151
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Characterization of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infectivity in human embryonic kidney cells. Arch Virol 2017; 162:2415-2419. [PMID: 28470417 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-017-3369-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), a causative agent of porcine epidemic diarrhea, causes economic loss in the global swine industry. Vero cell, an African green monkey kidney cell line, has been commonly used to isolate and propagate PEDV. However, since the production of interferon in these cells is defective, Vero cells are not the ideal cell type to study the molecular mechanisms of PEDV infection and the host antiviral innate immune response. In this study, we observed that human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells were susceptible to infection with PEDV vaccine strain CV777 (G1 subtype) and field isolate LNCT2 (G2 subtype). The one-step growth curve showed that the growth dynamics of PEDV in HEK293 cells was similar to that observed in Vero cells. Furthermore, we revealed that aminopeptidase N was involved in PEDV infection in HEK293 cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that HEK293 cells can be efficiently infected by PEDV, which might provide a useful tool for understanding the fundamental mechanisms of PEDV infection in vitro.
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152
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Li W, Luo R, He Q, van Kuppeveld FJM, Rottier PJM, Bosch BJ. Aminopeptidase N is not required for porcine epidemic diarrhea virus cell entry. Virus Res 2017; 235:6-13. [PMID: 28363778 PMCID: PMC7114539 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression of porcine APN in cells does not confer susceptibility to PEDV. Knockout APN expression in PEDV-susceptible cells has no effect on PEDV infection. Results demonstrate that APN is not essential for PEDV cell entry.
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an emerging pathogenic coronavirus that causes a significant economic burden to the swine industry. The virus infects the intestinal epithelium and causes villous atrophy, resulting in diarrhea and dehydration. Interaction of the viral spike (S) surface glycoprotein − through its S1 subunit − with the host cell receptor is the first step in infection and the main determinant for virus tropism. As for several other alphacoronaviruses including the porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and the human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E), the aminopeptidase N (APN) protein was reported to be a functional receptor for PEDV. In this study we examined the role of APN as a receptor. We show that overexpression of porcine APN renders MDCK cells susceptible to TGEV, but not to PEDV. Consistently, unlike TGEV-S1, PEDV-S1 exhibited no binding to cell-surface expressed APN or to a soluble version of APN. Moreover, preincubation of these viruses with soluble APN or pretreatment of APN expressing ST cells with soluble TGEV-S1 blocked TGEV infection, but had no effect on infection by PEDV. The combined observations indicated that APN is not required for PEDV infection. To definitively prove this conclusion, we applied CRISPR/Cas9 genome engineering to knock out APN expression in PEDV-susceptible porcine (ST) and human cell lines (Huh7 and HeLa). As a consequence these cells no longer bound TGEV-S1 and HCoV-229E-S1 at their surface and were resistant to infection by the corresponding viruses. However, genetic ablation of APN expression had no effect on their infectability by PEDV, demonstrating that APN is not essential for PEDV cell entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Li
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Rui Luo
- State Key laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Qigai He
- State Key laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Frank J M van Kuppeveld
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Peter J M Rottier
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Berend-Jan Bosch
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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153
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Wang Y, Tai W, Yang J, Zhao G, Sun S, Tseng CTK, Jiang S, Zhou Y, Du L, Gao J. Receptor-binding domain of MERS-CoV with optimal immunogen dosage and immunization interval protects human transgenic mice from MERS-CoV infection. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017; 13:1615-1624. [PMID: 28277821 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1296994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) continues to raise worldwide concerns due to its pandemic potential. Increased MERS cases and no licensed MERS vaccines highlight the need to develop safe and effective vaccines against MERS. We have previously demonstrated that a receptor-binding domain (RBD) fragment containing residues 377-588 of MERS-coronavirus (MERS-CoV) spike protein is a critical neutralizing domain and an important vaccine target. Nevertheless, its optimal immunogen dosage and immunization interval, key factors for human-used vaccines that induce protective immunity, have never been investigated. In this study, we optimized these criteria using a recombinant MERS-CoV RBD protein fused with Fc (S377-588-Fc) and utilized the optimal immunization schedule to evaluate the protective efficacy of RBD against MERS-CoV infection in human dipeptidyl peptidase 4 transgenic (hDPP4-Tg) mice. Compared with one dose and 2 doses at 1-, 2-, and 3-week intervals, a regimen of 2 doses of this protein separated by an interval of 4 weeks induced the strongest antibody response and neutralizing antibodies against MERS-CoV infection, and maintained at a high level during the detection period. Notably, RBD protein at the optimal dosage and interval protected hDPP4-Tg mice against lethal MERS-CoV challenge, and the protection was positively correlated with serum neutralizing antibodies. Taken together, the optimal immunogen dosage and immunization interval identified in this study will provide useful guidelines for further development of MERS-CoV RBD-based vaccines for human use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufei Wang
- a School of Medical Laboratory Science , Wenzhou Medical University , Wenzhou , Zhejiang , China.,b Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute , New York Blood Center , New York , NY , USA.,c State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity , Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology , Beijing , China
| | - Wanbo Tai
- b Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute , New York Blood Center , New York , NY , USA.,c State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity , Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology , Beijing , China
| | - Jie Yang
- b Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute , New York Blood Center , New York , NY , USA
| | - Guangyu Zhao
- c State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity , Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology , Beijing , China
| | - Shihui Sun
- c State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity , Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology , Beijing , China
| | - Chien-Te K Tseng
- d Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Disease , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston , TX , USA
| | - Shibo Jiang
- b Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute , New York Blood Center , New York , NY , USA.,e Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministries of Education and Health, Basic Medical College and Institute of Medical Microbiology , Fudan University , Shanghai , China
| | - Yusen Zhou
- a School of Medical Laboratory Science , Wenzhou Medical University , Wenzhou , Zhejiang , China.,c State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity , Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology , Beijing , China
| | - Lanying Du
- b Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute , New York Blood Center , New York , NY , USA
| | - Jimin Gao
- a School of Medical Laboratory Science , Wenzhou Medical University , Wenzhou , Zhejiang , China
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154
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Huan CC, Wang HX, Sheng XX, Wang R, Wang X, Mao X. Glycyrrhizin inhibits porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infection and attenuates the proinflammatory responses by inhibition of high mobility group box-1 protein. Arch Virol 2017; 162:1467-1476. [PMID: 28175983 PMCID: PMC7086885 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-017-3259-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), caused by porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) infection, leads to significant economic losses in the swine industry worldwide. In our studies, we found that glycyrrhizin, the major component of licorice root extracts, could moderately inhibit PEDV infection in Vero cells, when analyzed by western blot, qRT-PCR and a plaque formation assay. We also revealed that glycyrrhizin inhibited the entry and replication of PEDV. In addition, we demonstrated that glycyrrhizin decreased the mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines. Since glycyrrhizin is a competitive inhibitor of high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), we confirmed that TLR4 and RAGE (£ associated with PEDV pathogenesis during the infection in Vero cells. In summary, our studies provide a molecular basis for developing novel therapeutic methods to control PEDV infection, based on glycyrrhizin and its derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Chao Huan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China.
| | - Hua-Xia Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China
| | - Xiang-Xiang Sheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China
| | - Rui Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China
| | - Xin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China
| | - Xiang Mao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China.
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155
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Peng G, Yang Y, Pasquarella JR, Xu L, Qian Z, Holmes KV, Li F. Structural and Molecular Evidence Suggesting Coronavirus-driven Evolution of Mouse Receptor. J Biol Chem 2016; 292:2174-2181. [PMID: 28035001 PMCID: PMC5313091 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.764266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Hosts and pathogens are locked in an evolutionary arms race. To infect mice, mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) has evolved to recognize mouse CEACAM1a (mCEACAM1a) as its receptor. To elude MHV infections, mice may have evolved a variant allele from the Ceacam1a gene, called Ceacam1b, producing mCEACAM1b, which is a much poorer MHV receptor than mCEACAM1a. Previous studies showed that sequence differences between mCEACAM1a and mCEACAM1b in a critical MHV-binding CC′ loop partially account for the low receptor activity of mCEACAM1b, but detailed structural and molecular mechanisms for the differential MHV receptor activities of mCEACAM1a and mCEACAM1b remained elusive. Here we have determined the crystal structure of mCEACAM1b and identified the structural differences and additional residue differences between mCEACAM1a and mCEACAM1b that affect MHV binding and entry. These differences include conformational alterations of the CC′ loop as well as residue variations in other MHV-binding regions, including β-strands C′ and C′′ and loop C′C′′. Using pseudovirus entry and protein-protein binding assays, we show that substituting the structural and residue features from mCEACAM1b into mCEACAM1a reduced the viral receptor activity of mCEACAM1a, whereas substituting the reverse changes from mCEACAM1a into mCEACAM1b increased the viral receptor activity of mCEACAM1b. These results elucidate the detailed molecular mechanism for how mice may have kept pace in the evolutionary arms race with MHV by undergoing structural and residue changes in the MHV receptor, providing insight into this possible example of pathogen-driven evolution of a host receptor protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiqing Peng
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455.,the State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yang Yang
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Joseph R Pasquarella
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Liqing Xu
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455.,the Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhaohui Qian
- the MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China, and.,the Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Kathryn V Holmes
- the Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Fang Li
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455,
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156
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Teeravechyan S, Frantz PN, Wongthida P, Chailangkarn T, Jaru-Ampornpan P, Koonpaew S, Jongkaewwattana A. Deciphering the biology of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus in the era of reverse genetics. Virus Res 2016; 226:152-171. [PMID: 27212685 PMCID: PMC7114553 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Emergence of the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) as a global threat to the swine industry underlies the urgent need for deeper understanding of this virus. To date, we have yet to identify functions for all the major gene products, much less grasp their implications for the viral life cycle and pathogenic mechanisms. A major reason is the lack of genetic tools for studying PEDV. In this review, we discuss the reverse genetics approaches that have been successfully used to engineer infectious clones of PEDV as well as other potential and complementary methods that have yet to be applied to PEDV. The importance of proper cell culture for successful PEDV propagation and maintenance of disease phenotype are addressed in our survey of permissive cell lines. We also highlight areas of particular relevance to PEDV pathogenesis and disease that have benefited from reverse genetics studies and pressing questions that await resolution by such studies. In particular, we examine the spike protein as a determinant of viral tropism, entry and virulence, ORF3 and its association with cell culture adaptation, and the nucleocapsid protein and its potential role in modulating PEDV pathogenicity. Finally, we conclude with an exploration of how reverse genetics can help mitigate the global impact of PEDV by addressing the challenges of vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samaporn Teeravechyan
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand
| | - Phanramphoei Namprachan Frantz
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand
| | - Phonphimon Wongthida
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand
| | - Thanathom Chailangkarn
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand
| | - Peera Jaru-Ampornpan
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand
| | - Surapong Koonpaew
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand
| | - Anan Jongkaewwattana
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, 12120 Thailand.
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157
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Choudhury B, Dastjerdi A, Doyle N, Frossard JP, Steinbach F. From the field to the lab - An European view on the global spread of PEDV. Virus Res 2016; 226:40-49. [PMID: 27637348 PMCID: PMC7114520 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus (PEDV) is a member of the genus Alphacoronavirus, in the family Coronaviridae, of the Nidovirales order and outbreaks of porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) were first recorded in England in the 1970s. Intriguingly the virus has since successfully made its way around the globe, while seemingly becoming extinct in parts of Europe before its recent return from Northern America. In this review we are re-evaluating the spread of PEDV, its biology and are looking at lessons learnt from both failure and success. While a new analysis of PEDV genomes demonstrates a wider heterogeneity of PEDV than previously anticipated with at least five rather than two genotypes, biological features of the virus and its replication also point towards credible control strategies to limit the impact of this re-emerging virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhudipa Choudhury
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Akbar Dastjerdi
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole Doyle
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Pierre Frossard
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Falko Steinbach
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
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158
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Su Y, Liu Y, Chen Y, Zhao B, Ji P, Xing G, Jiang D, Liu C, Song Y, Wang G, Li D, Deng R, Zhang G. Detection and phylogenetic analysis of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus in central China based on the ORF3 gene and the S1 gene. Virol J 2016; 13:192. [PMID: 27887624 PMCID: PMC5123408 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0646-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED) has increased in severity in China since 2010. To investigate further the infectivity, genetic diversity and molecular epidemiology of its causative agent, the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), we assessed 129 clinical samples, which were the intestinal tissue of piglets with severe diarrhea, from 17 cities in central China. Both the spike (S) glycoprotein (S1, 1-789 amino acids (aa)) and the full-length ORF3 gene of 21 representative field strains from 21 farms in 11 cities were sequenced and analysed. METHODS PEDV was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and S1 and ORF3 sequences were processed by the Clustal W method via DNAMAN 8 software, and phylogenetic trees were constructed by the neighbor-joining method using MEGA 6 software. RESULTS The prevalence of PEDV was 92.25% and was detected in 119 of 129 samples, with 94.03% (63 of 67) of pig farms harbouring the disease. According to the phylogenetic analysis of the S1 genes, our isolates all fell into group G2 (variants) and showed a close relationship to isolates from Chinese (HN1303, CH/ZMDZY/11 and AJ1102), Korean (AD01), American (MN, IA1, IA2 and 13-019349) sources, and these isolates differed genetically from other Chinese (LZC, CH/HNZZ/2011 and SD-M) and Korean (SM98) strains as well Japanese (83-P5 and MK) strains. In addition, our isolates differed from attenuated vaccine strains, CV777 (used in China) and DR13 (used in Korea). According to our derived amino acid sequence analysis, we detected one novel variant PEDV, viz: CH/HNLY, with 4-aa insertion/deletion (RSSS/T) at position 375 and 1-aa (D) deletion at position 430 compared to the CV777 attenuated strain. These mutations were located on the receptor binding domain. Our ORF3 gene analyses showed that the prevalent PEDV isolates were variants, and the isolated strains differed genetically from the vaccine strains. CONCLUSIONS These findings illustrated the existence of genetic diversity among geographically distinct PEDV strains, and our study has provided an impetus to conduct further research on the PEDV receptor binding protein and on the new and efficacious vaccines design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfang Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Yunchao Liu
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhengzhou, 450002, China.
| | - Yumei Chen
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Baolei Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Pengchao Ji
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China
| | - Guangxu Xing
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Dawei Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Yapeng Song
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Guoqiang Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Dongliang Li
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Ruiguang Deng
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
| | - Gaiping Zhang
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Science, Zhengzhou, 450002, China. .,College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China. .,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China.
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159
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Liu C, Ma Y, Yang Y, Zheng Y, Shang J, Zhou Y, Jiang S, Du L, Li J, Li F. Cell Entry of Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Coronavirus Is Activated by Lysosomal Proteases. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:24779-24786. [PMID: 27729455 PMCID: PMC5114425 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.740746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea coronavirus (PEDV) is currently devastating the United States pork industry by causing an 80-100% fatality rate in infected piglets. Coronavirus spike proteins mediate virus entry into cells, a process that requires the spike proteins to be proteolytically activated. It has been a conundrum which proteases activate PEDV entry. Here we systematically investigated the roles of different proteases in PEDV entry using pseudovirus entry, biochemical, and live virus infection assays. We found that the PEDV spike is activated by lysosomal cysteine proteases but not proprotein convertases or cell surface serine proteases. Extracellular trypsin activates PEDV entry when lysosomal cysteine proteases are inhibited. We further pinpointed cathepsin L and cathepsin B as the lysosomal cysteine proteases that activate the PEDV spike. These results advance our understanding of the molecular mechanism for PEDV entry and identify potential antiviral targets for curbing the spread of PEDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Yuanmei Ma
- the Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Yang Yang
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Yuan Zheng
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Jian Shang
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Yusen Zhou
- the State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Shibo Jiang
- the Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute, New York Blood Center, New York, New York 10065, and; the Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministries of Education and Health, School of Basic Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Lanying Du
- the Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute, New York Blood Center, New York, New York 10065, and
| | - Jianrong Li
- the Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210,.
| | - Fang Li
- From the Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455,.
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160
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Kamau AN, Park JE, Park ES, Yu JE, Rho J, Shin HJ. Porcine amino peptidase N domain VII has critical role in binding and entry of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. Virus Res 2016; 227:150-157. [PMID: 27732876 PMCID: PMC7114530 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
To gain insights into mechanisms of PEDV-pAPN interactions, the present study aimed at identifying the domain that is critical for PEDV binding. Results showed PEDV infection was restricted to pAPN domain VII expressing NIH3T3 cells. PEDV harvested from pAPN or domain VII expressing NIH3T3 cells was induced indirect plaques in Vero cells. Our results demonstrate that PEDV recognizes pAPN and that the main interactive point is lodged within domain VII of the pAPN.
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) infects swine intestinal cells causing enteric disease. Research has shown that the entry into these cells is through porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN) receptor. To gain insights into mechanisms of PEDV-pAPN interactions, the present study aimed at identifying the domain that is critical for PEDV binding. To this end, NIH3T3 cell lines constitutively expressing pAPN or pAPN mutants were generated. The mutants were; domain VII deletion mutant and domains IV–VI deletion mutant. In the latter, domain VII was linked to the transmembrane segment through domain III. Results showed PEDV infection was restricted to pAPN and pAPN domain VII expressing NIH3T3 cells. Further, reducing PEDV titre 10 fold resulted in 37.8% decrease in foci indicating positive correlation. A time course test at 12, 24, 36, 48 and 60 h showed that foci increased 6 fold in the overall time range. Also, PEDV harvested from pAPN or domain VII expressing NIH3T3 cells was induced indirect plaques in Vero cells confirming successful entry and replication. Collectively, our results demonstrate that PEDV recognizes pAPN and that the main interactive point is lodged within domain VII of the pAPN. These findings are important for therapeutic development as well as creating a platform for future studies on PEDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Ndirangu Kamau
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, 220 Gungdong, Yuseong, Daejeon, 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Eun Park
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, 220 Gungdong, Yuseong, Daejeon, 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Eui-Soon Park
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Biology College of Bioscience & Biotechnology, 220 Gungdong, Yuseong, Daejeon, 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Eun Yu
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Biology College of Bioscience & Biotechnology, 220 Gungdong, Yuseong, Daejeon, 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaerang Rho
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Biology College of Bioscience & Biotechnology, 220 Gungdong, Yuseong, Daejeon, 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Jin Shin
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, 220 Gungdong, Yuseong, Daejeon, 305-764, Republic of Korea; Research Institute of Veterinary Medicine, 220 Gungdong, Yuseong, Daejeon, 305-764, Republic of Korea.
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161
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Piao DC, Lee YS, Bok JD, Cho CS, Hong ZS, Kang SK, Choi YJ. Production of soluble truncated spike protein of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus from inclusion bodies of Escherichia coli through refolding. Protein Expr Purif 2016; 126:77-83. [PMID: 27260969 PMCID: PMC7173294 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2016.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of highly pathogenic variant porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) strains, from 2013 to 2014, in North American and Asian countries have greatly threatened global swine industry. Therefore, development of effective vaccines against PEDV variant strains is urgently needed. Recently, it has been reported that the N-terminal domain (NTD) of S1 domain of PEDV spike protein is responsible for binding to the 5-N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac), a possible sugar co-receptor. Therefore, the NTD of S1 domain could be an attractive target for the development of subunit vaccines. In this study, the NTD spanning amino acid residues 25-229 (S25-229) of S1 domain of PEDV variant strain was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) in the form of inclusion bodies (IBs). S25-229 IBs were solubilized in 20 mM sodium acetate (pH 4.5) buffer containing 8 M urea and 1 mM dithiothreitol with 95% yield. Solubilized S25-229 IBs were refolded by 10-fold flash dilution and purified by one-step cation exchange chromatography with >95% purity and 20% yield. The CD spectrum of S25-229 showed the characteristic pattern of alpha helical structure. In an indirect ELISA, purified S25-229 showed strong reactivity with mouse anti-PEDV sera. In addition, immunization of mice with 20 μg of purified S25-229 elicited highly potent serum IgG titers. Finally, mouse antisera against S25-229 showed immune reactivity with native PEDV S protein in an immunofluorescence assay. These results suggest that purified S25-229 may have potential to be used as a subunit vaccine against PEDV variant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Chuan Piao
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-921, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon-Seok Lee
- Institute of Green-Bio Science & Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 232-916, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Duck Bok
- Institute of Green-Bio Science & Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 232-916, Republic of Korea
| | - Chong-Su Cho
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-921, Republic of Korea
| | - Zhong-Shan Hong
- Department of Animal Science, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, 300-384, People's Republic of China
| | - Sang-Kee Kang
- Institute of Green-Bio Science & Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 232-916, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yun-Jaie Choi
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-921, Republic of Korea; Department of Animal Science, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin, 300-384, People's Republic of China.
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162
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Abstract
The coronavirus spike protein is a multifunctional molecular machine that mediates coronavirus entry into host cells. It first binds to a receptor on the host cell surface through its S1 subunit and then fuses viral and host membranes through its S2 subunit. Two domains in S1 from different coronaviruses recognize a variety of host receptors, leading to viral attachment. The spike protein exists in two structurally distinct conformations, prefusion and postfusion. The transition from prefusion to postfusion conformation of the spike protein must be triggered, leading to membrane fusion. This article reviews current knowledge about the structures and functions of coronavirus spike proteins, illustrating how the two S1 domains recognize different receptors and how the spike proteins are regulated to undergo conformational transitions. I further discuss the evolution of these two critical functions of coronavirus spike proteins, receptor recognition and membrane fusion, in the context of the corresponding functions from other viruses and host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Li
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455;
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163
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Rüdiger AT, Mayrhofer P, Ma-Lauer Y, Pohlentz G, Müthing J, von Brunn A, Schwegmann-Weßels C. Tubulins interact with porcine and human S proteins of the genus Alphacoronavirus and support successful assembly and release of infectious viral particles. Virology 2016; 497:185-197. [PMID: 27479465 PMCID: PMC7111311 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 07/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Coronavirus spike proteins mediate host-cell-attachment and virus entry. Virus replication takes place within the host cell cytosol, whereas assembly and budding occur at the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment. In this study we demonstrated that the last 39 amino acid stretches of Alphacoronavirus spike cytoplasmic domains of the human coronavirus 229E, NL63, and the porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus TGEV interact with tubulin alpha and beta chains. In addition, a partial co-localization of TGEV spike proteins with authentic host cell β-tubulin was observed. Furthermore, drug-induced microtubule depolymerization led to changes in spike protein distribution, a reduction in the release of infectious virus particles and less amount of spike protein incorporated into virions. These data demonstrate that interaction of Alphacoronavirus spike proteins with tubulin supports S protein transport and incorporation into virus particles. The cytoplasmic domain of coronavirus S proteins interacts with tubulin. Microtubule depolymerization influences S protein distribution. Viral titers are reduced after microtubule depolymerization. S protein incorporation into virus particles depends on intact microtubule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Theresa Rüdiger
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Peter Mayrhofer
- Virology Department, Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Pettenkoferstraße 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Yue Ma-Lauer
- Virology Department, Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Pettenkoferstraße 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Gottfried Pohlentz
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Straße 41, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Johannes Müthing
- Institute for Hygiene, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Straße 41, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Albrecht von Brunn
- Virology Department, Max-von-Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Pettenkoferstraße 9a, 80336 Munich, Germany; German Centers for Infection Research (DZIF), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.
| | - Christel Schwegmann-Weßels
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
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164
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Shirato K, Maejima M, Islam MT, Miyazaki A, Kawase M, Matsuyama S, Taguchi F. Porcine aminopeptidase N is not a cellular receptor of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, but promotes its infectivity via aminopeptidase activity. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:2528-2539. [PMID: 27449937 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), a causative agent of pig diarrhoea, has recently caused significant economic damage worldwide. Porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN) has been reported to be the receptor for PEDV, although robust evidence is lacking. In the present study, we explored whether pAPN functions as a receptor for PEDV. Human HeLa cells expressing pAPN and pAPN-positive porcine CPK cells failed to support PEDV infection, but were susceptible to infection by transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), which utilizes pAPN as a functional receptor. In contrast to TGEV, PEDV did not bind soluble porcine aminopeptidases (pAPs) and infection was not inhibited by the soluble form of pAPs. However, overexpression of pAPN in porcine CPK cells (CPK-pAPN cells) slightly increased the production of PEDV, and the increased replication in CPK-pAPN cells was inhibited by bestatin, an inhibitor of the protease activity of aminopeptidase N. These results suggest that pAPN is not a functional receptor for PEDV, but promotes the infection of PEDV through its protease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuya Shirato
- Laboratory of Acute Respiratory Viral Diseases and Cytokines, Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Madoka Maejima
- Laboratory of Acute Respiratory Viral Diseases and Cytokines, Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Md Taimur Islam
- Laboratory of Virology and Viral Infections, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan
| | - Ayako Miyazaki
- Viral Diseases and Epidemiology Research Division, National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Miyuki Kawase
- Laboratory of Acute Respiratory Viral Diseases and Cytokines, Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Shutoku Matsuyama
- Laboratory of Acute Respiratory Viral Diseases and Cytokines, Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
| | - Fumihiro Taguchi
- Laboratory of Virology and Viral Infections, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Nippon Veterinary and Life Science University, 1-7-1 Kyonan-cho, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan.,Laboratory of Acute Respiratory Viral Diseases and Cytokines, Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 4-7-1 Gakuen, Musashimurayama, Tokyo 208-0011, Japan
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165
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Li W, van Kuppeveld FJM, He Q, Rottier PJM, Bosch BJ. Cellular entry of the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. Virus Res 2016; 226:117-127. [PMID: 27317167 PMCID: PMC7114534 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
An overview of the interactions of PEDV and its target cells during the initial stage of infection. A description of the multidomain structure of the spike (S) protein. A summary of observations on aminopeptidase N as the PEDV protein receptor. An overview with new data on the significance of the N-terminal S domain in sialic acid binding. A summary of the requirements for proteolytic activation of the fusion function of the S protein.
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), a coronavirus discovered more than 40 years ago, regained notoriety recently by its devastating outbreaks in East Asia and the Americas, causing substantial economic losses to the swine husbandry. The virus replicates extensively and almost exclusively in the epithelial cells of the small intestine resulting in villus atrophy, malabsorption and severe diarrhea. Cellular entry of this enveloped virus is mediated by the large spike (S) glycoprotein, trimers of which mediate virus attachment to the target cell and subsequent membrane fusion. The S protein has a multidomain architecture and has been reported to bind to carbohydrate (sialic acid) and proteinaceous (aminopeptidase N) cell surface molecules. PEDV propagation in vitro requires the presence of trypsin(-like) proteases in the culture medium, which capacitates the fusion function of the S protein. Here we review the current data on PEDV entry into its host cell, including therein our new observations regarding the functional role of the sialic acid binding activity of the S protein in virus infection. Moreover, we summarize the recent progress on the proteolytic activation of PEDV S proteins, and discuss factors that may determine tissue tropism of PEDV in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Li
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Frank J M van Kuppeveld
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Qigai He
- State Key laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei province, China
| | - Peter J M Rottier
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Berend-Jan Bosch
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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166
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Zhu Y, Wang GH, Cui YD, Cui SJ. Establishment of a nanoparticle-assisted RT-PCR assay to distinguish field strains and attenuated strains of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. Arch Virol 2016; 161:2543-7. [PMID: 27287433 PMCID: PMC7087100 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-2918-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) can cause serious disease and even death in neonatal piglets, resulting in serious damage to the swine industry worldwide. Open reading frame 3 (ORF3) is the only accessory gene in the PEDV genome. Previous studies have indicated that PEDV vaccine strains have a partial deletion in ORF3. In this study, a nanoparticle-assisted polymerase chain reaction (nanoparticle-assisted RT-PCR) assay targeting the ORF3 of PEDV was developed to distinguish PEDV field strains from attenuated strains by using a specific pair of primers. The PCR products of field strains and attenuated strains were 264 bp and 215 bp in length, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of this assay were also assessed. The nanoparticle-assisted RT-PCR assay was 10-100 times more sensitive than the conventional RT-PCR assay, with no cross-reactions when amplifying porcine pseudorabies virus (PRV), porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), classical swine fever virus (CSFV), porcine parvovirus (PPV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), porcine rotavirus (RV), and porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV). The nanoparticle-assisted RT-PCR assay we describe here can be used to distinguish field strains from vaccine strains of PEDV, and it shows promise for reducing economic loss due to PEDV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhu
- Institute of Animal Science(IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences(CAAS), Yuanmingyuan West Road 2, Hai Dian District, Beijing, 100193, China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, HLJ August First Land Reclamation University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Gui-Hua Wang
- Animal Medical Center DBN Technology Group, Beijing, 100195, China
| | - Yu-Dong Cui
- College of Animal Science and Technology, HLJ August First Land Reclamation University, Daqing, 163319, China.
| | - Shang-Jin Cui
- Institute of Animal Science(IAS), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences(CAAS), Yuanmingyuan West Road 2, Hai Dian District, Beijing, 100193, China.
- College of Animal Science and Technology, HLJ August First Land Reclamation University, Daqing, 163319, China.
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167
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Zhang Q, Yoo D. Immune evasion of porcine enteric coronaviruses and viral modulation of antiviral innate signaling. Virus Res 2016; 226:128-141. [PMID: 27212682 PMCID: PMC7111337 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Enteric coronaviruses have evolved to modulate the host innate immunity. Viral IFN antagonists have been identified and they are mostly redundant. For protection of intestinal epithelia from enteric viruses, type III IFN plays a major role.
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) are emerged and reemerging viruses in pigs, and together with transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), pose significant economic concerns to the swine industry. These viruses infect epithelial cells of the small intestine and cause watery diarrhea, dehydration, and a high mortality in neonatal piglets. Type I interferons (IFN-α/β) are major antiviral cytokines forming host innate immunity, and in turn, these enteric coronaviruses have evolved to modulate the host innate immune signaling during infection. Accumulating evidence however suggests that IFN induction and signaling in the intestinal epithelial cells differ from other epithelial cells, largely due to distinct features of the gut epithelial mucosal surface and commensal microflora, and it appears that type III interferon (IFN-λ) plays a key role to maintain the antiviral state in the gut. This review describes the recent understanding on the immune evasion strategies of porcine enteric coronaviruses and the role of different types of IFNs for intestinal antiviral innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingzhan Zhang
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana IL, United States
| | - Dongwan Yoo
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana IL, United States.
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168
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Diel DG, Lawson S, Okda F, Singrey A, Clement T, Fernandes MHV, Christopher-Hennings J, Nelson EA. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus: An overview of current virological and serological diagnostic methods. Virus Res 2016; 226:60-70. [PMID: 27189041 PMCID: PMC7172987 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Molecular assays such as rRT-PCR are the method of choice for PEDV diagnosis. Multiplex rRT-PCR allow simultaneous testing for PEDV, TGEV and PDCoV. Serological assays provide valuable information on previous exposure to PEDV and population immunity.
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is the causative agent of an acute, highly contagious, and severe enteric disease that leads to high mortality rates in suckling piglets. Therefore, accurate diagnosis of PEDV infection is critical for the implementation of control measures for the virus. Many diagnostic tests have been recently developed and are currently available for the detection of PEDV, its proteins or nucleic acid, including virus isolation, immunofluorescence (IF) or immunohistochemistry (IHC), polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and isothermal amplification assays. Additionally, several serological assays have been developed and are currently used for the detection of antibodies against PEDV. Molecular assays such as real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR (rRT-PCR) became the methods of choice for the diagnosis of PEDV infection, providing sensitive, specific and rapid detection of the virus RNA in clinical samples. Whereas serological assays have been widely used to monitor prior exposure to the virus and to evaluate the efficacy of novel vaccine candidates or vaccination strategies. Here we discuss the properties of current PEDV diagnostic assays and prospects for improving diagnostic strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Diel
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
| | - S Lawson
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - F Okda
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - A Singrey
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - T Clement
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - M H V Fernandes
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - J Christopher-Hennings
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - E A Nelson
- Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
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169
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Identification and Comparison of Receptor Binding Characteristics of the Spike Protein of Two Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Strains. Viruses 2016; 8:55. [PMID: 26907329 PMCID: PMC4810246 DOI: 10.3390/v8030055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), a member of Alphacoronavirus, has caused huge economic losses for the global pork industry recently. The spike (S) protein mediates PEDV entry into host cells. Herein, we investigated the interactions between the S protein and its receptor porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN) or co-receptor sugars. The C-terminal domain (CTD) of the S1 domain is bound to pAPN. The prototype strain demonstrated similar receptor-binding activity compared with the variant field isolate. Three loops at the tips of the β-barrel domains did not play crucial roles in the PEDV S-pAPN association, indicating that PEDV conforms to a different receptor recognition model compared with transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), porcine respiratory CoV (PRCV), and human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63). The N-terminal domain (NTD) of the PEDV S1 domain could bind sugar, a possible co-receptor for PEDV. The prototype strain exhibited weaker sugar-binding activity compared with the variant field isolate. Strategies targeting the receptor binding domain (RBD) may be helpful for developing vaccines or antiviral drugs for PEDV. Understanding the differences in receptor binding between the prototype and the variant strains may provide insight into PEDV pathogenesis.
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170
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Comparison of lentiviruses pseudotyped with S proteins from coronaviruses and cell tropisms of porcine coronaviruses. Virol Sin 2016; 31:49-56. [PMID: 26908211 PMCID: PMC7090623 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-015-3690-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The surface glycoproteins of coronaviruses play an important role in receptor binding and cell entry. Different coronaviruses interact with their specific receptors to enter host cells. Lentiviruses pseudotyped with their spike proteins (S) were compared to analyze the entry efficiency of various coronaviruses. Our results indicated that S proteins from different coronaviruses displayed varied abilities to mediate pseudotyped virus infection. Furthermore, the cell tropisms of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) have been characterized by live and pseudotyped viruses. Both live and pseudoviruses could infected Vero- CCL-81 (monkey kidney), Huh-7 (human liver), and PK-15 (pig kidney) cells efficiently. CCL94 (cat kidney) cells could be infected efficiently by TGEV but not PEDV. Overall, our study provides new insights into the mechanisms of viral entry and forms a basis for antiviral drug screening.![]()
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171
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Wang D, Fang L, Shi Y, Zhang H, Gao L, Peng G, Chen H, Li K, Xiao S. Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus 3C-Like Protease Regulates Its Interferon Antagonism by Cleaving NEMO. J Virol 2016; 90:2090-101. [PMID: 26656704 PMCID: PMC4733996 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02514-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an enteropathogenic coronavirus causing lethal watery diarrhea in piglets. Since 2010, a PEDV variant has spread rapidly in China, and it emerged in the United States in 2013, posing significant economic and public health concerns. The ability to circumvent the interferon (IFN) antiviral response, as suggested for PEDV, promotes viral survival and regulates pathogenesis of PEDV infections, but the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. Here, we show that PEDV-encoded 3C-like protease, nsp5, is an IFN antagonist that proteolytically cleaves the nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB) essential modulator (NEMO), an essential adaptor bridging interferon-regulatory factor and NF-κB activation. NEMO is cleaved at glutamine 231 (Q231) by PEDV, and this cleavage impaired the ability of NEMO to activate downstream IFN production and to act as a signaling adaptor of the RIG-I/MDA5 pathway. Mutations specifically disrupting the cysteine protease activity of PEDV nsp5 abrogated NEMO cleavage and the inhibition of IFN induction. Structural analysis suggests that several key residues outside the catalytic sites of PEDV nsp5 probably impact NEMO cleavage by modulating potential interactions of nsp5 with their substrates. These data show that PEDV nsp5 disrupts type I IFN signaling by cleaving NEMO. Previously, we and others demonstrated that NEMO is also cleaved by 3C or 3C-like proteinases of picornavirus and artertivirus. Thus, NEMO probably represents a prime target for 3C or 3C-like proteinases of different viruses. IMPORTANCE The continued emergence and reemergence of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) underscore the importance of studying how this virus manipulates the immune responses of its hosts. During coevolution with its hosts, PEDV has acquired mechanisms to subvert host innate immune responses for its survival advantage. At least two proteins encoded by PEDV have been identified as interferon (IFN) antagonists, papain-like protease (PLP) and N protein. Here, we report that the PEDV nsp5 gene, which encodes the 3C-like protease of PEDV, is another IFN antagonist. Mechanistically, the cysteine protease activity of PEDV nsp5 mediates proteolysis of NEMO, the key adaptor for IFN synthesis, and NEMO is cleaved at glutamine 231 (Q231). The new molecular details and determinants impacting NEMO scission by PEDV nsp5 delineated in this study are fundamental to our understanding of critical virus-host interactions that determine PEDV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Liurong Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Yanling Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Huan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Li Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Guiqing Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Huanchun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Kui Li
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Shaobo Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
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Beall A, Yount B, Lin CM, Hou Y, Wang Q, Saif L, Baric R. Characterization of a Pathogenic Full-Length cDNA Clone and Transmission Model for Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Strain PC22A. mBio 2016; 7:e01451-15. [PMID: 26733065 PMCID: PMC4724997 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01451-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a highly pathogenic alphacoronavirus. In the United States, highly virulent PEDV strains cause between 80 and 100% mortality in suckling piglets and are rapidly transmitted between animals and farms. To study the genetic factors that regulate pathogenesis and transmission, we developed a molecular clone of PEDV strain PC22A. The infectious-clone-derived PEDV (icPEDV) replicated as efficiently as the parental virus in cell culture and in pigs, resulting in lethal disease in vivo. Importantly, recombinant PEDV was rapidly transmitted to uninoculated pigs via indirect contact, demonstrating virulence and efficient transmission while replicating phenotypes seen in the wild-type virus. Using reverse genetics, we removed open reading frame 3 (ORF3) and replaced this region with a red fluorescent protein (RFP) gene to generate icPEDV-ΔORF3-RFP. icPEDV-ΔORF3-RFP replicated efficiently in vitro and in vivo, was efficiently transmitted among pigs, and produced lethal disease outcomes. However, the diarrheic scores in icPEDV-ΔORF3-RFP-infected pigs were lower than those in wild-type-virus- or icPEDV-infected pigs, and the virus formed smaller plaques than those of PC22A. Together, these data describe the development of a robust reverse-genetics platform for identifying genetic factors that regulate pathogenic outcomes and transmission efficiency in vivo, providing key infrastructural developments for developing and evaluating the efficacy of live attenuated vaccines and therapeutics in a clinical setting. IMPORTANCE Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) emerged in the United States in 2013 and has since killed 10% of U.S. farm pigs. Though the disease has been circulating internationally for decades, the lack of a rapid reverse-genetics platform for manipulating PEDV and identifying genetic factors that impact transmission and virulence has hindered the study of this important agricultural disease. Here, we present a DNA-based infectious-clone system that replicates the pathogenesis of circulating U.S. strain PC22A both in vitro and in piglets. This infectious clone can be used both to study the genetics, virulence, and transmission of PEDV coronavirus and to inform the creation of a live attenuated PEDV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Beall
- University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Boyd Yount
- University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chun-Ming Lin
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
| | - Yixuan Hou
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
| | - Qiuhong Wang
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
| | - Linda Saif
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio, USA
| | - Ralph Baric
- University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Animal Coronaviruses: A Brief Introduction. SPRINGER PROTOCOLS HANDBOOKS 2016. [PMCID: PMC7120424 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3414-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
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