151
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Bourges D, Chevaleyre C, Wang C, Berri M, Zhang X, Nicaise L, Meurens F, Salmon H. Differential expression of adhesion molecules and chemokines between nasal and small intestinal mucosae: implications for T- and sIgA+ B-lymphocyte recruitment. Immunology 2007; 122:551-61. [PMID: 17635614 PMCID: PMC2266035 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02671.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Nasal and small intestinal mucosae are the first sites of contact with infectious agents and the sites of T-cell-mediated and secreted immunoglobulin A (IgA)-mediated defences against pathogens. We investigated the factors controlling the infiltration of CD3(+) T lymphocytes and surface IgA(+) (sIgA(+)) B lymphocytes into swine epithelium and lamina propria (LP) within and between these two mucosal effector sites. Vascular addressins, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 and mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 were reciprocally expressed in both mucosae. Strong expression of alpha(4)beta(1) relative to alpha(4)beta(7) was characteristic of CD3(+) T cells in nasal mucosa LP and epithelium and of sIgA(+) cells in nasal mucosa epithelium. The same profile was observed on corresponding blood cells. Conversely, higher levels of integrins beta(7) and alpha(4)beta(7) than alpha(4)beta(1) were characteristic of CD3(+) T cells and sIgA(+) cells in the small intestine. However, about 40% of the LP-activated sIgA(+) cells displayed sIgA(high), integrin alpha(4) and integrin alpha(4) expression. Whereas CCL19, CXCL12, CCL21 and CCL28 messenger RNAs were similarly expressed in both mucosae, CCL25 messenger RNA was only expressed in the small intestine. Thus, the nasal and small intestine mucosae represent separate compartments for infiltration by CD3(+) T cells and sIgA(+) effector cells, with the exception of a population of small intestine activated sIgA(+) cells, which may gain access to both mucosae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothée Bourges
- UR1282, Infectiologie Animale et Santé Publique, IASP, Nouzilly, France
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152
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Colobran R, Pujol-Borrell R, Armengol MP, Juan M. The chemokine network. I. How the genomic organization of chemokines contains clues for deciphering their functional complexity. Clin Exp Immunol 2007; 148:208-17. [PMID: 17437419 PMCID: PMC1868879 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03344.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines are a superfamily of small structurally related cytokines that have evolved to form a complex network of proteins that typically regulate leucocyte traffic but also carry very diverse sets of immune and non-immune functions. Two general features of cytokines, redundancy and promiscuity, are particularly prominent in chemokines. In part, these properties result from repeated processes of gene duplication and diversification, which has led to the present complex genomic map of chemokines, which contains cases of non-allelic isoforms, copy number polymorphisms and classical allelic variation. This genomic complexity is compounded with pre-translational and post-translational mechanisms resulting in a complex network of proteins whose essential functions are maintained, constituting a remarkable case of robustness reminiscent of crucial metabolic pathways. This reflects the adaptation of a system under strong evolutive pressure, supporting the concept that the chemokine system is essential for the coordination, regulation and fine-tuning of the type of immune response. In this first review, we analyse currently available data on the chemokine superfamily, focusing on its complex genomic organization. Genes encoding essential inflammatory chemokines are grouped into defined chromosomal locations as clusters and miniclusters that, from the genetic point of view, can be considered single entities given their overall functions (many ligands of a cluster bind to a few shared receptors). We will try to interpret this genomic organization of chemokines in relation to the main functions acquired by each individual member or by each cluster. In a second review, we shall focus on the relationship of chemokine variability and disease susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Colobran
- Laboratory of Immunobiology for Research and Application to Diagnosis (LIRAD), Tissue and Blood Bank (BST), Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
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153
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Abstract
Mucosae constitute the major entry for most microbial pathogens but also innocuous antigens derived from ingested food, airborne matter or commensal bacteria. A large and highly specialized innate and adaptative mucosal immune system protects the mucosal surfaces and the body interior from potential injuries from the environment. The mucosal immune system has developed a variety of immune mechanisms to discriminate between non-pathogenic and pathogenic invaders. It is able to maintain tolerance against the plethora of environmental antigens and to induce potent protective immunity to avoid mucosal colonisation and organism invasion by dangerous microbial pathogens. Mucosal immunisation with appropriate antigens and immunostimulatory molecules may induce potent protective immunity against harmful pathogens. Alternatively, mucosally-induced tolerance against auto-antigens or allergens may be generated by mucosal administration of these antigens alone or with immunomodulators potentiating regulatory responses. Here, we review the properties of the mucosal immune system and briefly discuss the advances in the development of mucosal vaccines for protection against infections and for the treatment of inflammatory disorders such as autoimmune diseases or type I allergies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Anjuère
- Inserm U721, Faculté de Médecine Pasteur, avenue de Valombrose, 06107 Nice Cedex 2, France.
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154
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Kunisawa J, Takahashi I, Kiyono H. Intraepithelial lymphocytes: their shared and divergent immunological behaviors in the small and large intestine. Immunol Rev 2007; 215:136-53. [PMID: 17291285 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2006.00475.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
At the front line of the body's immunological defense system, the gastrointestinal tract faces a large number of food-derived antigens, allergens, and nutrients, as well as commensal and pathogenic microorganisms. To maintain intestinal homeostasis, the gut immune system regulates two opposite immunological reactions: immune activation and quiescence. With their versatile immunological features, intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) play an important role in this regulation. IELs are mainly composed of T cells, but these T cells are immunologically distinct from peripheral T cells. Not only do IELs differ immunologically from peripheral T cells but they are also comprised of heterogeneous populations showing different phenotypes and immunological functions, as well as trafficking and developmental pathways. Though IELs in the small and large intestine share common features, they have also developed differences as they adjust to the two different environments. This review seeks to shed light on the immunological diversity of small and large intestinal IELs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Kunisawa
- Division of Mucosal Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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155
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Kang SG, Piniecki RJ, Hogenesch H, Lim HW, Wiebke E, Braun SE, Matsumoto S, Kim CH. Identification of a chemokine network that recruits FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells into chronically inflamed intestine. Gastroenterology 2007; 132:966-81. [PMID: 17324406 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2007.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2006] [Accepted: 12/07/2006] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS It has been unclear which chemokine network is involved in migration of T-cell subsets to chronically inflamed lesions of the intestine. SAMP1/YP mice develop a spontaneous chronic transmural intestinal lesion specifically in the ileum. Using these mice, we investigated the gut chemokine network involved in specific migration of T-cell subsets to the inflamed lesion of the intestine. METHODS We performed expression analyses of chemokines and their receptors, chemokine receptor blocking studies, and migration studies in vitro and in vivo to identify the gut chemokine network induced in intestinal inflammation and to determine its role in migration of conventional and FoxP3(+) suppressor T cells to the inflamed intestine. RESULTS The expression of homeostatic chemokines was largely unchanged in the inflamed lesion of SAMP1/YP mice compared with control mice. However, an additional chemokine axis (CCL5-CCR5) was up-regulated in the inflamed intestine of SAMP1/YP mice compared with control mice. Activated T cells of SAMP1/YP mice compared with control mice were hyperresponsive to CCL5 in chemotaxis. CCR5(+) T cells preferentially migrated to the inflamed lesion, which can be blocked by a CCR5 antagonist. Importantly, the FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells of the inflamed lesion of SAMP1/YP mice highly expressed CCR5. CCR5 blockade suppressed the migration of FoxP3(+) T cells into the inflamed intestine and significantly exacerbated the intestinal inflammation. CONCLUSIONS The CCL5-CCR5 chemokine axis is involved in preferential recruitment of FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells, which prevents further exacerbation of chronic inflammation in the intestine.
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MESH Headings
- Amides/pharmacology
- Animals
- CCR5 Receptor Antagonists
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokine CCL5
- Chemokines/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CXC/biosynthesis
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/drug effects
- Chronic Disease
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Female
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Ileitis/immunology
- Ileitis/metabolism
- Ileitis/pathology
- Ileitis/physiopathology
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred AKR
- Mice, SCID
- Quaternary Ammonium Compounds/pharmacology
- Receptors, CCR5/biosynthesis
- Severity of Illness Index
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- Time Factors
- Up-Regulation
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung G Kang
- Laboratory of Immunology and Hematopoiesis, Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue Cancer Center, Purdue University Life Science Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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156
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Meurens F, Whale J, Brownlie R, Dybvig T, Thompson DR, Gerdts V. Expression of mucosal chemokines TECK/CCL25 and MEC/CCL28 during fetal development of the ovine mucosal immune system. Immunology 2007; 120:544-55. [PMID: 17250588 PMCID: PMC2265900 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2006.02532.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
CCL25/TECK and CCL28/MEC are CC chemokines primarily expressed in thymic dendritic cells and mucosal epithelial cells. The cognate receptors of CCL25 and CCL28, CCR9 and CCR10, respectively, are mainly expressed on T and B lymphocytes. In human, mouse and pig, CCL25 and CCL28 play a key role in the segregation and the compartmentalization of the mucosal immune system through recruitment of immune cells to specific locations. However, little is known about their role in the ontogeny of the mucosal immune system during fetal development. In the present paper, we report the cloning and the sequencing of ovine CCL25, CCL28, CCR9 and CCR10 and the subsequent assessment of their mRNA expression by q-polymerase chain reaction in several tissues, including thymus, gut-associated lymphoid tissue and mammary gland, from young and adult sheep and in the fetal lamb during the development of the immune system. CCL25 mRNA was highly expressed in thymus and gut while CCL28 mRNA was more expressed in large intestine, trachea, tonsils and mammary gland, especially at the end of gestation. These results are consistent with observations in other species suggesting similar roles for these chemokines in sheep. In fetuses, mRNA of CCL25, CCL28 and their receptors are expressed early in the thymus and mucosal tissues, including the small intestine and the nasal mucosa. Furthermore, their expression increased towards the end of gestation. Consequently, we hypothesize that CCL25 and CCL28 play an important role in the lymphocyte colonization of fetal tissues, enabling the development of a functional immune system.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/genetics
- Chemokines, CC/immunology
- Cloning, Molecular
- DNA, Complementary/genetics
- Fetal Development/immunology
- Fetus/immunology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental
- Gestational Age
- Immunity, Mucosal
- Mucous Membrane/embryology
- Mucous Membrane/immunology
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Receptors, CCR
- Receptors, CCR10
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Sheep, Domestic/embryology
- Sheep, Domestic/immunology
- Thymus Gland/embryology
- Thymus Gland/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- François Meurens
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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157
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Radbruch A, Muehlinghaus G, Luger EO, Inamine A, Smith KGC, Dörner T, Hiepe F. Competence and competition: the challenge of becoming a long-lived plasma cell. Nat Rev Immunol 2006; 6:741-50. [PMID: 16977339 DOI: 10.1038/nri1886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 754] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Plasma cells provide humoral immunity. They have traditionally been viewed mainly as short-lived end-stage products of B-cell differentiation that deserve little interest. This view is changing, however, because we now know that plasma cells can survive for long periods in the appropriate survival niches and that they are an independent cellular component of immunological memory. Studies of the biology of plasma cells reveal a mechanism of intriguing simplicity and elegance that focuses memory provided by plasma cells on recently encountered pathogens while minimizing the 'fading' of memory for pathogens encountered in the distant past. This mechanism is based on competition for survival niches between newly generated plasmablasts and older plasma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Radbruch
- Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany.
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158
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Meurens F, Berri M, Whale J, Dybvig T, Strom S, Thompson D, Brownlie R, Townsend HGG, Salmon H, Gerdts V. Expression of TECK/CCL25 and MEC/CCL28 chemokines and their respective receptors CCR9 and CCR10 in porcine mucosal tissues. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2006; 113:313-27. [PMID: 16839611 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2006.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2006] [Accepted: 05/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
CCL25 and CCL28 (also named TECK and MEC) are CC chemokines primarily expressed by thymic dendritic cells and mucosal epithelial cells. The cognate receptors of CCL25 and CCL28, named CCR9 and CCR10, are mainly expressed on T lymphocytes for CCR9 and IgA(+) and IgM(+) plasmablasts for CCR9 and CCR10, respectively. In human and mouse, chemokines CCL25 and CCL28 play an important role in attracting immune cells to the gastrointestinal tract and in controlling segmental specialization of the intestinal immune system. To investigate if CCL25 and CCL28 play a similar role in the pig and to better understand lymphocyte trafficking in this species, we cloned porcine CCL25 and CCR10 and measured expression of CCL25, CCL28, CCR9, and CCR10 transcripts by real-time and conventional PCR in various tissues from newborn and young piglets, and adult sows. The results of the expression analyses show that (i) expression of CCL25 mRNA is mainly restricted to the small intestine, (ii) CCL28 mRNA expression is detectable in all tested epithelial mucosal surfaces with the highest levels of expression in the mammary gland, trachea and large intestine, (iii) high levels of expression of CCR9 mRNA in CD3+ T lymphocytes, gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT), and the small intestine, (iv) high levels of expression of CCR10 mRNA in GALT, the large intestine, the small intestine, and the mammary gland, and (v) up-regulation of CCL28 mRNA expression during lactation in the mammary gland. This pattern of expression, which is discussed in the context of compartmentalization of the porcine common mucosal immune system into upper aero-digestive tract, small intestine and large intestine, suggests a key role for CCL28 in the recruitment of IgA secreting cells into the mammary gland enabling the passive transfer of IgA antibodies from mother to infant.
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MESH Headings
- Age Factors
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Base Sequence
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/genetics
- Chemokines, CC/immunology
- Cloning, Molecular
- Female
- Immunity, Mucosal/immunology
- Lymph Nodes/immunology
- Mammary Glands, Animal/immunology
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Peyer's Patches/immunology
- Pregnancy
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Messenger/blood
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/veterinary
- Sequence Alignment
- Swine/genetics
- Swine/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- François Meurens
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5E3
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159
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Feng N, Jaimes MC, Lazarus NH, Monak D, Zhang C, Butcher EC, Greenberg HB. Redundant role of chemokines CCL25/TECK and CCL28/MEC in IgA+ plasmablast recruitment to the intestinal lamina propria after rotavirus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:5749-59. [PMID: 16670280 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.10.5749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Rotaviruses (RV) are the most important cause of severe childhood diarrheal disease. In suckling mice, infection with RV results in an increase in total and virus-specific IgA(+) plasmablasts in the small intestinal lamina propria (LP) soon after infection, providing a unique opportunity to study the mechanism of IgA(+) cell recruitment into the small intestine. In this study, we show that the increase in total and RV-specific IgA(+) plasmablasts in the LP after RV infection can be blocked by the combined administration of Abs against chemokines CCL25 and CCL28, but not by the administration of either Ab alone. RV infection in CCR9 knockout mice still induced a significant accumulation of IgA(+) plasmablasts in the LP, which was blocked by the addition of anti-CCL28 Ab, confirming the synergistic role of CCL25 and CCL28. The absence of IgA(+) plasmablast accumulation in LP following combined anti-chemokine treatment was not due to changes in proliferation or apoptosis in these cells. We also found that coadministration of anti-CCL25 and anti-CCL28 Abs with the addition of anti-alpha(4) Ab did not further inhibit IgA(+) cell accumulation in the LP and that the CCL25 receptor, CCR9, was coexpressed with the intestinal homing receptor alpha(4)beta(7) on IgA(+) plasmablasts. Finally, we showed that RV infection was associated with an increase in both CCL25 and CCL28 in the small intestine. Hence, our findings indicate that alpha(4)beta(7) along with either CCR9 or CCR10 are sufficient for mediating the intestinal migration of IgA(+) plasmablasts during RV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ningguo Feng
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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160
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Eksteen B, Miles A, Curbishley SM, Tselepis C, Grant AJ, Walker LSK, Adams DH. Epithelial Inflammation Is Associated with CCL28 Production and the Recruitment of Regulatory T Cells Expressing CCR10. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:593-603. [PMID: 16785557 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.1.593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal tissues require constant immune surveillance to clear harmful pathogens while maintaining tolerance to self Ags. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a central role in this process and expression of alpha(E)beta(7) has been reported to define a subset of Tregs with tropism for inflamed tissues. However, the signals responsible for recruiting Tregs to epithelial surfaces are poorly understood. We have isolated a subset of CCR10-expressing CD25+CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs with potent anti-inflammatory properties from chronically inflamed human liver. The CCR10+ Tregs were detected around bile ducts that expressed increased levels of the CCR10 ligand CCL28. CCL28 was secreted by primary human cholangiocytes in vitro in response to LPS, IL-1beta, or bile acids. Exposure of CCR10+ Tregs to CCL28 in vitro stimulated migration and adhesion to mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 and VCAM-1. Liver-derived CCR10+ Tregs expressed low levels of CCR7 but high levels of CXCR3, a chemokine receptor associated with infiltration into inflamed tissue and contained a subset of alpha(E)beta7(+) cells. We propose that CXCR3 promotes the recruitment of Tregs to inflamed tissues and CCR10 allows them to respond to CCL28 secreted by epithelial cells resulting in the accumulation of CCR10+ Tregs at mucosal surfaces.
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MESH Headings
- Bile Ducts/immunology
- Bile Ducts/metabolism
- Bile Ducts/pathology
- Cells, Cultured
- Chemokines/biosynthesis
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Chemokines, CC
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Cholangitis, Sclerosing/immunology
- Cholangitis, Sclerosing/metabolism
- Cholangitis, Sclerosing/pathology
- Chronic Disease
- Epithelial Cells/immunology
- Epithelial Cells/metabolism
- Epithelial Cells/pathology
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/biosynthesis
- Humans
- Immunity, Mucosal
- Inflammation Mediators/metabolism
- Inflammation Mediators/physiology
- Interleukin-1/pharmacology
- Interleukin-10/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-10/metabolism
- Lipopolysaccharides/pharmacology
- Liver Cirrhosis, Biliary/immunology
- Liver Cirrhosis, Biliary/metabolism
- Liver Cirrhosis, Biliary/pathology
- Liver Diseases, Alcoholic/immunology
- Liver Diseases, Alcoholic/metabolism
- Liver Diseases, Alcoholic/pathology
- Receptors, CCR10
- Receptors, CCR7
- Receptors, CXCR3
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/pathology
- Up-Regulation/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertus Eksteen
- Liver Research Laboratories, Medical Research Council for Immune Regulation, Institute for Biomedical Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TH, UK
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161
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Nakayama T, Shirane J, Hieshima K, Shibano M, Watanabe M, Jin Z, Nagakubo D, Saito T, Shimomura Y, Yoshie O. Novel antiviral activity of chemokines. Virology 2006; 350:484-92. [PMID: 16603217 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2006] [Revised: 03/01/2006] [Accepted: 03/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides are a diverse family of small, mostly cationic polypeptides that kill bacteria, fungi and even some enveloped viruses, while chemokines are a group of mostly cationic small proteins that induce directed migration of leukocytes through interactions with a group of seven transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors. Recent studies have shown that antimicrobial peptides and chemokines have substantially overlapping functions. Thus, while some antimicrobial peptides are chemotactic for leukocytes, some chemokines can kill a wide range of bacteria and fungi. Here, we examined a possible direct antiviral activity of chemokines against an enveloped virus HSV-1. Among 22 human chemokines examined, chemokines such as MIP-1 alpha/CCL3, MIP-1 beta/CCL4 and RANTES/CCL5 showed a significant direct antiviral activity against HSV-1. It is intriguing that these chemokines are mostly known to be highly expressed by effector CD8+ T cells. The chemokines with a significant anti-HSV-1 activity commonly bound to HSV-1 virions via envelope glycoprotein gB. Electron microscopy revealed that the chemokines with a significant anti-HSV-1 activity were commonly capable of generating pores in the envelope of HSV-1. Thus, some chemokines have a significant direct antiviral activity against HSV-1 in vitro and may have a potential role in host defense against HSV-1 as a direct antiviral agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Nakayama
- Department of Microbiology, Kinki University School of Medicine, 377-2 Ohno-Higashi, Osaka-Sayama, Osaka 589-8511, Japan
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162
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Gerdts V, Mutwiri GK, Tikoo SK, Babiuk LA. Mucosal delivery of vaccines in domestic animals. Vet Res 2006; 37:487-510. [PMID: 16611560 DOI: 10.1051/vetres:2006012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2005] [Accepted: 10/11/2005] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucosal vaccination is proving to be one of the greatest challenges in modern vaccine development. Although highly beneficial for achieving protective immunity, the induction of mucosal immunity, especially in the gastro-intestinal tract, still remains a difficult task. As a result, only very few mucosal vaccines are commercially available for domestic animals. Here, we critically review various strategies for mucosal delivery of vaccines in domestic animals. This includes live bacterial and viral vectors, particulate delivery-systems such as polymers, alginate, polyphosphazenes, immune stimulating complex and liposomes, and receptor mediated-targeting strategies to the mucosal tissues. The most commonly used routes of immunization, strategies for delivering the antigen to the mucosal surfaces, and future prospects in the development of mucosal vaccines are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Gerdts
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, VIDO, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Rd., Saskatoon, S7N 5E3, Canada.
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163
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O'Gorman MT, Jatoi NA, Lane SJ, Mahon BP. IL-1beta and TNF-alpha induce increased expression of CCL28 by airway epithelial cells via an NFkappaB-dependent pathway. Cell Immunol 2006; 238:87-96. [PMID: 16581045 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2006.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2005] [Revised: 02/02/2006] [Accepted: 02/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
CCL28 is a mucosal chemokine that attracts eosinophils and T cells via the receptors CCR3 and CCR10. Consequently, it is a candidate mediator of the pathology associated with asthma. This study examined constitutive and induced expression of CCL28 by A549 human airway epithelial-like cells. Real-time RT-PCR and ELISA of cultured cells and supernatants revealed constitutive levels of CCL28 expression to be low, whereas IL-1beta and TNF-alpha, induced significantly increased expression. Observations from induced sputum and human airway biopsies supported this. Signal transduction studies revealed that IL-1beta and TNF-alpha stimulation induced NFkappaB phosphorylation in A549 cells, but antagonist inhibition of NFkappaB p50-p65 phosphorylation correlated with marked reduction of IL-1beta or TNF-alpha induced CCL28 expression. Together these studies imply a role for CCL28 in the orchestration of airway inflammation, and suggest that CCL28 is one link between microbial insult and the exacerbation of pathologies such as asthma, through an NFkappaB-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary T O'Gorman
- Mucosal Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology, NUI Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland
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164
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Abstract
The mucosal surface of the body is exposed to a vast array of exogenous antigens and microorganisms. Epithelial cells evoke minimal immune response to food ingredients and commensal bacteria, while they release an array of antimicrobial peptides and CXC chemokines in response to bacterial invasion or inflammatory stimuli. The mucosal antigens are transported from the gut lumen to organized lymphoid follicles by specialized epithelial M cells residing in follicle-associated epithelium (FAE). An alternative pathway of antigen uptake with neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) is also reported. Furthermore, intestinal dendritic cells underneath epithelium directly take up luminal antigens, where epithelial fractalkine expression plays a critical role in the guidance of dendrite extrusion. Epithelial cells express polymeric Ig receptor (pIgR) that is essential for the luminal secretion of dimeric IgA produced in the lamina propria. Furthermore, soluble factors released by mucosal epithelial cells condition dendritic cells, which in turn promote Th2 response. These multiple lines of evidence clearly suggest the significant role of epithelial cells at the front line of mucosal immune defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Hase
- Laboratory of Epithelial Immunobiology, Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, RIKEN
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165
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Alejo A, Ruiz-Argüello MB, Ho Y, Smith VP, Saraiva M, Alcami A. A chemokine-binding domain in the tumor necrosis factor receptor from variola (smallpox) virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:5995-6000. [PMID: 16581912 PMCID: PMC1458686 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0510462103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Variola virus (VaV) is the causative agent of smallpox, one of the most devastating diseases encountered by man, that was eradicated in 1980. The deliberate release of VaV would have catastrophic consequences on global public health. However, the mechanisms that contribute to smallpox pathogenesis are poorly understood at the molecular level. The ability of viruses to evade the host defense mechanisms is an important determinant of viral pathogenesis. Here we show that the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) homologue CrmB encoded by VaV functions not only as a soluble decoy TNFR but also as a highly specific binding protein for several chemokines that mediate recruitment of immune cells to mucosal surfaces and the skin, sites of virus entry and viral replication at late stages of smallpox. CrmB binds chemokines through its C-terminal domain, which is unrelated to TNFRs, was named smallpox virus-encoded chemokine receptor (SECRET) domain and uncovers a family of poxvirus chemokine inhibitors. An active SECRET domain was found in another viral TNFR (CrmD) and three secreted proteins encoded by orthopoxviruses. These findings identify a previously undescribed chemokine-binding and inhibitory domain unrelated to host chemokine receptors and a mechanism of immune modulation in VaV that may influence smallpox pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alí Alejo
- *Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; and
| | - M. Begoña Ruiz-Argüello
- *Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, Valdeolmos, 28130 Madrid, Spain
| | - Yin Ho
- *Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Vincent P. Smith
- *Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Margarida Saraiva
- *Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio Alcami
- *Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, United Kingdom
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; and
- **To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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166
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Kagami S, Saeki H, Komine M, Kakinuma T, Nakamura K, Tsunemi Y, Sasaki K, Asahina A, Tamaki K. CCL28 production in HaCaT cells was mediated by different signal pathways from CCL27. Exp Dermatol 2006; 15:95-100. [PMID: 16433680 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2005.00390.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Both CCL27 and CCL28 are ligands for CCR10 and attract CCR10(+) lymphocytes. We previously demonstrated that CCL27 and CCL28 were strongly expressed in sera and lesional keratinocytes of patients with atopic dermatitis and psoriasis vulgaris. However, the regulation of CCL27 and CCL28 production in keratinocytes has not been well documented. In this study, we showed that CCL27 and CCL28 expression and production by a human keratinocyte cell line, HaCaT cells, were strongly induced by inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta. CCL27 production was downregulated by inhibitors of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappaB). By contrast, CCL28 production was downregulated by inhibitors of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and NF-kappaB. Our study results suggest that CCL28 produced by keratinocytes is mediated by different signal pathways from CCL27 and that both CCL27 and CCL28 are involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Kagami
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Japan.
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167
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Snoeck V, Peters IR, Cox E. The IgA system: a comparison of structure and function in different species. Vet Res 2006; 37:455-67. [PMID: 16611558 DOI: 10.1051/vetres:2006010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2005] [Accepted: 09/16/2005] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The predominant immunoglobulin isotype on most mucosal surfaces is secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), a polypeptide complex comprising two IgA monomers, the connecting J chain, and the secretory component. The molecular stability and strong anti-inflammatory properties make SIgA particularly well suited to provide protective immunity to the vulnerable mucosal surfaces by preventing invasion of inhaled and ingested pathogens. In contrast to SIgA, IgA in serum functions as an inflammatory antibody through interaction with FcalphaR on immune effector cells. Although IgA appears to share common features and protective functions in different species, significant variations exist within the IgA systems of different species. This review will give an overview of the basic concepts underlying mucosal IgA defence which will focus on the variations present among species in structure, antibody repertoire development, pIgR-mediated transport, colostral IgA content, hepatobiliary transport, and function with particular emphasis on the IgA system of the pig and dog. These interspecies variations emphasise the importance of elucidating and analysing the IgA system within the immune system of the species of interest rather than inferring roles from conclusions made in human and mouse studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veerle Snoeck
- Laboratory of Veterinary Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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168
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169
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English K, Brady C, Corcoran P, Cassidy JP, Mahon BP. Inflammation of the respiratory tract is associated with CCL28 and CCR10 expression in a murine model of allergic asthma. Immunol Lett 2005; 103:92-100. [PMID: 16290206 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2005.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2005] [Revised: 09/23/2005] [Accepted: 09/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mouse models and in vitro cell culture were used to examine airway expression of the mucosal chemokine CCL28. Low levels of constitutively expressed mRNA were observed in transformed murine epithelial cells, but high levels could be induced by stimulation. Cytokines that signal through NF-kappaB, including IL-1beta and TNF-alpha or via JAK-STAT pathway including oncostatin M induced CCL28 in airway epithelial cells in vitro. Immunohistochemistry of murine airway tissue revealed that constitutive expression of CCL28 protein in vivo was low and not ubiquitous. However, abundant expression was detected in epithelia and lymphoid aggregates following allergic sensitization and challenge with ovalbumin. This was accompanied by increased detection of cells expressing CCR10 protein and mRNA in inflamed airways. Taken together, these data support a role for CCL28 in contributing to allergen driven airway pathologies, show that proinflammatory cytokines can induce this signal and suggest a role for CCR10 expressing cells in airway inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen English
- Mucosal Immunology Laboratory, Institute of Immunology, NUI Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland
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170
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Abstract
Lymphocytes continuously migrate from the blood into the intestine. Naive lymphocytes leave the blood through high endothelial venules in Peyer's patches. During the multistep extravasation cascade, they sequentially roll on, firmly adhere to, and transmigrate through the endothelial layer using multiple adhesion molecules and chemotactic signals. In the organized lymphoid tissues of the gut, lymphocytes can become activated, if they meet their cognate antigens transported to Peyer's patches through the gut epithelium. During activation and proliferation, the lymphocytes become imprinted by the local dendritic cells, so that after returning to systemic circulation via the efferent lymphatic vasculature, they preferentially home to lamina propria of the gut to execute their effector functions. In inflammation, the recirculation routes of lymphocytes are altered, and these may explain the pathogenesis of certain extra-intestinal manifestations of gut infections and inflammatory bowel diseases. The increased knowledge on the mechanisms that regulate lymphocyte homing and imprinting has clear applicability in designing more effective vaccination regimens. A detailed understanding of the mucosal homing has recently led to the development of the first successful anti-adhesive therapeutics in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko Salmi
- National Public Health Institute Turku, MediCity Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Turku University, Turku, Finland
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171
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Brandtzaeg P, Johansen FE. Mucosal B cells: phenotypic characteristics, transcriptional regulation, and homing properties. Immunol Rev 2005; 206:32-63. [PMID: 16048541 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2005.00283.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal antibody defense depends on a complex cooperation between local B cells and secretory epithelia. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue gives rise to B cells with striking J-chain expression that are seeded to secretory effector sites. Such preferential homing constitutes the biological basis for local production of polymeric immunoglobulin A (pIgA) and pentameric IgM with high affinity to the epithelial pIg receptor that readily can export these antibodies to the mucosal surface. This ultimate functional goal of mucosal B-cell differentiation appears to explain why the J chain is also expressed by IgG- and IgD-producing plasma cells (PCs) occurring at secretory tissue sites; these immunocytes may be considered as 'spin-offs' from early effector clones that through class switch are on their way to pIgA production. Abundant evidence supports the notion that intestinal PCs are largely derived from B cells initially activated in gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). Nevertheless, insufficient knowledge exists concerning the relative importance of M cells, major histocompatibility complex class II-expressing epithelial cells, and professional antigen-presenting cells for the uptake, processing, and presentation of luminal antigens in GALT to accomplish the extensive and sustained priming and expansion of mucosal B cells. Likewise, it is unclear how the germinal center reaction in GALT so strikingly can promote class switch to IgA and expression of J chain. Although B-cell migration from GALT to the intestinal lamina propria is guided by rather well-defined adhesion molecules and chemokines/chemokine receptors, the cues directing preferential homing to different segments of the gut require better definition. This is even more so for the molecules involved in homing of mucosal B cells to secretory effector sites beyond the gut, and in this respect, the role of Waldever's ring (including the palatine tonsils and adenoids) as a regional inductive tissue needs further characterization. Data suggest a remarkable compartmentalization of the mucosal immune system that must be taken into account in the development of effective local vaccines to protect specifically the airways, eyes, oral cavity, small and large intestines, and urogenital tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Brandtzaeg
- Laboratory for Immunohistochemistry and Immunopathology (LIIPAT), Institute and Department of Pathology, University of Oslo, Rikshospitalet University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
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172
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Imai Y, Ishikawa T, Tanikawa T, Nakagami H, Maekawa T, Kurohane K. Production of IgA monoclonal antibody against Shiga toxin binding subunits employing nasal-associated lymphoid tissue. J Immunol Methods 2005; 302:125-35. [PMID: 15992815 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2005.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2005] [Revised: 05/05/2005] [Accepted: 05/11/2005] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We established an IgA monoclonal antibody (mAb) against Shiga toxin 1 B subunits (Stx1B) from mouse nasal-associated lymphoid tissues (NALT) of BALB/c mice. We have developed an improved protocol in which cross-linked Stx1B is intranasally administered together with cholera toxin. Surface IgA-positive NALT lymphocytes from mice immunized in this manner were enriched and then fused with mouse myeloma cells to produce hybridoma cells. Hybridoma culture supernatants were examined to see if they contain IgA against Stx1B and if they can inhibit carbohydrate recognition by Stx1B. For the latter purpose, we prepared carbohydrate ligands in which globotriose is present on the poly-lysine backbone. The established IgA mAb exhibited saturable and dose-dependent binding to the immobilized Stx1B. Inversely, the binding of the carbohydrate ligands to the immobilized Stx1B was inhibited by the mAb pretreatment. Immunoblotting and SDS-PAGE analysis revealed dimeric IgA. The IgA mAb inhibited the binding of digoxigenin-conjugated Stx1B to natural ligands displayed on a Burkitt's lymphoma cell line, Ramos. These results suggested that surface IgA-positive B cells in the inductive sites of the mucosal immune system in the upper respiratory tract are a potent source for producing IgA mAb against protein antigens with weak immunogenicity such as Stx1B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Imai
- Department of Microbiology and COE Program in the 21st Century, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka-shi, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan.
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173
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Steinbrenner M, Häfer R, Gruhn B, Müller A, Fuchs D, Hermann J, Zintl F. T-cell independent production of salivary secretory IgA after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in children. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 20:282-8. [PMID: 16101963 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-302x.2005.00226.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the recovery of secretory IgA (S-IgA) in saliva after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in 35 children and young people between the ages of 3 and 27 years (mean=13.6), and compared this recovery with that of serum immunologic constituents. Reference values for human salivary S-IgA in saliva were obtained from 77 healthy control subjects between the ages of 7 and 25 years (mean=11.4). In the 35 patients, a nadir of secretory IgA concentrations in saliva (S-IgA) was observed between the 3rd and the 4th month, and a return to normal values 1 year after HSCT. Serum IgA concentrations reached their nadir in the 6th month, and normalized in the 18 months after HSCT. The recovery of T-helper cells (CD4+/3+) was also delayed to beyond 18 months. We found a significant correlation between the reconstitution pattern of S-IgA and that of T-helper lymphocytes, but no correlation was found between the post-transplant evolutions of S-IgA and serum IgA, or between S-IgA and T-helper cells. The recovery of S-IgA was more rapid than that of serum IgA and appeared to be T-helper cell independent.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Steinbrenner
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Jena, Jena, Germany.
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174
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Johansson C, Ahlstedt I, Furubacka S, Johnsson E, Agace WW, Quiding-Järbrink M. Differential expression of chemokine receptors on human IgA+ and IgG+ B cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2005; 141:279-87. [PMID: 15996192 PMCID: PMC1809445 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02843.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Organ-specific lymphocyte homing is dependent on the expression of tissue-specific homing receptors and selected chemokine receptors. During the effector phase of an immune response, IgA and IgG antibody-secreting cells (ASC) are differently distributed in the body. Still, B cell expression of L-selectin and the mucosal homing receptor integrin alpha4beta7 is not related to the isotype produced, but only to the site of antigen encounter. In this study, we examined if differences in chemokine responsiveness between IgA+ and IgG+ B cells could explain their different tissue localization. Circulating CD19+ B cells were isolated and their expression of IgA, IgG, and selected chemokine receptors was determined by flow cytometry. Few Ig+ cells expressed CCR2, CCR3, or CCR9, and there was no difference in the expression of these receptors between IgA+ and IgG+ cells. In contrast, CCR4, CCR5, and CXCR3 was expressed on significantly more IgG+ than IgA+ cells. The function of chemokine receptors on memory B cells and ASC was then tested in the transwell system. IgG+ memory cells migrated to a higher extent than IgA+ cells towards the CXCR3 ligand CXCL11/I-TAC, while there was only a small migration towards the CCR4 ligand CCL17/TARC and the CCR9 ligand CCL25/TECK. ASC migrated poorly to all chemokines tested. In conclusion, this study shows that IgG+ and IgA+ memory B cells have a differential expression of the Th1 associated chemokine receptor CXCR3, as well as of CCR4 and CCR5. In contrast, none of the studied chemokine receptors was preferentially expressed by IgA+ cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Johansson
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology and GUVAX, Göteborg University Vaccine Research Centre, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
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175
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Kim CH. The greater chemotactic network for lymphocyte trafficking: chemokines and beyond. Curr Opin Hematol 2005; 12:298-304. [PMID: 15928487 DOI: 10.1097/01.moh.0000166496.18773.e3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review examines our current understanding of the chemoattractant network for lymphocyte trafficking and discusses the recent findings in this area. RECENT FINDINGS The universe of chemoattractants is expanding. Although the approximately 40 chemokines by themselves provide an extensive network of chemotactic signals, it is now clear that nonchemokine molecules such as lipid mediators, pathogen-derived products, antimicrobial peptides, complement products, and other normal constituents of our body are also chemotactic and regulate lymphocyte trafficking. The past several years has witnessed important progress in the area of lymphocyte trafficking: CD45+CD4+CD3- lymphoid tissue inducer cells express CXCR5 and CCR7 and migrate toward lymphoid tissue--organizing stromal cells. Sphingosine 1-phosphate and homeostatic chemokines regulate lymphocyte localization in lymph nodes and egress to circulation. Upon antigen priming, regulatory T cells rapidly upregulate CXCR5 to migrate and suppress germinal center T and B cells. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells can migrate to lymph nodes through high endothelial venule cells, and chemokines and nonchemokine G-protein--coupled seven-transmembrane domain receptor ligands such as chemerin can regulate pDC migration. Gut dendritic cells and retinoic acid induce the expression of alpha4beta7 and CCR9 on T cells for their homing to the gut. Leukotriene B4 and interleukin-8, known chemoattractants for myeloid cells, are also selective chemoattractants for cytotoxic effector T cells. SUMMARY Immune cells migrate within the vast and dense network of chemoattractants. This greater chemotactic network comprehensively controls lymphoid organogenesis, homeostatic immune cell migration, and effector cell dispatch to clear pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang H Kim
- Laboratory of Immunology and Hematopoiesis, Department of Pathobiology, Purdue Cancer Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA.
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176
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Mestecky J, Moldoveanu Z, Russell MW. Immunologic Uniqueness of the Genital Tract: Challenge for Vaccine Development. Am J Reprod Immunol 2005; 53:208-14. [PMID: 15833098 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2005.00267.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the genital tract is considered to be a component of the mucosal immune system, it displays several distinct features not shared by other typical mucosal tissues and external secretions. Both male and female genital tract tissues lack inductive mucosal sites analogous to intestinal Peyer's patches. Consequently, local humoral and cellular immune responses stimulated by infections [with e.g. Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, papilloma virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1)] are weak or absent, and repeated local intravaginal immunizations result in minimal humoral responses. In contrast to typical external secretions such as intestinal fluid that contain secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) as the dominant isotype, semen and cervico-vaginal fluid contain more IgG than IgA. Furthermore, irrespective of the route of infection, humoral immune responses to HIV-1 are dominated by specific IgG and low or absent IgA antibodies in all external secretions. Because a significant proportion of IgG in genital tract secretions is derived from the circulation, systemic immunization may provide protective IgG antibody-mediated immunity in the genital tract. Furthermore, combined systemic and mucosal (oral, rectal, and especially intranasal) immunization may induce protective humoral responses in both the systemic and mucosal compartments of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiri Mestecky
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Box 1, 845 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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177
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Abstract
In vertebrates, serum antibodies are an essential component of innate and adaptive immunity and immunological memory. They also can contribute significantly to immunopathology. Their composition is the result of tightly regulated differentiation of B lymphocytes into antibody-secreting plasma blasts and plasma cells. The survival of antibody-secreting cells determines their contribution to the immune response in which they were generated and to long-lasting immunity, as provided by stable serum antibody levels. Short-lived plasma blasts and/or plasma cells secrete antibodies for a reactive immune response. Short-lived plasma blasts can become long-lived plasma cells, probably by competition with preexisting plasma cells for occupation of a limited number of survival niches in the body, in a process not yet fully understood. Limitation of the number of long-lived plasma cells allows the immune system to maintain a stable humoral immunological memory over long periods, to react to new pathogenic challenges, and to adapt the humoral memory in response to these antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf A Manz
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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178
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Abstract
Immunoglobulin A is the main element of the humoral immune response that has been selected through evolution, together with innate mucosal defences, to provide protection against microbial antigens at mucosal surfaces. IgA responses are initiated in organized inductive structures, such as Peyer's patches and nasal-associated lymphoid tissues, as well as diffuse effector tissues, such as gut lamina propria and nasal mucosa. Hypermutated secretory IgAs play a critical role in regulating the composition of the intestinal microflora. Dysregulation of gut homeostasis in IgA-deficient gut causes a continuous activation of the immune cells and induces inflammatory processes leading to lymphoneogenesis. Recent advances in this field include new insights into the role of IgA in the maintenance of gut homeostasis and the proposal of an updated model for the induction of IgA responses in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidonia Fagarasan
- RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan.
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179
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Lymphocyte Homing: Chemokines and Adhesion Molecules in T cell and IgA Plasma Cell Localization in the Mucosal Immune System. Mucosal Immunol 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-012491543-5/50038-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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180
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181
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182
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Jaimes MC, Rojas OL, Kunkel EJ, Lazarus NH, Soler D, Butcher EC, Bass D, Angel J, Franco MA, Greenberg HB. Maturation and trafficking markers on rotavirus-specific B cells during acute infection and convalescence in children. J Virol 2004; 78:10967-76. [PMID: 15452217 PMCID: PMC521846 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.20.10967-10976.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously studied B cells, from people and mice, that express rotavirus-specific surface immunoglobulin (RV-sIg) by flow cytometry with recombinant virus-like particles that contain green fluorescent protein. In the present study we characterized circulating B cells with RV-sIg in children with acute and convalescent infection. During acute infection, circulating RV-sIgD(-) B cells are predominantly large, CD38(high), CD27(high), CD138(+/-), CCR6(-), alpha4beta7(+), CCR9(+), CCR10(+), cutaneous lymphocyte antigen-negative (CLA(-)), L-selectin(int/-), and sIgM(+), sIgG(-), sIgA(+/-) lymphocytes. This phenotype likely corresponds to gut-targeted plasma cells and plasmablasts. During convalescence the phenotype switches to small and large lymphocytes, CD38(int/-), CD27(int/-), CCR6(+), alpha4beta7(+/-), CCR9(+/-) and CCR10(-), most likely representing RV-specific memory B cells with both gut and systemic trafficking profiles. Of note, during acute RV infection both total and RV-specific murine IgM and IgA antibody-secreting cells migrate efficiently to CCL28 (the CCR10 ligand) and to a lesser extent to CCL25 (the CCR9 ligand). Our results show that CCR10 and CCR9 can be expressed on IgM as well as IgA antibody-secreting cells in response to acute intestinal infection, likely helping target these cells to the gut. However, these intestinal infection-induced plasmablasts lack the CLA homing receptor for skin, consistent with mechanisms of differential CCR10 participation in skin T versus intestinal plasma cell homing. Interestingly, RV memory cells generally lack CCR9 and CCR10 and instead express CCR6, which may enable recruitment to diverse epithelial sites of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- María C Jaimes
- V.A. Palo Alto Health Care System, 3801 Miranda Ave., MC154C, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
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183
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Ogawa H, Iimura M, Eckmann L, Kagnoff MF. Regulated production of the chemokine CCL28 in human colon epithelium. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2004; 287:G1062-9. [PMID: 15246961 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00162.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The chemokine CCL28 is constitutively expressed by epithelial cells at several mucosal sites and is thought to function as a homeostatic chemoattractant of subpopulations of T cells and IgA B cells and to mediate antimicrobial activity. We report herein on the regulation of CCL28 in human colon epithelium by the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1, bacterial flagellin, and n-butyrate, a product of microbial metabolism. In vivo, CCL28 was markedly increased in the epithelium of pathologically inflamed compared with normal human colon. Human colon and small intestinal xenografts were used to model human intestinal epithelium in vivo. Xenografts constitutively expressed little, if any, CCL28 mRNA or protein. After stimulation with the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1, CCL28 mRNA and protein were significantly increased in the epithelium of colon but not small intestinal xenografts, although both upregulated the expression of another prototypic chemokine, CXCL8, in response to the identical stimulus. In studies of CCL28 regulation using human colon epithelial cell lines, proinflammatory stimuli, including IL-1, bacterial flagellin, and bacterial infection, significantly upregulated CCL28 mRNA expression and protein production. In addition, CCL28 mRNA expression and protein secretion by those cells were significantly increased by the short-chain fatty acid n-butyrate, and IL-1- or flagellin-stimulated upregulation of CCL28 by colon epithelial cells was synergistically increased by pretreatment of cells with n-butyrate. Consistent with its upregulated expression by proinflammatory stimuli, CCL28 mRNA expression was attenuated by pharmacological inhibitors of NF-kappaB activation. These findings indicate that CCL28 functions as an "inflammatory" chemokine in human colon epithelium and suggest the notion that CCL28 may act to counterregulate colonic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Ogawa
- Department of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0623, USA
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184
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Wilson E, Butcher EC. CCL28 controls immunoglobulin (Ig)A plasma cell accumulation in the lactating mammary gland and IgA antibody transfer to the neonate. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 200:805-9. [PMID: 15381732 PMCID: PMC2211970 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20041069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The accumulation of immunoglobulin (Ig)A antibody-secreting cells (ASCs) in the lactating mammary gland leads to secretion of antibodies into milk and their passive transfer to the suckling newborn. This transfer of IgA from mother to infant provides transient immune protection against a variety of gastrointestinal pathogens. Here we show that the mucosal epithelial chemokine CCL28 is up-regulated in the mammary gland during lactation and that IgA ASCs from this tissue express CCR10 and migrate to CCL28. In vivo treatment with anti-CCL28 antibody blocks IgA ASC accumulation in the mammary gland, inhibiting IgA antibody secretion into milk and the subsequent appearance of antibody in the gastrointestinal tract of nursing neonates. We propose that CCL28 is a key regulator of IgA ASC accumulation in the mammary gland and thus controls the passive transfer of IgA antibodies from mother to infant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Wilson
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA 94305, USA.
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185
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Hieshima K, Kawasaki Y, Hanamoto H, Nakayama T, Nagakubo D, Kanamaru A, Yoshie O. CC chemokine ligands 25 and 28 play essential roles in intestinal extravasation of IgA antibody-secreting cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:3668-75. [PMID: 15356112 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.6.3668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CCL25 (also known as thymus-expressed chemokine) and CCL28 (also known as mucosae-associated epithelial chemokine) play important roles in mucosal immunity by recruiting IgA Ab-secreting cells (ASCs) into mucosal lamina propria. However, their exact roles in vivo still remain to be defined. In this study, we first demonstrated in mice that IgA ASCs in small intestine expressed CCR9, CCR10, and CXCR4 on the cell surface and migrated to their respective ligands CCL25, CCL28, and CXCL12 (also known as stromal cell-derived factor 1), whereas IgA ASCs in colon mainly expressed CCR10 and CXCR4 and migrated to CCL28 and CXCL12. Reciprocally, the epithelial cells of small intestine were immunologically positive for CCL25 and CCL28, whereas those of colon were positive for CCL28 and CXCL12. Furthermore, the venular endothelial cells in small intestine were positive for CCL25 and CCL28, whereas those in colon were positive for CCL28, suggesting their direct roles in extravasation of IgA ASCs. Consistently, in mice orally immunized with cholera toxin (CT), anti-CCL25 suppressed homing of CT-specific IgA ASCs into small intestine, whereas anti-CCL28 suppressed homing of CT-specific IgA ASCs into both small intestine and colon. Reciprocally, CT-specific ASCs and IgA titers in the blood were increased in mice treated with anti-CCL25 or anti-CCL28. Anti-CXCL12 had no such effects. Finally, both CCL25 and CCL28 were capable of enhancing alpha4 integrin-dependent adhesion of IgA ASCs to mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 and VCAM-1. Collectively, CCL25 and CCL28 play essential roles in intestinal homing of IgA ASCs primarily by mediating their extravasation into intestinal lamina propria.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibody-Producing Cells/cytology
- Antibody-Producing Cells/immunology
- Antibody-Producing Cells/metabolism
- Cell Adhesion/immunology
- Cell Adhesion Molecules
- Cell Membrane/immunology
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Chemokine CCL27
- Chemokine CXCL12
- Chemokines/biosynthesis
- Chemokines/immunology
- Chemokines/physiology
- Chemokines, CC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CC/immunology
- Chemokines, CC/physiology
- Chemokines, CXC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CXC/immunology
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte/immunology
- Cholera Toxin/administration & dosage
- Cholera Toxin/immunology
- Female
- Humans
- Immune Sera/administration & dosage
- Immunoglobulin A/biosynthesis
- Immunoglobulins/metabolism
- Immunohistochemistry
- Integrin alpha4/physiology
- Intestinal Mucosa/cytology
- Intestinal Mucosa/immunology
- Intestinal Mucosa/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mucoproteins/metabolism
- Organ Specificity/immunology
- Receptors, CCR
- Receptors, CCR10
- Receptors, CXCR4/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Staining and Labeling
- Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Hieshima
- Department of Microbiology, Kinki University School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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186
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Abstract
Recent studies indicate that the mechanism of nasopharynx-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) organogenesis is different from that of other lymphoid tissues. NALT has an important role in the induction of mucosal immune responses, including the generation of T helper 1 and T helper 2 cells, and IgA-committed B cells. Moreover, intranasal immunization can lead to the induction of antigen-specific protective immunity in both the mucosal and systemic immune compartments. Therefore, a greater understanding of the differences between NALT and other organized lymphoid tissues, such as Peyer's patches, should facilitate the development of nasal vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kiyono
- Division of Mucosal Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan.
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187
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Olson TS, Bamias G, Naganuma M, Rivera-Nieves J, Burcin TL, Ross W, Morris MA, Pizarro TT, Ernst PB, Cominelli F, Ley K. Expanded B cell population blocks regulatory T cells and exacerbates ileitis in a murine model of Crohn disease. J Clin Invest 2004; 114:389-98. [PMID: 15286805 PMCID: PMC484978 DOI: 10.1172/jci20855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2003] [Accepted: 06/22/2004] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
SAMP1/YitFc mice develop discontinuous, transmural inflammatory lesions in the terminal ileum, similar to what is found in human Crohn disease. Compared with the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) of AKR control mice, SAMP1/YitFc MLNs contain a 4.3-fold expansion in total B cell number and a 2.5-fold increased percentage of CD4(+) T cells expressing the alpha(E)beta(7) integrin. Although alpha(E)beta(7)(+)CD4(+) T cells possess a regulatory phenotype (CD25(+), L-selectin(lo), and CD45RB(lo)), express IL-10, and suppress effector T cell proliferation in vitro, they cannot prevent ileitis development in SCID mice adoptively transferred with effector CD4(+) T cells, although the CD4(+)CD25(+) subset, which overlaps with the alpha(E)beta(7)(+)CD4(+) subset, prevents colitis. The alpha(E)beta(7)(+)CD4(+) T cells express high levels of ICOS, a costimulatory molecule that augments B cell function, suggesting their involvement in the increase in B cells, IgA(+) cells, and soluble IgA found within the MLNs and ileum of SAMP1/YitFc mice. MLN B cell numbers correlate with ileitis severity in SAMP1/YitFc mice, and cotransfer of SAMP1/YitFc MLN B cells along with CD4(+) T cells increases ileitis severity in SCID mice compared with transfer of CD4(+) T cells alone. SAMP1/YitFc B cells prevent alpha(E)beta(7)(+)CD4(+) T cells from suppressing effector T cell proliferation. We conclude that SAMP1/YitFc MLN B cells contribute to the development of SAMP1/YitFc ileitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy S Olson
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia Health Science Center, Charlottesville 22908, USA
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188
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Campbell DJ, Debes GF, Johnston B, Wilson E, Butcher EC. Targeting T cell responses by selective chemokine receptor expression. Semin Immunol 2004; 15:277-86. [PMID: 15001177 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2003.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Immune responses require the orchestrated migration of T cells throughout the body. Conventional CD4+ and CD8+ alphabeta T cells undergo clonal expansion in the secondary lymphoid tissues, during which they are programmed to migrate into specific non-lymphoid tissues and other lymphoid effector sites such as B cell follicles. By contrast, T cell populations expressing receptors with limited diversity (i.e. gammadelta T cells and NK T cells) appear to be preprogrammed to localize in non-lymphoid tissues where they monitor tissue integrity or serve regulatory functions. By promoting chemotaxis and integrin activation, chemokines and their receptors (in conjunction with surface adhesion molecules) control these T cell homing events. Thus, expression of chemokine receptors defines T cells with tropism for particular tissues and/or microenvironments, and identifies T cell subsets with distinct functional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Campbell
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA 94305, USA.
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189
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Olson TS, Bamias G, Naganuma M, Rivera-Nieves J, Burcin TL, Ross W, Morris MA, Pizarro TT, Ernst PB, Cominelli F, Ley K. Expanded B cell population blocks regulatory T cells and exacerbates ileitis in a murine model of Crohn disease. J Clin Invest 2004. [DOI: 10.1172/jci200420855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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190
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Abstract
The surge in interest in chemokines is explained by the recognition that numerous aspects of immunity are intimately related to leukocyte traffic. Chemokines are leukocyte attractants but also contribute to immune processes that do not directly involve leukocyte migration. Recent progress is most evident in the areas of lymphocyte development, immune response initiation and immune pathology. Important observations have also been reported on chemokine-receptor interactions, signal transduction and cellular responses. New insights into the role of chemokines in leukocyte attraction and relocation will be discussed, with emphasis on the distinct levels of leukocyte migration control that ultimately determine the performance of our immune defense system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Moser
- Theodor-Kocher Institute, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 1, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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191
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Wardle EN. Is IgA nephropathy induced by hyperproduction of interferon-α? Med Hypotheses 2004; 62:625-8. [PMID: 15050119 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2003.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2002] [Accepted: 11/23/2003] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The frequent occurrence of tonsillitis or upper respiratory tract infections preceeding exacerbations of haematuria in IgA nephropathy (IgAN) suggests a relationship to the pathogenesis. Since it has been shown that release of type I interferon (IFN-alpha) can promote the release of BAFF which aids maturation of B lymphocytes, and IFN-alpha is released as part of innate immunity to pathogens of the upper respiratory tract, it is suggested than IFN-alpha may trigger the pathogenic process of IgAN. How cells in the tonsils contribute and whether Il-6 formation in the lungs also helps development of Th.2 lymphocytes are to be considered.
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192
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Underhill GH, Kolli KP, Kansas GS. Complexity within the plasma cell compartment of mice deficient in both E- and P-selectin: implications for plasma cell differentiation. Blood 2003; 102:4076-83. [PMID: 12881311 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-03-0947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody-secreting plasma cells represent the critical end-stage effector cells of the humoral immune response. Here, we show that several distinct plasma cell subsets are concurrently present in the lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow of mice deficient in both E- and P-selectin. One of these subsets was a B220-negative immunoglobulin g (IgG) plasma cell population expressing low to negative surface levels of syndecan-1. Examination of the chemotactic responsiveness of IgG plasma cell subsets revealed that migration toward stromal cell-derived factor 1/CXC ligand 12 (SDF-1/CXCL12) was primarily limited to the B220-lo subset regardless of tissue source. Although B220-negative plasma cells did not migrate efficiently in response to CXCL12 or to other chemokines for which receptor mRNA was expressed, these cells expressed substantial surface CXC chemokine receptor-4 (CXCR4), and CXCL12 stimulation rapidly induced extracellular signal regulated kinase 1 (ERK1)/ERK2 phosphorylation, demonstrating that CXCR4 retained signaling capacity. Therefore, B220-negative plasma cells exhibit a selective uncoupling of chemokine receptor expression and signaling from migration. Taken together, our findings document the presence of significant heterogeneity within the plasma cell compartment, which suggests a complex step-wise scheme of plasma cell differentiation in which the degree of differentiation and tissue location can influence the chemotactic responsiveness of IgG plasma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory H Underhill
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern Medical School, 303 E Chicago Ave, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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193
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Abstract
Recent studies indicate that chemoattractant cytokines (chemokines), together with tissue-specific adhesion molecules, coordinate the migration of antibody-secreting cells (ASCs) from their sites of antigen-driven differentiation in lymphoid tissues to target effector tissues. Developing ASCs downregulate the expression of receptors for lymphoid tissue chemokines and selectively upregulate the expression of chemokine receptors that might target the migration of IgA ASCs to mucosal surfaces, IgG ASCs to sites of tissue inflammation and both types of ASC to the bone marrow - an important site for serum antibody production. By directing plasma-cell homing, chemokines might help to determine the character and efficiency of mucosal, inflammatory and systemic antibody responses.
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194
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Abstract
Directed cellular migrations underlie immune system organization. Chemokines and their receptors (along with surface-adhesion molecules) are central to these migrations, targeting developing and mature leukocytes to tissues and microenvironments suitable for their differentiation and function. The chemokine CXCL12 and its receptor CXCR4 play a central role in the migration of hematopoietic stem cells, and several chemokine receptors are transiently expressed during distinct stages of B- and T-cell development. In the periphery, mature naïve B and T cells utilize the receptors CCR7, CXCR4, and CXCR5 to recirculate through specialized microenvironments within the secondary lymphoid tissues, while effector and memory lymphocytes express bewildering patterns of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptors that allow them to function within microenvironments and non-lymphoid tissues inaccessible to naïve cells. Here, we summarize the role of chemokines and their receptors in the spatial organization of the immune system and consider the implications for immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Campbell
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
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