molecular network controlled by STK that regulates cell wall properties of the seed coat, demonstrating that developmental regulators controlling organ identity also coordinate specific aspects of cell wall characteristics.

Interconnections between cell wall polymers, wall mechanics, and cortical microtubules: Teasing out causes and consequences

In plants, cell wall components including cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectins interact with each other to form complex extracellular network structures that control cell growth and maintain cell shape. However, it is still not clear exactly how different wall polymers interact, how the conformations and interactions of cell wall polymers relate to wall mechanics, and how these factors impinge on intracellular structures such as the cortical microtubule cytoskeleton. Here, based on studies of Arabidopsis thaliana xxt1 xxt2 mutants, which lack detectable xyloglucan in their walls and display aberrant wall mechanics, altered cellulose patterning and biosynthesis, and reduced cortical microtubule stability, we discuss the potential relationships between cell wall biosynthesis, wall mechanics, and cytoskeletal dynamics in an effort to better understand their roles in controlling plant growth and morphogenesis.

Histology and cell wall biochemistry of stone cells in the physical defence of conifers against insects

Conifers possess an array of physical and chemical defences against stem-boring insects. Stone cells provide a physical defence associated with resistance against bark beetles and weevils. In Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), abundance of stone cells in the cortex of apical shoots is positively correlated with resistance to white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi). We identified histological, biochemical and molecular differences in the stone cell phenotype of weevil resistant (R) or susceptible (S) Sitka spruce genotypes. R trees displayed significantly higher quantities of cortical stone cells near the apical shoot node, the primary site for weevil feeding. Lignin, cellulose, xylan and mannan were the most abundant components of stone cell secondary walls, respectively. Lignin composition of stone cells isolated from R trees contained a higher percentage of G-lignin compared with S trees. Transcript profiling revealed higher transcript abundance in the R genotype of coumarate 3-hydroxylase, a key monolignol biosynthetic gene. Developing stone cells in current year apical shoots incorporated fluorescent-tagged monolignol into the secondary cell wall, while mature stone cells of previous year apical shoots did not. Stone cell development is an ephemeral process, and fortification of shoot tips in R trees is an effective strategy against insect feeding.

Plant Fibre: Molecular Structure and Biomechanical Properties, of a Complex Living Material, Influencing Its Deconstruction towards a Biobased Composite

Plant cell walls form an organic complex composite material that fulfils various functions. The hierarchical structure of this material is generated from the integration of its elementary components. This review provides an overview of wood as a composite material followed by its deconstruction into fibres that can then be incorporated into biobased composites. Firstly, the fibres are defined, and their various origins are discussed. Then, the organisation of cell walls and their components are described. The emphasis is on the molecular interactions of the cellulose microfibrils, lignin and hemicelluloses in planta. Hemicelluloses of diverse species and cell walls are described. Details of their organisation in the primary cell wall are provided, as understanding of the role of hemicellulose has recently evolved and is likely to affect our perception and future study of their secondary cell wall homologs. The importance of the presence of water on wood mechanical properties is also discussed. These sections provide the basis for understanding the molecular arrangements and interactions of the components and how they influence changes in fibre properties once isolated. A range of pulping processes can be used to individualise wood fibres, but these can cause damage to the fibres. Therefore, issues relating to fibre production are discussed along with the dispersion of wood fibres during extrusion. The final section explores various ways to improve fibres obtained from wood.

Synthesis of a suite of click-compatible sugar analogs for probing carbohydrate metabolism

Metabolic labeling based on the click chemistry between alkynyl and azido groups offers a powerful tool to study the function of carbohydrates in living systems, including plants. Herein, we describe the chemical synthesis of six alkynyl-modified sugars designed as analogs to D-glucose, D-mannose, L-rhamnose and sucrose present in plant cell walls. Among these new alkynyl probes, four of them are the 6-deoxy-alkynyl analogs of the corresponding sugars and do not possess any 6-OH groups. The other two are based on a new structural design, in which an ethynyl group is incorporated at the C-6 position of the sugar and the 6-OH group remains. The synthetic routes for both types of probes share common aldehyde intermediates, which are derived from the corresponding 6-OH precursor with other hydroxy groups protected. The overall synthesis sequence of these probes is efficient, concise, and scalable.

Metabolic Labeling and Imaging of N-Linked Glycans in Arabidopsis Thaliana

Molecular imaging of glycans has been actively pursued in animal systems for the past decades. However, visualization of plant glycans remains underdeveloped, despite that glycosylation is essential for the life cycle of plants. Metabolic glycan labeling in Arabidopsis thaliana by using N-azidoacetylglucosamine (GlcNAz) as the chemical reporter is reported. GlcNAz is metabolized through the salvage pathway of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and incorporated into N-linked glycans, and possibly intracellular O-GlcNAc. Click-labeling with fluorescent probes enables visualization of newly synthesized N-linked glycans. N-glycosylation in the root tissue was discovered to possess distinct distribution patterns in different developmental zones, suggesting that N-glycosylation is regulated in a developmental stage-dependent manner. This work shows the utility of metabolic glycan labeling in elucidating the function of N-linked glycosylation in plants.

The impact of alterations in lignin deposition on cellulose organization of the plant cell wall

BACKGROUND

Coordination of synthesis and assembly of the polymeric components of cell walls is essential for plant growth and development. Given the degree of co-mingling and cross-linking among cell wall components, cellulose organization must be dependent on the organization of other polymers such as lignin. Here we seek to identify aspects of that codependency by studying the structural organization of cellulose fibrils in stems from Arabidopsis plants harboring mutations in genes encoding enzymes involved in lignin biosynthesis. Plants containing high levels of G-lignin, S-lignin, H-lignin, aldehyde-rich lignin, and ferulic acid-containing lignin, along with plants with very low lignin content were grown and harvested and longitudinal sections of stem were prepared and dried. Scanning X-ray microdiffraction was carried out using a 5-micron beam that moved across the sections in 5-micron steps and complete diffraction patterns were collected at each raster point. Approximately, 16,000 diffraction patterns were analyzed to determine cellulose fibril orientation and order within the tissues making up the stems.

RESULTS

Several mutations-most notably those exhibiting (1) down-regulation of cinnamoyl CoA reductase which leads to cell walls deficient in lignin and (2) defect of cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase which greatly reduces lignin content-exhibited significant decrease in the proportion of oriented cellulose fibrils in the cell wall. Distinctions between tissues were maintained in all variants and even in plants exhibiting dramatic changes in cellulosic order the trends between tissues (where apparent) were generally maintained. The resilience of cellulose to degradative processes was investigated by carrying out the same analysis on samples stored in water for 30 days prior to data collection. This treatment led to significant loss of cellulosic order in plants rich in aldehyde or H-lignin, less change in wild type, and essentially no change in samples with high levels of G- or S-lignin.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies demonstrate that changes in lignin biosynthesis lead to significant disruption in the orientation and order of cellulose fibrils in all tissues of the stem. These dramatic phenotypic changes, in mutants with lignin rich in aldehyde or H-units, correlate with the impact the mutations have on the enzymatic degradation of the plant cell wall.

Cotton fiber tips have diverse morphologies and show evidence of apical cell wall synthesis

Cotton fibers arise through highly anisotropic expansion of a single seed epidermal cell. We obtained evidence that apical cell wall synthesis occurs through examining the tips of young elongating Gossypium hirsutum (Gh) and G. barbadense (Gb) fibers. We characterized two tip types in Gh fiber (hemisphere and tapered), each with distinct apical diameter, central vacuole location, and distribution of cell wall components. The apex of Gh hemisphere tips was enriched in homogalacturonan epitopes, including a relatively high methyl-esterified form associated with cell wall pliability. Other wall components increased behind the apex including cellulose and the α-Fuc-(1,2)-β-Gal epitope predominantly found in xyloglucan. Gb fibers had only one narrow tip type featuring characters found in each Gh tip type. Pulse-labeling of cell wall glucans indicated wall synthesis at the apex of both Gh tip types and in distal zones. Living Gh hemisphere and Gb tips ruptured preferentially at the apex upon treatment with wall degrading enzymes, consistent with newly synthesized wall at the apex. Gh tapered tips ruptured either at the apex or distantly. Overall, the results reveal diverse cotton fiber tip morphologies and support primary wall synthesis occurring at the apex and discrete distal regions of the tip.

Extensive Natural Variation in Arabidopsis Seed Mucilage Structure

Hydrated Arabidopsis thaliana seeds are coated by a gelatinous layer called mucilage, which is mainly composed of cell wall polysaccharides. Since mucilage is rich in pectin, its architecture can be visualized with the ruthenium red (RR) dye. We screened the seeds of around 280 Arabidopsis natural accessions for variation in mucilage structure, and identified a large number of novel variants that differed from the Col-0 wild-type. Most of the accessions released smaller RR-stained capsules compared to the Col-0 reference. By biochemically characterizing the phenotypes of 25 of these accessions in greater detail, we discovered that distinct changes in polysaccharide structure resulted in gelatinous coatings with a deceptively similar appearance. Monosaccharide composition analysis of total mucilage extracts revealed a remarkable variation (from 50 to 200% of Col-0 levels) in the content of galactose and mannose, which are important subunits of heteromannan. In addition, most of the natural variants had altered Pontamine Fast Scarlet 4B staining of cellulose and significantly reduced birefringence of crystalline structures. This indicates that the production or organization of cellulose may be affected by the presence of different amounts of hemicellulose. Although, the accessions described in this study were primarily collected from Western Europe, they form five different phenotypic classes based on the combined results of our experiments. This suggests that polymorphisms at multiple loci are likely responsible for the observed mucilage structure. The transcription of MUCILAGE-RELATED10 (MUCI10), which encodes a key enzyme for galactoglucomannan synthesis, was severely reduced in multiple variants that phenocopied the muci10-1 insertion mutant. Although, we could not pinpoint any causal polymorphisms in this gene, constitutive expression of fluorescently-tagged MUCI10 proteins complemented the mucilage defects of a muci10-like accession. This leads us to hypothesize that some accessions might disrupt a transcriptional regulator of MUCI10. Therefore, this collection of publicly-available variants should provide insight into plant cell wall organization and facilitate the discovery of genes that regulate polysaccharide biosynthesis.

High Resolution Quantification of Crystalline Cellulose Accumulation in Arabidopsis Roots to Monitor Tissue-specific Cell Wall Modifications

Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall, the composition of which determines their final size and shape. The cell wall is composed of a complex matrix containing polysaccharides that include cellulose microfibrils that form both crystalline structures and cellulose chains of amorphous organization. The orientation of the cellulose fibers and their concentrations dictate the mechanical properties of the cell. Several methods are used to determine the levels of crystalline cellulose, each bringing both advantages and limitations. Some can distinguish the proportion of crystalline regions within the total cellulose. However, they are limited to whole-organ analyses that are deficient in spatiotemporal information. Others relying on live imaging, are limited by the use of imprecise dyes. Here, we report a sensitive polarized light-based system for specific quantification of relative light retardance, representing crystalline cellulose accumulation in cross sections of Arabidopsis thaliana roots. In this method, the cellular resolution and anatomical data are maintained, enabling direct comparisons between the different tissues composing the growing root. This approach opens a new analytical dimension, shedding light on the link between cell wall composition, cellular behavior and whole-organ growth.

Anisotropic Cell Expansion Is Affected through the Bidirectional Mobility of Cellulose Synthase Complexes and Phosphorylation at Two Critical Residues on CESA3

Here we report that phosphorylation status of S211 and T212 of the CESA3 component of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cellulose synthase impacts the regulation of anisotropic cell expansion as well as cellulose synthesis and deposition and microtubule-dependent bidirectional mobility of CESA complexes. Mutation of S211 to Ala caused a significant decrease in the length of etiolated hypocotyls and primary roots, while root hairs were not significantly affected. By contrast, the S211E mutation stunted the growth of root hairs, but primary roots were not significantly affected. Similarly, T212E caused a decrease in the length of root hairs but not root length. However, T212E stunted the growth of etiolated hypocotyls. Live-cell imaging of fluorescently labeled CESA showed that the rate of movement of CESA particles was directionally asymmetric in etiolated hypocotyls of S211A and T212E mutants, while similar bidirectional velocities were observed with the wild-type control and S211E and T212A mutant lines. Analysis of cell wall composition and the innermost layer of cell wall suggests a role for phosphorylation of CESA3 S211 and T212 in cellulose aggregation into fibrillar bundles. These results suggest that microtubule-guided bidirectional mobility of CESA complexes is fine-tuned by phosphorylation of CESA3 S211 and T212, which may, in turn, modulate cellulose synthesis and organization, resulting in or contributing to the observed defects of anisotropic cell expansion.

Xylans Provide the Structural Driving Force for Mucilage Adhesion to the Arabidopsis Seed Coat

Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seed coat epidermal cells produce large amounts of mucilage that is released upon imbibition. This mucilage is structured into two domains: an outer diffuse layer that can be easily removed by agitation and an inner layer that remains attached to the outer seed coat. Both layers are composed primarily of pectic rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), the inner layer also containing rays of cellulose that extend from the top of each columella. Perturbation in cellulosic ray formation has systematically been associated with a redistribution of pectic mucilage from the inner to the outer layer, in agreement with cellulose-pectin interactions, the nature of which remained unknown. Here, by analyzing the outer layer composition of a series of mutant alleles, a tight proportionality of xylose, galacturonic acid, and rhamnose was evidenced, except for mucilage modified5-1 (mum5-1; a mutant showing a redistribution of mucilage pectin from the inner adherent layer to the outer soluble one), for which the rhamnose-xylose ratio was increased drastically. Biochemical and in vitro binding assay data demonstrated that xylan chains are attached to RG-I chains and mediate the adsorption of mucilage to cellulose microfibrils. mum5-1 mucilage exhibited very weak adsorption to cellulose. MUM5 was identified as a putative xylosyl transferase recently characterized as MUCI21. Together, these findings suggest that the binding affinity of xylose ramifications on RG-I to a cellulose scaffold is one of the factors involved in the formation of the adherent mucilage layer.

Biosynthesis of the Plant Cell Wall Matrix Polysaccharide Xyloglucan

Xyloglucan (XyG) is a matrix polysaccharide that is present in the cell walls of all land plants. It consists of a β-1,4-linked glucan backbone that is further substituted with xylosyl residues. These xylosyl residues can be further substituted with other glycosyl and nonglycosyl substituents that vary depending on the plant family and specific tissue. Advances in plant mutant isolation and characterization, functional genomics, and DNA sequencing have led to the identification of nearly all transferases and synthases necessary to synthesize XyG. Thus, in terms of the molecular mechanisms of plant cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis, XyG is the most well understood. However, much remains to be learned about the molecular mechanisms of polysaccharide assembly and the regulation of these processes. Knowledge of the XyG biosynthetic machinery allows the XyG structure to be tailored in planta to ascertain the functions of this polysaccharide and its substituents in plant growth and interactions with the environment.

The click-compatible sugar 6-deoxy-alkynyl glucose metabolically incorporates into Arabidopsis root hair tips and arrests their growth

Plant cell walls are dynamic structures whose polysaccharide components are rearranged and recycled during growth and morphogenesis. Covalent fluorescent tagging of these polysaccharides following a metabolic labeling approach can help elucidate these changes. Herein reported are the synthesis and seedling-incorporation of a plant polysaccharide chemical reporter, 6-deoxy-alkynyl glucose (6dAG), that is modeled on D-glucose. Whereas fucose-alkyne, a previously reported chemical reporter for pectin, incorporates diffusely throughout growing cell walls, 6dAG incorporated specifically into root hair tips. This incorporation occurs in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. 6dAG exposure both induces and colocalizes with callose deposition in this tissue, and arrests both root hair and root growth. These results show that plants can incorporate an additional alkynyl-modified sugar analog into their metabolism, and into a discrete subcellular location.

Functional Analysis of Cellulose and Xyloglucan in the Walls of Stomatal Guard Cells of Arabidopsis

Stomatal guard cells are pairs of specialized epidermal cells that control water and CO2 exchange between the plant and the environment. To fulfill the functions of stomatal opening and closure that are driven by changes in turgor pressure, guard cell walls must be both strong and flexible, but how the structure and dynamics of guard cell walls enable stomatal function remains poorly understood. To address this question, we applied cell biological and genetic analyses to investigate guard cell walls and their relationship to stomatal function in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Using live-cell spinning disk confocal microscopy, we measured the motility of cellulose synthase (CESA)-containing complexes labeled by green fluorescent protein (GFP)-CESA3 and observed a reduced proportion of GFP-CESA3 particles colocalizing with microtubules upon stomatal closure. Imaging cellulose organization in guard cells revealed a relatively uniform distribution of cellulose in the open state and a more fibrillar pattern in the closed state, indicating that cellulose microfibrils undergo dynamic reorganization during stomatal movements. In cesa3(je5) mutants defective in cellulose synthesis and xxt1 xxt2 mutants lacking the hemicellulose xyloglucan, stomatal apertures, changes in guard cell length, and cellulose reorganization were aberrant during fusicoccin-induced stomatal opening or abscisic acid-induced stomatal closure, indicating that sufficient cellulose and xyloglucan are required for normal guard cell dynamics. Together, these results provide new insights into how guard cell walls allow stomata to function as responsive mediators of gas exchange at the plant surface.

Rapid Oligo-Galacturonide Induced Changes in Protein Phosphorylation in Arabidopsis

The wall-associated kinases (WAKs)(1)are receptor protein kinases that bind to long polymers of cross-linked pectin in the cell wall. These plasma-membrane-associated protein kinases also bind soluble pectin fragments called oligo-galacturonides (OGs) released from the wall after pathogen attack and damage. WAKs are required for cell expansion during development but bind water soluble OGs generated from walls with a higher affinity than the wall-associated polysaccharides. OGs activate a WAK-dependent, distinct stress-like response pathway to help plants resist pathogen attack. In this report, a quantitative mass-spectrometric-based phosphoproteomic analysis was used to identify Arabidopsis cellular events rapidly induced by OGsin planta Using N(14/)N(15)isotopicin vivometabolic labeling, we screened 1,000 phosphoproteins for rapid OG-induced changes and found 50 proteins with increased phosphorylation, while there were none that decreased significantly. Seven of the phosphosites within these proteins overlap with those altered by another signaling molecule plants use to indicate the presence of pathogens (the bacterial "elicitor" peptide Flg22), indicating distinct but overlapping pathways activated by these two types of chemicals. Genetic analysis of genes encoding 10 OG-specific and two Flg22/OG-induced phosphoproteins reveals that null mutations in eight proteins compromise the OG response. These phosphorylated proteins with genetic evidence supporting their role in the OG response include two cytoplasmic kinases, two membrane-associated scaffold proteins, a phospholipase C, a CDPK, an unknown cadmium response protein, and a motor protein. Null mutants in two proteins, the putative scaffold protein REM1.3, and a cytoplasmic receptor like kinase ROG2, enhance and suppress, respectively, a dominantWAKallele. Altogether, the results of these chemical and genetic experiments reveal the identity of several phosphorylated proteins involved in the kinase/phosphatase-mediated signaling pathway initiated by cell wall changes.

Cotton GhMYB7 is predominantly expressed in developing fibers and regulates secondary cell wall biosynthesis in transgenic Arabidopsis

The secondary cell wall in mature cotton fibers contains over 90% cellulose with low quantities of xylan and lignin. However, little is known regarding the regulation of secondary cell wall biosynthesis in cotton fibers. In this study, we characterized an R2R3-MYB transcription factor, GhMYB7, in cotton. GhMYB7 is expressed at a high level in developing fibers and encodes a MYB protein that is targeted to the cell nucleus and has transcriptional activation activity. Ectopic expression of GhMYB7 in Arabidopsis resulted in small, curled, dark green leaves and also led to shorter inflorescence stems. A cross-sectional assay of basal stems revealed that cell wall thickness of vessels and interfascicular fibers was higher in transgenic lines overexpressing GhMYB7 than in the wild type. Constitutive expression of GhMYB7 in Arabidopsis activated the expression of a suite of secondary cell wall biosynthesis-related genes (including some secondary cell wall-associated transcription factors), leading to the ectopic deposition of cellulose and lignin. The ectopic deposition of secondary cell walls may have been initiated before the cessation of cell expansion. Moreover, GhMYB7 was capable of binding to the promoter regions of AtSND1 and AtCesA4, suggesting that GhMYB7 may function upstream of NAC transcription factors. Collectively, these findings suggest that GhMYB7 is a potential transcriptional activator, which may participate in regulating secondary cell wall biosynthesis of cotton fibers.

Relating the mechanics of the primary plant cell wall to morphogenesis

Regulation of the mechanical properties of the cell wall is a key parameter used by plants to control the growth behavior of individual cells and tissues. Modulation of the mechanical properties occurs through the control of the biochemical composition and the degree and nature of interlinking between cell wall polysaccharides. Preferentially oriented cellulose microfibrils restrict cellular expansive growth, but recent evidence suggests that this may not be the trigger for anisotropic growth. Instead, non-uniform softening through the modulation of pectin chemistry may be an initial step that precedes stress-induced stiffening of the wall through cellulose. Here we briefly review the major cell wall polysaccharides and their implication for plant cell wall mechanics that need to be considered in order to study the growth behavior of the primary plant cell wall.

Xyloglucan Deficiency Disrupts Microtubule Stability and Cellulose Biosynthesis in Arabidopsis, Altering Cell Growth and Morphogenesis

Xyloglucan constitutes most of the hemicellulose in eudicot primary cell walls and functions in cell wall structure and mechanics. Although Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) xxt1 xxt2 mutants lacking detectable xyloglucan are viable, they display growth defects that are suggestive of alterations in wall integrity. To probe the mechanisms underlying these defects, we analyzed cellulose arrangement, microtubule patterning and dynamics, microtubule- and wall-integrity-related gene expression, and cellulose biosynthesis in xxt1 xxt2 plants. We found that cellulose is highly aligned in xxt1 xxt2 cell walls, that its three-dimensional distribution is altered, and that microtubule patterning and stability are aberrant in etiolated xxt1 xxt2 hypocotyls. We also found that the expression levels of microtubule-associated genes, such as MAP70-5 and CLASP, and receptor genes, such as HERK1 and WAK1, were changed in xxt1 xxt2 plants and that cellulose synthase motility is reduced in xxt1 xxt2 cells, corresponding with a reduction in cellulose content. Our results indicate that loss of xyloglucan affects both the stability of the microtubule cytoskeleton and the production and patterning of cellulose in primary cell walls. These findings establish, to our knowledge, new links between wall integrity, cytoskeletal dynamics, and wall synthesis in the regulation of plant morphogenesis.

Genetic control of root growth: from genes to networks

BACKGROUND

Roots are essential organs for higher plants. They provide the plant with nutrients and water, anchor the plant in the soil, and can serve as energy storage organs. One remarkable feature of roots is that they are able to adjust their growth to changing environments. This adjustment is possible through mechanisms that modulate a diverse set of root traits such as growth rate, diameter, growth direction and lateral root formation. The basis of these traits and their modulation are at the cellular level, where a multitude of genes and gene networks precisely regulate development in time and space and tune it to environmental conditions.

SCOPE

This review first describes the root system and then presents fundamental work that has shed light on the basic regulatory principles of root growth and development. It then considers emerging complexities and how they have been addressed using systems-biology approaches, and then describes and argues for a systems-genetics approach. For reasons of simplicity and conciseness, this review is mostly limited to work from the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, in which much of the research in root growth regulation at the molecular level has been conducted.

CONCLUSIONS

While forward genetic approaches have identified key regulators and genetic pathways, systems-biology approaches have been successful in shedding light on complex biological processes, for instance molecular mechanisms involving the quantitative interaction of several molecular components, or the interaction of large numbers of genes. However, there are significant limitations in many of these methods for capturing dynamic processes, as well as relating these processes to genotypic and phenotypic variation. The emerging field of systems genetics promises to overcome some of these limitations by linking genotypes to complex phenotypic and molecular data using approaches from different fields, such as genetics, genomics, systems biology and phenomics.

Moss Pathogenesis-Related-10 Protein Enhances Resistance to Pythium irregulare in Physcomitrella patens and Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants respond to pathogen infection by activating signaling pathways leading to the accumulation of proteins with diverse roles in defense. Here, we addressed the functional role of PpPR-10, a pathogenesis-related (PR)-10 gene, of the moss Physcomitrella patens, in response to biotic stress. PpPR-10 belongs to a multigene family and encodes a protein twice the usual size of PR-10 proteins due to the presence of two Bet v1 domains. Moss PR-10 genes are differentially regulated during development and inoculation with the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Specifically, PpPR-10 transcript levels increase significantly by treatments with elicitors of Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum, spores of B. cinerea, and the defense hormone salicylic acid. To characterize the role of PpPR-10 in plant defense against pathogens, we conducted overexpression analysis in P. patens and in Arabidopsis thaliana. We demonstrate that constitutive expression of PpPR-10 in moss tissues increased resistance against the oomycete Pythium irregulare. PpPR-10 overexpressing moss plants developed less symptoms and decreased mycelium growth than wild type plants. In addition, PpPR-10 overexpressing plants constitutively produced cell wall depositions in protonemal tissue. Ectopic expression of PpPR-10 in Arabidopsis resulted in increased resistance against P. irregulare as well, evidenced by smaller lesions and less cellular damage compared to wild type plants. These results indicate that PpPR-10 is functionally active in the defense against the pathogen P. irregulare, in both P. patens and Arabidopsis, two evolutionary distant plants. Thus, P. patens can serve as an interesting source of genes to improve resistance against pathogen infection in flowering plants.

Cell Fate Determination and the Switch from Diffuse Growth to Planar Polarity in Arabidopsis Root Epidermal Cells

Plant roots fulfill important functions as they serve in water and nutrient uptake, provide anchorage of the plant body in the soil and in some species form the site of symbiotic interactions with soil-living biota. Root hairs, tubular-shaped outgrowths of specific epidermal cells, significantly increase the root's surface area and aid in these processes. In this review we focus on the molecular mechanisms that determine the hair and non-hair cell fate of epidermal cells and that define the site on the epidermal cell where the root hair will be initiated (=planar polarity determination). In the model plant Arabidopsis, trichoblast and atrichoblast cell fate results from intra- and intercellular position-dependent signaling and from complex feedback loops that ultimately regulate GL2 expressing and non-expressing cells. When epidermal cells reach the end of the root expansion zone, root hair promoting transcription factors dictate the establishment of polarity within epidermal cells followed by the selection of the root hair initiation site at the more basal part of the trichoblast. Molecular players in the abovementioned processes as well as the role of phytohormones are discussed, and open areas for future experiments are identified.

Identification of MEDIATOR16 as the Arabidopsis COBRA suppressor MONGOOSE1

We performed a screen for genetic suppressors of cobra, an Arabidopsis mutant with defects in cellulose formation and an increased ratio of unesterified/esterified pectin. We identified a suppressor named mongoose1 (mon1) that suppressed the growth defects of cobra, partially restored cellulose levels, and restored the esterification ratio of pectin to wild-type levels. mon1 was mapped to the MEDIATOR16 (MED16) locus, a tail mediator subunit, also known as SENSITIVE TO FREEZING6 (SFR6). When separated from the cobra mutation, mutations in MED16 caused resistance to cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors, consistent with their ability to suppress the cobra cellulose deficiency. Transcriptome analysis revealed that a number of cell wall genes are misregulated in med16 mutants. Two of these genes encode pectin methylesterase inhibitors, which, when ectopically expressed, partially suppressed the cobra phenotype. This suggests that cellulose biosynthesis can be affected by the esterification levels of pectin, possibly through modifying cell wall integrity or the interaction of pectin and cellulose.

The valine and lysine residues in the conserved FxVTxK motif are important for the function of phylogenetically distant plant cellulose synthases

Cellulose synthases (CESAs) synthesize the β-1,4-glucan chains that coalesce to form cellulose microfibrils in plant cell walls. In addition to a large cytosolic (catalytic) domain, CESAs have eight predicted transmembrane helices (TMHs). However, analogous to the structure of BcsA, a bacterial CESA, predicted TMH5 in CESA may instead be an interfacial helix. This would place the conserved FxVTxK motif in the plant cell cytosol where it could function as a substrate-gating loop as occurs in BcsA. To define the functional importance of the CESA region containing FxVTxK, we tested five parallel mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana CESA1 and Physcomitrella patens CESA5 in complementation assays of the relevant cesa mutants. In both organisms, the substitution of the valine or lysine residues in FxVTxK severely affected CESA function. In Arabidopsis roots, both changes were correlated with lower cellulose anisotropy, as revealed by Pontamine Fast Scarlet. Analysis of hypocotyl inner cell wall layers by atomic force microscopy showed that two altered versions of Atcesa1 could rescue cell wall phenotypes observed in the mutant background line. Overall, the data show that the FxVTxK motif is functionally important in two phylogenetically distant plant CESAs. The results show that Physcomitrella provides an efficient model for assessing the effects of engineered CESA mutations affecting primary cell wall synthesis and that diverse testing systems can lead to nuanced insights into CESA structure-function relationships. Although CESA membrane topology needs to be experimentally determined, the results support the possibility that the FxVTxK region functions similarly in CESA and BcsA.

Inhibition of fucosylation of cell wall components by 2-fluoro 2-deoxy-L-fucose induces defects in root cell elongation

Screening of commercially available fluoro monosaccharides as putative growth inhibitors in Arabidopsis thaliana revealed that 2-fluoro 2-l-fucose (2F-Fuc) reduces root growth at micromolar concentrations. The inability of 2F-Fuc to affect an Atfkgp mutant that is defective in the fucose salvage pathway indicates that 2F-Fuc must be converted to its cognate GDP nucleotide sugar in order to inhibit root growth. Chemical analysis of cell wall polysaccharides and glycoproteins demonstrated that fucosylation of xyloglucans and of N-linked glycans is fully inhibited by 10 μm 2F-Fuc in Arabidopsis seedling roots, but genetic evidence indicates that these alterations are not responsible for the inhibition of root development by 2F-Fuc. Inhibition of fucosylation of cell wall polysaccharides also affected pectic rhamnogalacturonan-II (RG-II). At low concentrations, 2F-Fuc induced a decrease in RG-II dimerization. Both RG-II dimerization and root growth were partially restored in 2F-Fuc-treated seedlings by addition of boric acid, suggesting that the growth phenotype caused by 2F-Fuc was due to a deficiency of RG-II dimerization. Closer investigation of the 2F-Fuc-induced growth phenotype demonstrated that cell division is not affected by 2F-Fuc treatments. In contrast, the inhibitor suppressed elongation of root cells and promoted the emergence of adventitious roots. This study further emphasizes the importance of RG-II in cell elongation and the utility of glycosyltransferase inhibitors as new tools for studying the functions of cell wall polysaccharides in plant development. Moreover, supplementation experiments with borate suggest that the function of boron in plants might not be restricted to RG-II cross-linking, but that it might also be a signal molecule in the cell wall integrity-sensing mechanism.

Multiscale models in the biomechanics of plant growth

Plant growth occurs through the coordinated expansion of tightly adherent cells, driven by regulated softening of cell walls. It is an intrinsically multiscale process, with the integrated properties of multiple cell walls shaping the whole tissue. Multiscale models encode physical relationships to bring new understanding to plant physiology and development.

MUCILAGE-RELATED10 Produces Galactoglucomannan That Maintains Pectin and Cellulose Architecture in Arabidopsis Seed Mucilage

Plants invest a lot of their resources into the production of an extracellular matrix built of polysaccharides. While the composition of the cell wall is relatively well characterized, the functions of the individual polymers and the enzymes that catalyze their biosynthesis remain poorly understood. We exploited the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seed coat epidermis (SCE) to study cell wall synthesis. SCE cells produce mucilage, a specialized secondary wall that is rich in pectin, at a precise stage of development. A coexpression search for MUCILAGE-RELATED (MUCI) genes identified MUCI10 as a key determinant of mucilage properties. MUCI10 is closely related to a fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) enzyme that has in vitro galactomannan α-1,6-galactosyltransferase activity. Our detailed analysis of the muci10 mutants demonstrates that mucilage contains highly branched galactoglucomannan (GGM) rather than unbranched glucomannan. MUCI10 likely decorates glucomannan, synthesized by CELLULOSE SYNTHASE-LIKE A2, with galactose residues in vivo. The degree of galactosylation is essential for the synthesis of the GGM backbone, the structure of cellulose, mucilage density, as well as the adherence of pectin. We propose that GGM scaffolds control mucilage architecture along with cellulosic rays and show that Arabidopsis SCE cells represent an excellent model in which to study the synthesis and function of GGM. Arabidopsis natural varieties with defects similar to muci10 mutants may reveal additional genes involved in GGM synthesis. Since GGM is the most abundant hemicellulose in the secondary walls of gymnosperms, understanding its biosynthesis may facilitate improvements in the production of valuable commodities from softwoods.

V-ATPase activity in the TGN/EE is required for exocytosis and recycling in Arabidopsis

In plants, vacuolar H(+)-ATPase (V-ATPase) activity acidifies both the trans-Golgi network/early endosome (TGN/EE) and the vacuole. This dual V-ATPase function has impeded our understanding of how the pH homeostasis within the plant TGN/EE controls exo- and endocytosis. Here, we show that the weak V-ATPase mutant deetiolated3 (det3) displayed a pH increase in the TGN/EE, but not in the vacuole, strongly impairing secretion and recycling of the brassinosteroid receptor and the cellulose synthase complexes to the plasma membrane, in contrast to mutants lacking tonoplast-localized V-ATPase activity only. The brassinosteroid insensitivity and the cellulose deficiency defects in det3 were tightly correlated with reduced Golgi and TGN/EE motility. Thus, our results provide strong evidence that acidification of the TGN/EE, but not of the vacuole, is indispensable for functional secretion and recycling in plants.

Polysaccharide deposition during cytokinesis: Challenges and future perspectives

De novo formation of a new cell wall partitions the cytoplasm of the dividing cell during plant cytokinesis. The development of the cell plate, a transient sheet-like structure, requires the accumulation of vesicles directed by the phragmoplast to the cell plate assembly matrix. Fusion and fission of the accumulated vesicles are accompanied by the deposition of polysaccharides and cell wall structural proteins; together, they are leading to the stabilization of the formed structure which after insertion into the parental wall lead to the maturation of the nascent cross wall. Callose is the most abundant polysaccharide during cell plate formation and during maturation is gradually replaced by cellulose. Matrix polysaccharides such as hemicellulose, and pectins presumably are present throughout all developmental stages, being delivered to the cell plate by secretory vesicles. The availability of novel chemical probes such as endosidin 7, which inhibits callose formation at the cell plate, has proved useful for dissecting the temporal accumulation of vesicles at the cell plate and establishing the critical role of callose during cytokinesis. The use of emerging approaches such as chemical genomics combined with live cell imaging; novel techniques of polysaccharide detection including tagged polysaccharide substrates, newly characterized polysaccharide antibodies and vesicle proteomics can be used to develop a comprehensive model of cell plate development.

Unidirectional movement of cellulose synthase complexes in Arabidopsis seed coat epidermal cells deposit cellulose involved in mucilage extrusion, adherence, and ray formation

Cellulose synthase5 (CESA5) synthesizes cellulose necessary for seed mucilage adherence to seed coat epidermal cells of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The involvement of additional CESA proteins in this process and details concerning the manner in which cellulose is deposited in the mucilage pocket are unknown. Here, we show that both CESA3 and CESA10 are highly expressed in this cell type at the time of mucilage synthesis and localize to the plasma membrane adjacent to the mucilage pocket. The isoxaben resistant1-1 and isoxaben resistant1-2 mutants affecting CESA3 show defects consistent with altered mucilage cellulose biosynthesis. CESA3 can interact with CESA5 in vitro, and green fluorescent protein-tagged CESA5, CESA3, and CESA10 proteins move in a linear, unidirectional fashion around the cytoplasmic column of the cell, parallel with the surface of the seed, in a pattern similar to that of cortical microtubules. Consistent with this movement, cytological evidence suggests that the mucilage is coiled around the columella and unwinds during mucilage extrusion to form a linear ray. Mutations in CESA5 and CESA3 affect the speed of mucilage extrusion and mucilage adherence. These findings imply that cellulose fibrils are synthesized in an ordered helical array around the columella, providing a distinct structure to the mucilage that is important for both mucilage extrusion and adherence.

Single Cell Wall Nonlinear Mechanics Revealed by a Multiscale Analysis of AFM Force-Indentation Curves

Individual plant cells are rather complex mechanical objects. Despite the fact that their wall mechanical strength may be weakened by comparison with their original tissue template, they nevertheless retain some generic properties of the mother tissue, namely the viscoelasticity and the shape of their walls, which are driven by their internal hydrostatic turgor pressure. This viscoelastic behavior, which affects the power-law response of these cells when indented by an atomic force cantilever with a pyramidal tip, is also very sensitive to the culture media. To our knowledge, we develop here an original analyzing method, based on a multiscale decomposition of force-indentation curves, that reveals and quantifies for the first time the nonlinearity of the mechanical response of living single plant cells upon mechanical deformation. Further comparing the nonlinear strain responses of these isolated cells in three different media, we reveal an alteration of their linear bending elastic regime in both hyper- and hypotonic conditions.

Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Plant Cell Walls

The size, shape and stability of a plant depend on the flexibility and integrity of its cell walls, which, at the same time, need to allow cell expansion for growth, while maintaining mechanical stability. Biomechanical studies largely vanished from the focus of plant science with the rapid progress of genetics and molecular biology since the mid-twentieth century. However, the development of more sensitive measurement tools renewed the interest in plant biomechanics in recent years, not only to understand the fundamental concepts of growth and morphogenesis, but also with regard to economically important areas in agriculture, forestry and the paper industry. Recent advances have clearly demonstrated that mechanical forces play a crucial role in cell and organ morphogenesis, which ultimately define plant morphology. In this article, we will briefly review the available methods to determine the mechanical properties of cell walls, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and microindentation assays, and discuss their advantages and disadvantages. But we will focus on a novel methodological approach, called cellular force microscopy (CFM), and its automated successor, real-time CFM (RT-CFM).

COBRA-LIKE2, a member of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored COBRA-LIKE family, plays a role in cellulose deposition in arabidopsis seed coat mucilage secretory cells

Differentiation of the maternally derived seed coat epidermal cells into mucilage secretory cells is a common adaptation in angiosperms. Recent studies identified cellulose as an important component of seed mucilage in various species. Cellulose is deposited as a set of rays that radiate from the seed upon mucilage extrusion, serving to anchor the pectic component of seed mucilage to the seed surface. Using transcriptome data encompassing the course of seed development, we identified COBRA-LIKE2 (COBL2), a member of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored COBRA-LIKE gene family in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), as coexpressed with other genes involved in cellulose deposition in mucilage secretory cells. Disruption of the COBL2 gene results in substantial reduction in the rays of cellulose present in seed mucilage, along with an increased solubility of the pectic component of the mucilage. Light birefringence demonstrates a substantial decrease in crystalline cellulose deposition into the cellulosic rays of the cobl2 mutants. Moreover, crystalline cellulose deposition into the radial cell walls and the columella appears substantially compromised, as demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy and in situ quantification of light birefringence. Overall, the cobl2 mutants display about 40% reduction in whole-seed crystalline cellulose content compared with the wild type. These data establish that COBL2 plays a role in the deposition of crystalline cellulose into various secondary cell wall structures during seed coat epidermal cell differentiation.