201
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Meknatkhah S, Sharif Dashti P, Mousavi MS, Zeynali A, Ahmadian S, Karima S, Saboury AA, Riazi GH. Psychological stress effects on myelin degradation in the cuprizone-induced model of demyelination. Neuropathology 2018; 39:14-21. [PMID: 30536911 DOI: 10.1111/neup.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is known as the most common demyelinating disease worldwide in which previous studies have shown that stress is a risk factor for the disease's onset and progression. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to investigate the consequences of stress in MS pathology. In this study, after 5 days of exposure to psychological and physical stress as a repetitive distress modality, rats were treated with cuprizone. The demyelination degree was compared in animal groups using Luxol fast blue staining, immunohistochemical staining for myelin basic protein and transmission electron microscopy. Outcomes revealed that animals exposed to stress prior to cuprizone ingestion, elicit more intense demyelination. Continuous psychological distress has more severe effects on myelin sheath destruction in the preclinical stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sogol Meknatkhah
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Pouya Sharif Dashti
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Amirbahador Zeynali
- Department of Physics, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shahin Ahmadian
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeed Karima
- Clinical Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Saboury
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
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202
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Kolaviron protects the brain in cuprizone-induced model of experimental multiple sclerosis via enhancement of intrinsic antioxidant mechanisms: Possible therapeutic applications? PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2018; 25:299-306. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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203
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Maganti RJ, Hronowski XL, Dunstan RW, Wipke BT, Zhang X, Jandreski L, Hamann S, Juhasz P. Defining Changes in the Spatial Distribution and Composition of Brain Lipids in the Shiverer and Cuprizone Mouse Models of Myelin Disease. J Histochem Cytochem 2018; 67:203-219. [PMID: 30501365 PMCID: PMC6393840 DOI: 10.1369/0022155418815860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin is composed primarily of lipids and diseases affecting myelin are associated with alterations in its lipid composition. However, correlation of the spatial (in situ) distribution of lipids with the disease-associated compositional and morphological changes is not well defined. Herein we applied high resolution matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI-IMS), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) to evaluate brain lipid alterations in the dysmyelinating shiverer (Shi) mouse and cuprizone (Cz) mouse model of reversible demyelination. MALDI-IMS revealed a decrease in the spatial distribution of sulfatide (SHexCer) species, SHexCer (d42:2), and a phosphatidylcholine (PC) species, PC (36:1), in white matter regions like corpus callosum (CC) both in the Shi mouse and Cz mouse model. Changes in these lipid species were restored albeit not entirely upon spontaneous remyelination after demyelination in the Cz mouse model. Lipid distribution changes correlated with the local morphological changes as confirmed by IHC. LC-ESI-MS analyses of CC extracts confirmed the MALDI-IMS derived reductions in SHexCer and PC species. These findings highlight the role of SHexCer and PC in preserving the normal myelin architecture and our experimental approaches provide a morphological basis to define lipid abnormalities relevant to myelin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Robert W Dunstan
- Biogen, Cambridge, Massachusetts.,AbbVie, Worcester, Massachusetts
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204
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Labunets IF, Rodnichenko AE, Melnyk NO, Rymar SE, Utko N, Gavrulyk-Skyba GO, Butenko GM. Neuroprotective effect of the recombinant human leukemia inhibitory factor in mice with an experimental cuprizone model of multiple sclerosis: possible mechanisms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.7124/bc.000989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. F. Labunets
- Institute of Genetic and Regenerative Medicine, NAMS of Ukraine
| | | | - N. O Melnyk
- Institute of Genetic and Regenerative Medicine, NAMS of Ukraine
| | - S. E. Rymar
- Institute of Genetic and Regenerative Medicine, NAMS of Ukraine
- Bogomolets National Medical University
| | - N.A. Utko
- Institute of Genetic and Regenerative Medicine, NAMS of Ukraine
| | | | - G. M. Butenko
- Institute of Genetic and Regenerative Medicine, NAMS of Ukraine
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205
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Attia H, Taha M, Abdellatif A. Effects of aging on the myelination of the optic nerve in rats. Int J Neurosci 2018; 129:320-324. [PMID: 30260726 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2018.1529670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Cognitive decline due to aging is most probably the result of changes in the white matter in the central nervous system (CNS) and/or demyelination. MATERIAL AND METHODS We used electron microscopic analysis of the morphological changes in aging rats' optic nerves as an easily accessible part of the CNS. RESULTS Several age changes were observed in aging rats (36 months) vs. young adult rats (6 months), namely degeneration of axons, decreased packing density and morphological alterations of myelination, including the ballooning of some myelin sheaths, separation of myelin lamellae and degenerative changes in the oligodendrocytes population. CONCLUSION Cognitive decline related to aging may occur in part due to the disturbed myelination of axons in CNS white matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamdino Attia
- a Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine , Al-Azhar University , Damietta , Egypt and Faculty of Physical Therapy, Horus University, Damietta, Egypt
| | - Medhat Taha
- b Department of Anatomy , College of Medicine , Mansoura , Egypt
| | - Ahmed Abdellatif
- c Department of Biology, School of Sciences & Engineering , American University in Cairo , New Cairo , Egypt
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206
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Kardos J, Héja L, Simon Á, Jablonkai I, Kovács R, Jemnitz K. Copper signalling: causes and consequences. Cell Commun Signal 2018; 16:71. [PMID: 30348177 PMCID: PMC6198518 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-018-0277-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper-containing enzymes perform fundamental functions by activating dioxygen (O2) and therefore allowing chemical energy-transfer for aerobic metabolism. The copper-dependence of O2 transport, metabolism and production of signalling molecules are supported by molecular systems that regulate and preserve tightly-bound static and weakly-bound dynamic cellular copper pools. Disruption of the reducing intracellular environment, characterized by glutathione shortage and ambient Cu(II) abundance drives oxidative stress and interferes with the bidirectional, copper-dependent communication between neurons and astrocytes, eventually leading to various brain disease forms. A deeper understanding of of the regulatory effects of copper on neuro-glia coupling via polyamine metabolism may reveal novel copper signalling functions and new directions for therapeutic intervention in brain disorders associated with aberrant copper metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianna Kardos
- Functional Pharmacology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar Tudósok körútja 2, Budapest, 1117 Hungary
| | - László Héja
- Functional Pharmacology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar Tudósok körútja 2, Budapest, 1117 Hungary
| | - Ágnes Simon
- Functional Pharmacology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar Tudósok körútja 2, Budapest, 1117 Hungary
| | - István Jablonkai
- Functional Pharmacology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar Tudósok körútja 2, Budapest, 1117 Hungary
| | - Richard Kovács
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katalin Jemnitz
- Functional Pharmacology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar Tudósok körútja 2, Budapest, 1117 Hungary
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207
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Klein B, Mrowetz H, Barker CM, Lange S, Rivera FJ, Aigner L. Age Influences Microglial Activation After Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:278. [PMID: 30297998 PMCID: PMC6160739 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory CNS disease, which causes demyelinated lesions and damages white and gray matter regions. Aging is a significant factor in the progression of MS, and microglia, the immune cells of the CNS tissue, play an important role in all disease stages. During aging, microglia are functionally altered. These age-related changes probably already begin early and might influence the progression of CNS pathologies. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether microglia in the middle-aged CNS already react differently to demyelination. For this purpose, several microglia markers (ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1), P2RY12, F4/80, CD68, major histocompatibility complex II (MHCII), macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (Marco), Translocator protein 18 kD (TSPO), CD206, and CD163) were analyzed in the acute cuprizone demyelination model in young (2-month-old) and middle-aged (10-month-old) mice. In addition, microglial proliferation was quantified using double-labeling with proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), which was injected with the onset of remyelination. To compare age-related microglial changes during de- and remyelination in both gray and white matter, the hilus of the dorsal hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) and the splenium of the corpus callosum (CC) were analyzed in parallel. Age-related changes in microglia of healthy controls were more pronounced in the analyzed gray matter region (higher levels of F4/80 and Marco as well as lower expression of CD68 in middle-aged mice). During de- and remyelination, a stronger increase of the microglial markers Iba-1, CD68 and TSPO was observed in the splenium of the younger groups. There was a significant reduction of P2RY12 during demyelination, however, this was age- and region-dependent. The induction of the anti-inflammatory markers CD206 and CD163 was stronger in the middle-aged group, but also differed between the two analyzed regions. De- and remyelination led to a significant increase in PCNA+ microglia only in young groups within the white matter region. The number of BrdU+ microglia was not changed during de- or remyelination. These results clearly show that microglia are already altered during middle-age and also react differently to CNS demyelination, however, this is highly region-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Klein
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Heike Mrowetz
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Conor Michael Barker
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Simona Lange
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Francisco J Rivera
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on the Nervous System (CISNe), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Ludwig Aigner
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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208
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TSPO in diverse CNS pathologies and psychiatric disease: A critical review and a way forward. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 194:44-58. [PMID: 30189290 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The use of Translocator Protein 18 kDa (TSPO) as a clinical neuroimaging biomarker of brain injury and neuroinflammation has increased exponentially in the last decade. There has been a furious pace in the development of new radiotracers for TSPO positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and its use has now been extensively described in many neurological and mental disorders. This fast pace of research and the ever-increasing number of new laboratories entering the field often times lack an appreciation of the historical perspective of the field and introduce dogmatic, but unproven facts, related to the underlying neurobiology of the TSPO response to brain injury and neuroinflammation. Paradoxically, while in neurodegenerative disorders and in all types of CNS pathologies brain TSPO levels increase, a new observation in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia is decreased brain levels of TSPO measured by PET. The neurobiological bases for this new finding is currently not known, but rigorous experimental design using multiple experimental approaches and careful interpretation of results is critically important to provide the methodological and/or biological underpinnings to this new observation. This review provides a perspective of the early history of validating TSPO as a biomarker of brain injury and neuroinflammation and a critical analysis of controversial topics in the literature related to the cellular sources of the TSPO response. The latter is important in order to provide the correct interpretation of PET studies in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, this review proposes some yet to be explored explanations to new findings in psychiatric disorders and new approaches to quantitatively assess the glial sources of the TSPO response in order to move the field forward.
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209
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Cui C, Wang J, Mullin AP, Caggiano AO, Parry TJ, Colburn RW, Pavlopoulos E. The antibody rHIgM22 facilitates hippocampal remyelination and ameliorates memory deficits in the cuprizone mouse model of demyelination. Brain Res 2018; 1694:73-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2018.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Revised: 05/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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210
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Zhang J, Yang L, Fang Z, Kong J, Huang Q, Xu H. Adenosine Promotes the Recovery of Mice from the Cuprizone-Induced Behavioral and Morphological Changes while Effecting on Microglia and Inflammatory Cytokines in the Brain. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2018; 13:412-425. [PMID: 30069711 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-018-9799-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that multiple sclerosis (MS) and schizophrenia share similarities in some respects, including white matter damage and neuroinflammation. On the other hand, adenosine was reported to promote oligodendrocyte precursor maturation and remyelinating while influencing microglia activation. The aim of the present study was to examine possible beneficial effects of adenosine on the recovery of cuprizone (CPZ)-exposed mouse which has been used as an animal model of MS and schizophrenia as the CPZ-exposed mouse presents demyelination, oligodendrocyte loss, microglia accumulation, as well as behavioral changes. As reported previously, C57BL/6 mice, after fed CPZ for 5 weeks, showed salient demyelination and oligodendrocyte loss in the cerebral cortex (CTX) and hippocampus, in addition to displaying anxiety-like behavior, spatial working memory deficit, and social interaction impairment. Administration of adenosine for 7 days during the recovery period after CPZ withdrawal promoted the behavioral recovery of CPZ-exposed mice and accelerated the remyelinating process in the brains of mice after CPZ withdrawal in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the effective dose (10 mg/kg) of adenosine inhibited microglia activation and suppressed abnormal elevation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α in CTX and hippocampus, but increased levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 or IL-10 in the same brain regions during the remyelinating process. These results provided an evidence-based rationale for the application of adenosine or its analogues as add-on therapy for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinling Zhang
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Liu Yang
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Zeman Fang
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Jiming Kong
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Qingjun Huang
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China.
| | - Haiyun Xu
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China.
- Department of Anatomy, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China.
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211
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Jakovac H, Grubić Kezele T, Radošević-Stašić B. Expression Profiles of Metallothionein I/II and Megalin in Cuprizone Model of De- and Remyelination. Neuroscience 2018; 388:69-86. [PMID: 30025861 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Copper chelator cuprizone (CPZ) is neurotoxicant, which selectively disrupts oligodendroglial respiratory chain, leading to oxidative stress and subsequent apoptosis. Demyelination is, however, followed by spontaneous remyelination owing to the activation of intrinsic CNS repair mechanisms. To explore the participation of metallothioneins (MTs) in these processes, in this study we analyzed the expression profiles of MT-I/II and their receptor megalin (low-density lipoprotein receptor related protein-2) in the brain of mice subjected to different protocols of CPZ feeding. Experiments were performed in female C57BL/6 mice fed with 0.25% CPZ during 1, 3 and 5 weeks. They were sacrificed immediately after feeding with CPZ or 2 weeks after the withdrawal of CPZ. The data showed that CPZ-induced demyelination was followed by high astrogliosis and enhanced expression of MTs and megalin in white (corpus callosum and internal capsule) and gray matter of the brain (cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum). Moreover, in numerous cortical neurons and progenitor cells the signs of MT/megalin interactions and Akt1 phosphorylation was found supporting the hypothesis that MTs secreted from the astrocytes might directly affect the neuronal differentiation and survival. Furthermore, in mice treated with CPZ for 5 weeks the prominent MTs and megalin immunoreactivities were found on several neural stem cells and oligodendrocyte progenitors in subgranular zone of dentate gyrus and subventricular zone of lateral ventricles pointing to high modulatory effect of MTs on adult neuro- and oligodendrogenesis. The data show that MT I/II perform important cytoprotective and growth-regulating functions in remyelinating processes activated after toxic demyelinating insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hrvoje Jakovac
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, B. Branchetta 20, 51 000 RIJEKA, Croatia
| | - Tanja Grubić Kezele
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, B. Branchetta 20, 51 000 RIJEKA, Croatia
| | - Biserka Radošević-Stašić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, B. Branchetta 20, 51 000 RIJEKA, Croatia.
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212
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Omotoso GO, Gbadamosi IT, Afolabi TT, Abdulwahab AB, Akinlolu AA. Ameliorative effects of Moringa on cuprizone-induced memory decline in rat model of multiple sclerosis. Anat Cell Biol 2018; 51:119-127. [PMID: 29984057 PMCID: PMC6026826 DOI: 10.5115/acb.2018.51.2.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Revised: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cuprizone is a neurotoxin with copper-chelating ability used in animal model of multiple sclerosis in which oxidative stress has been documented as one of the cascade in the pathogenesis. Moringa oleifera is a phytomedicinal plant with antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. This study aimed at evaluating the ameliorative capability of M. oleifera in cuprizone-induced behavioral and histopathological alterations in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of Wistar rats. Four groups of rats were treated with normal saline, cuprizone, M. oleifera and a combination of M. oleifera and cuprizone, for five weeks. The rats were subjected to Morris water maze and Y-maze to assess long and short-term memory respectively. The animals were sacrificed, and brain tissues were removed for histochemical and enzyme lysate immunosorbent assay for catalase, superoxide dismutase, and nitric oxide. Cuprizone significantly induced oxidative and nitrosative stress coupled with memory decline and cortico-hippocampal neuronal deficits; however, administration of M. oleifera significantly reversed the neuropathological deficits induced by cuprizone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Olaiya Omotoso
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Ismail Temitayo Gbadamosi
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Theresa Titilayo Afolabi
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Ahmad Bolakale Abdulwahab
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Adelaja Abdulazeez Akinlolu
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
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213
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Xing B, Brink LE, Maers K, Sullivan ML, Bodnar RJ, Stolz DB, Cambi F. Conditional depletion of GSK3b protects oligodendrocytes from apoptosis and lessens demyelination in the acute cuprizone model. Glia 2018; 66:1999-2012. [PMID: 29761559 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2017] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is recognized as the main mechanism of oligodendrocyte loss in Multiple Sclerosis caused either by immune mediated injury (Barnett & Prineas, ) or a direct degenerative process (oligodendrogliapathy; Lucchinetti et al., ). Cuprizone induced demyelination is the result of non-immune mediated apoptosis of oligodendrocytes (OL) and represents a model of oligodendrogliapathy (Simmons, Pierson, Lee, & Goverman, ). Glycogen Synthase Kinase (GSK) 3b has been shown to be pro-apoptotic for cells other than OL. Here, we sought to investigate whether GSK3b plays a role in cuprizone-induced apoptosis of OL by using a novel inducible conditional knockout (cKO) of GSK3b in mature OL. While depletion of GSK3b has no effect on survival of uninjured OL, it increases survival of mature OL exposed to cuprizone. We show that GSK3b-deficient OLs are protected against caspase-dependent, but not against caspase-independent apoptosis. Active GSK3b is present in the nuclei of OL at peak of caspase-dependent apoptosis. Significant preservation of myelinated axons is associated with GSK3b depletion and glial cell activation is markedly reduced. Collectively, the data show that GSK3b is pro-apoptotic for caspase-dependent cell death, likely through activation of nuclear GSK3b and its depletion promotes survival of oligodendrocytes and attenuates myelin loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Xing
- Veterans Administration Pittsburgh, University Drive C Bldg 30, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lauren E Brink
- Veterans Administration Pittsburgh, University Drive C Bldg 30, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Kelly Maers
- Veterans Administration Pittsburgh, University Drive C Bldg 30, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Mara L Sullivan
- Department of Cell Biology, Center for Biologic Imaging, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Richard J Bodnar
- Veterans Administration Pittsburgh, University Drive C Bldg 30, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Donna B Stolz
- Department of Cell Biology, Center for Biologic Imaging, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Franca Cambi
- Veterans Administration Pittsburgh, University Drive C Bldg 30, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Neurology/PIND, University of Pittsburgh, 3501 5th Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Neurology, University of Kentucky, 800 Rose St, Lexington, Kentucky
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214
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Protective potential of dimethyl fumarate in a mouse model of thalamocortical demyelination. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 223:3091-3106. [PMID: 29744572 PMCID: PMC6132667 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1680-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in cortical cellular organization, network functionality, as well as cognitive and locomotor deficits were recently suggested to be pathological hallmarks in multiple sclerosis and corresponding animal models as they might occur following demyelination. To investigate functional changes following demyelination in a well-defined, topographically organized neuronal network, in vitro and in vivo, we focused on the primary auditory cortex (A1) of mice in the cuprizone model of general de- and remyelination. Following myelin loss in this model system, the spatiotemporal propagation of incoming stimuli in A1 was altered and the hierarchical activation of supra- and infragranular cortical layers was lost suggesting a profound effect exerted on neuronal network level. In addition, the response latency in field potential recordings and voltage-sensitive dye imaging was increased following demyelination. These alterations were accompanied by a loss of auditory discrimination abilities in freely behaving animals, a reduction of the nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf-2) protein in the nucleus in histological staining and persisted during remyelination. To find new strategies to restore demyelination-induced network alteration in addition to the ongoing remyelination, we tested the cytoprotective potential of dimethyl fumarate (DMF). Therapeutic treatment with DMF during remyelination significantly modified spatiotemporal stimulus propagation in the cortex, reduced the cognitive impairment, and prevented the demyelination-induced decrease in nuclear Nrf-2. These results indicate the involvement of anti-oxidative mechanisms in regulating spatiotemporal cortical response pattern following changes in myelination and point to DMF as therapeutic compound for intervention.
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215
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Zhang L, Xu S, Huang Q, Xu H. N-acetylcysteine attenuates the cuprizone-induced behavioral changes and oligodendrocyte loss in male C57BL/7 mice via its anti-inflammation actions. J Neurosci Res 2018; 96:803-816. [PMID: 29114910 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Previous animal studies have linked white matter damage to certain schizophrenia-like behaviors in cuprizone (CPZ)-exposed mouse. Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and oligodendrocyte loss coexist in the brain of such mice. The aim of this study was to examine effects of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on CPZ-induced behavioral changes and concurrent oligodendrocyte loss, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation in these animals. Male C57BL/6 mice were given intraperitoneal saline or NAC at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks; animals were fed a CPZ-containing diet (0.2%, w/w) during days 5-14. During days 15-17, the mice were examined in open-field, social recognition, and Y-maze tests (1 test per day). Six mice in each group were then used for biochemical and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analyses, while the remaining animals were used for immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence staining. The mice exposed to CPZ for 10 days showed significantly lower spontaneous alternation in the Y-maze, lower activity of total superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase, but higher levels of malondialdehyde in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, elevated concentrations of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α in the brain regions mentioned above and caudate putamen, and a decreased number of mature oligodendrocytes, but increased number of microglia in all the brain regions examined. These changes, however, were not seen or effectively alleviated in NAC-treated mice at all three doses. These results demonstrate that NAC protected mature oligodendrocytes against the toxic effects of CPZ, likely via its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhang
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Shuqin Xu
- Department of Anatomy, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Qingjun Huang
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Haiyun Xu
- The Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
- Department of Anatomy, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
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216
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Bölcskei K, Kriszta G, Sághy É, Payrits M, Sipos É, Vranesics A, Berente Z, Ábrahám H, Ács P, Komoly S, Pintér E. Behavioural alterations and morphological changes are attenuated by the lack of TRPA1 receptors in the cuprizone-induced demyelination model in mice. J Neuroimmunol 2018; 320:1-10. [PMID: 29759134 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
We have recently reported that the Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) receptor deficiency significantly attenuated cuprizone-induced demyelination by reducing the apoptosis of mature oligodendrocytes. The aim of the present study was to gather additional data on the role of TRPA1 by investigating the time course of behavioural alterations and morphological changes in cuprizone-treated TRPA1 receptor gene-deficient mice. Demyelination was induced by feeding male wild-type (WT) and TRPA1 gene-deleted (TRPA1 KO) mice with 0.2% cuprizone for 6 weeks. Behavioural tests were performed once per week to follow cuprizone-induced functional changes. Mechanonociceptive thresholds were investigated by a dynamic plantar aesthesiometer and von Frey filaments. Motor performance was assessed by accelerating RotaRod and horizontal grid tests. For the study of spontaneous activity, the open field test was used. The time course of corpus callosum demyelination was also followed weekly by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Histological analysis of myelin loss was performed with Luxol Fast Blue (LFB) staining at week 3 and electron microscopy (EM) at week 6. Astrocyte and microglia accumulation at week 3 was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Cuprizone treatment induced no changes in mechanonociception or motor performance. In the open arena, cuprizone-treated mice spent more time with locomotion, their mean velocity was significantly higher and the distance they travelled was longer than untreated mice. No statistical difference was detected between WT and TRPA1 KO mice in these parameters. On the other hand, significantly increased rearing behaviour was induced in WT mice compared to TRPA1 KO animals. Morphological changes detected with MRI, LFB, IHC and EM analysis revealed reduced damage of the myelin and attenuated accumulation of astrocytes and microglia in cuprizone-treated TRPA1 KO animals, at each examined time point. Our recent data further suggest that inhibition of TRPA1 receptors could be a promising therapeutic approach to limit central nervous system damage in demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kata Bölcskei
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Kriszta
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary; Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Éva Sághy
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Maja Payrits
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Éva Sipos
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Anett Vranesics
- Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Berente
- Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Hajnalka Ábrahám
- Department of Medical Biology and Central Electron Microscopy Laboratory, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Péter Ács
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Sámuel Komoly
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Erika Pintér
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
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217
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Mi G, Wang Y, Ye E, Gao Y, Liu Q, Chen P, Zhu Y, Yang H, Yang Z. The antipsychotic drug quetiapine stimulates oligodendrocyte differentiation by modulating the cell cycle. Neurochem Int 2018; 118:242-251. [PMID: 29627379 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed that oligodendrocyte differentiation deficits and de-myelination occur in the brains of schizophrenic patients. Cell cycle proteins play a critical role in modulating oligodendrocyte proliferation and differentiation. In our previous studies, we found that cuprizone, a copper chelant, induces oligodendrocyte loss and demyelination, and this effect can be alleviated by using the atypical antipsychotic drug quetiapine. To explore the mechanisms of quetiapine in oligodendrocyte development, we examined the effects of quetiapine on cell cycle progression. Quetiapine promoted cell cycle exit and blocked the mitogenic effect of PDGF in cultured rat cortical oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). Quetiapine accelerated OPC differentiation in vitro. Moreover, the systemic administration of quetiapine up-regulated p21 mRNA expression, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, in mice. Knocking down p21 expression by RNA interference enhanced proliferation and delayed differentiation. Our results suggest that cell cycle regulation may contribute to the differentiation-promoting effect of quetiapine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiyun Mi
- Department of Outpatients, 62301 Unit of PLA, No. 19, Dongan Street, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100071, China; Institute of Military Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Yituo Wang
- Institute of Military Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Enmao Ye
- Institute of Military Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Yunyun Gao
- The 89 Hospital of PLA, No. 256, Beigong West Street, WeiFang City, 261021, Shandong Province, China
| | - Qiaowei Liu
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Pinhong Chen
- Institute of Military Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Yuyang Zhu
- Institute of Military Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Hongju Yang
- Institute of Military Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China.
| | - Zheng Yang
- Institute of Military Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 27 Tai-Ping Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100850, China.
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218
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Hochstrasser T, Jiangshan Z, Rühling S, Schmitz C, Kipp M. Do pre-clinical multiple sclerosis models allow us to measure neurodegeneration and clinical progression? Expert Rev Neurother 2018; 18:1-3. [PMID: 29589965 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2018.1459190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Hochstrasser
- a Department of Anatomy II , Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Zhan Jiangshan
- a Department of Anatomy II , Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Sebastian Rühling
- a Department of Anatomy II , Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Christoph Schmitz
- a Department of Anatomy II , Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich , Munich , Germany
| | - Markus Kipp
- a Department of Anatomy II , Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich , Munich , Germany
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219
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Martin NA, Molnar V, Szilagyi GT, Elkjaer ML, Nawrocki A, Okarmus J, Wlodarczyk A, Thygesen EK, Palkovits M, Gallyas F, Larsen MR, Lassmann H, Benedikz E, Owens T, Svenningsen AF, Illes Z. Experimental Demyelination and Axonal Loss Are Reduced in MicroRNA-146a Deficient Mice. Front Immunol 2018; 9:490. [PMID: 29593734 PMCID: PMC5857529 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The cuprizone (CPZ) model of multiple sclerosis (MS) was used to identify microRNAs (miRNAs) related to in vivo de- and remyelination. We further investigated the role of miR-146a in miR-146a-deficient (KO) mice: this miRNA is differentially expressed in MS lesions and promotes differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) during remyelination, but its role has not been examined during demyelination. Methods MicroRNAs were examined by Agilent Mouse miRNA Microarray in the corpus callosum during CPZ-induced demyelination and remyelination. Demyelination, axonal loss, changes in number of oligodendrocytes, OPCs, and macrophages/microglia was compared by histology/immunohistochemistry between KO and WT mice. Differential expression of target genes and proteins of miR-146a was analyzed in the transcriptome (4 × 44K Agilent Whole Mouse Genome Microarray) and proteome (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry) of CPZ-induced de- and remyelination in WT mice. Levels of proinflammatory molecules in the corpus callosum were compared in WT versus KO mice by Meso Scale Discovery multiplex protein analysis. Results miR-146a was increasingly upregulated during CPZ-induced de- and remyelination. The absence of miR-146a in KO mice protected against demyelination, axonal loss, body weight loss, and atrophy of thymus and spleen. The number of CNP+ oligodendrocytes was increased during demyelination in the miR-146a KO mice, while there was a trend of increased number of NG2+ OPCs in the WT mice. miR-146a target genes, SNAP25 and SMAD4, were downregulated in the proteome of demyelinating corpus callosum in WT mice. Higher levels of SNAP25 were measured by ELISA in the corpus callosum of miR-146a KO mice, but there was no difference between KO and WT mice during demyelination. Multiplex protein analysis of the corpus callosum lysate revealed upregulated TNF-RI, TNF-RII, and CCL2 in the WT mice in contrast to KO mice. The number of Mac3+ and Iba1+ macrophages/microglia was reduced in the demyelinating corpus callosum of the KO mice. Conclusion During demyelination, absence of miR-146a reduced inflammatory responses, demyelination, axonal loss, the number of infiltrating macrophages, and increased the number of myelinating oligodendrocytes. The number of OPCs was slightly higher in the WT mice during remyelination, indicating a complex role of miR-146a during in vivo de- and remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nellie A Martin
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Viktor Molnar
- Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gabor T Szilagyi
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Maria L Elkjaer
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Arkadiusz Nawrocki
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Justyna Okarmus
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Agnieszka Wlodarczyk
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Eva K Thygesen
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Miklos Palkovits
- Laboratory of Neuromorphology and Human Brain Tissue Bank, Microdissection Laboratory, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ferenc Gallyas
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Chemistry, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,Szentagothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,Nuclear-Mitochondrial Interactions Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Martin R Larsen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Hans Lassmann
- Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Eirikur Benedikz
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Trevor Owens
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Asa F Svenningsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Zsolt Illes
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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220
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Low, but not high, dose triptolide controls neuroinflammation and improves behavioral deficits in toxic model of multiple sclerosis by dampening of NF-κB activation and acceleration of intrinsic myelin repair. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018; 342:86-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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221
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Singhal NK, Alkhayer K, Shelestak J, Clements R, Freeman E, McDonough J. Erythropoietin Upregulates Brain Hemoglobin Expression and Supports Neuronal Mitochondrial Activity. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:8051-8058. [PMID: 29498007 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-0971-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuro-inflammatory and demyelinating disease. Downregulation of neuronal mitochondrial gene expression and activity have been reported in several studies of MS. We have previously shown that hemoglobin-β (Hbb) signals to the nucleus of neurons and upregulates H3K4me3, a histone mark involved in regulating cellular metabolism and differentiation. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of erythropoietin (EPO) on the upregulation of hemoglobin and mitochondrial-associated neuroprotection. We found that administering EPO (5000 IU/kg intraperitoneally) to mice upregulated brain Hbb expression, levels of H3K4me3, expression of mitochondrial complex III, complex V, and mitochondrial respiration. We also found that the neuronal mitochondrial metabolite N-acetylaspartate (NAA), a marker of neuronal mitochondrial activity, was increased with EPO treatment. Further, we measured the effects of EPO on preventing mitochondrial deficits in the cuprizone toxic demyelinating mouse model of MS. We found that EPO prevented cuprizone-mediated decreases in Hbb, complex III, and NAA. Our data suggest that EPO mediated regulation of Hbb supports neuronal energetics and may provide neuroprotection in MS and other neurodegenerative diseases where a dysfunction of mitochondria contributes to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Singhal
- Department of Biological Sciences and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA.
| | - K Alkhayer
- Department of Biological Sciences and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA
| | - J Shelestak
- Department of Biological Sciences and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA
| | - R Clements
- Department of Biological Sciences and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA
| | - E Freeman
- Department of Biological Sciences and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA
| | - J McDonough
- Department of Biological Sciences and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, 44242, USA.
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222
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Cuprizone Administration Alters the Iron Metabolism in the Mouse Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2018; 38:1081-1097. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-018-0578-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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223
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Graetz C, Groppa S, Zipp F, Siller N. Preservation of neuronal function as measured by clinical and MRI endpoints in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: how effective are current treatment strategies? Expert Rev Neurother 2018; 18:203-219. [PMID: 29411688 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2018.1438190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Approved medications for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis have shown to be effective in terms of their anti-inflammatory potential. However, it is also crucial to evaluate what long-term effects a patient can expect from current MS drugs in terms of preventing neurodegeneration. Here we aim to provide an overview of the current treatment strategies in MS with a specific focus on potential neuroprotective effects. Areas covered: Randomized, double-blind and placebo or referral-drug controlled phase 2a/b and phase 3 trials were examined; non-blinded phase 4 studies (extension studies) were included to provide long-term data, if not otherwise available. Endpoints considered were expanded disability status scale, various neuropsychological tests, percent brain volume change and T1-hypointense lesions as well as multiple sclerosis functional composite, confirmed disease progression, and no evidence of disease activity. Expert commentary: Overall, neuroprotective functions of classical MS therapeutics are not sufficiently investigated, but available data show limited effects. Thus, further research and development in neuroprotection are warranted. When counselling patients, potential long-term beneficial effects should be presented more conservatively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Graetz
- a Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2) , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz , Mainz , Germany
| | - Sergiu Groppa
- a Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2) , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz , Mainz , Germany
| | - Frauke Zipp
- a Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2) , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz , Mainz , Germany
| | - Nelly Siller
- a Department of Neurology, Focus Program Translational Neuroscience (FTN), Rhine Main Neuroscience Network (rmn2) , University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz , Mainz , Germany
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224
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Bjelobaba I, Begovic-Kupresanin V, Pekovic S, Lavrnja I. Animal models of multiple sclerosis: Focus on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurosci Res 2018; 96:1021-1042. [PMID: 29446144 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) that affects more than two million people worldwide. Several animal models resemble MS pathology; the most employed are experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and toxin- and/or virus-induced demyelination. In this review we will summarize our knowledge on the utility of different animal models in MS research. Although animal models cannot replicate the complexity and heterogeneity of the MS pathology, they have proved to be useful for the development of several drugs approved for treatment of MS patients. This review focuses on EAE because it represents both clinical and pathological features of MS. During the past decades, EAE has been effective in illuminating various pathological processes that occur during MS, including inflammation, CNS penetration, demyelination, axonopathy, and neuron loss mediated by immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Bjelobaba
- Institute for Biological Research "Sinisa Stankovic," Department of Neurobiology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Sanja Pekovic
- Institute for Biological Research "Sinisa Stankovic," Department of Neurobiology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Irena Lavrnja
- Institute for Biological Research "Sinisa Stankovic," Department of Neurobiology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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225
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O'Loughlin E, Madore C, Lassmann H, Butovsky O. Microglial Phenotypes and Functions in Multiple Sclerosis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2018; 8:8/2/a028993. [PMID: 29419406 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a028993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are the resident immune cells that constantly survey the central nervous system. They can adapt to their environment and respond to injury or insult by altering their morphology, phenotype, and functions. It has long been debated whether microglial activation is detrimental or beneficial in multiple sclerosis (MS). Recently, the two opposing yet connected roles of microglial activation have been described with the aid of novel microglial markers, RNA profiling, and in vivo models. In this review, microglial phenotypes and functions in the context of MS will be discussed with evidence from both human pathological studies, in vitro and in vivo models. Microglial functional diversity-phagocytosis, antigen presentation, immunomodulation, support, and repair-will also be examined in detail. In addition, this review discusses the emerging evidence for microglia-related targets as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine O'Loughlin
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Charlotte Madore
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Hans Lassmann
- Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Oleg Butovsky
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115.,Evergrande Center for Immunologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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226
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Gharagozloo M, Gris KV, Mahvelati T, Amrani A, Lukens JR, Gris D. NLR-Dependent Regulation of Inflammation in Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2018; 8:2012. [PMID: 29403486 PMCID: PMC5778124 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.02012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) associated with inappropriate activation of lymphocytes, hyperinflammatory responses, demyelination, and neuronal damage. In the past decade, a number of biological immunomodulators have been developed that suppress the peripheral immune responses and slow down the progression of the disease. However, once the inflammation of the CNS has commenced, it can cause serious permanent neuronal damage. Therefore, there is a need for developing novel therapeutic approaches that control and regulate inflammatory responses within the CNS. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) are intracellular regulators of inflammation expressed by many cell types within the CNS. They redirect multiple signaling pathways initiated by pathogens and molecules released by injured tissues. NLR family members include positive regulators of inflammation, such as NLRP3 and NLRC4 and anti-inflammatory NLRs, such as NLRX1 and NLRP12. They exert immunomodulatory effect at the level of peripheral immune responses, including antigen recognition and lymphocyte activation and differentiation. Also, NLRs regulate tissue inflammatory responses. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that are placed at the crossroad of innate and adaptive immune responses, such as NLR-dependent pathways, could lead to the discovery of new therapeutic targets. In this review, we provide a summary of the role of NLRs in the pathogenesis of MS. We also summarize how anti-inflammatory NLRs regulate the immune response within the CNS. Finally, we speculate the therapeutic potential of targeting NLRs in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjan Gharagozloo
- Program of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, CR-CHUS, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Katsiaryna V. Gris
- Program of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, CR-CHUS, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Tara Mahvelati
- Program of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, CR-CHUS, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Abdelaziz Amrani
- Program of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, CR-CHUS, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - John R. Lukens
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Denis Gris
- Program of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, CR-CHUS, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
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Scott-Hewitt NJ, Folts CJ, Hogestyn JM, Piester G, Mayer-Pröschel M, Noble MD. Heterozygote galactocerebrosidase (GALC) mutants have reduced remyelination and impaired myelin debris clearance following demyelinating injury. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 26:2825-2837. [PMID: 28575206 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies are identifying multiple genetic risk factors for several diseases, but the functional role of these changes remains mostly unknown. Variants in the galactocerebrosidase (GALC) gene, for example, were identified as a risk factor for Multiple Sclerosis (MS); however, the potential biological relevance of GALC variants to MS remains elusive. We found that heterozygote GALC mutant mice have reduced myelin debris clearance and diminished remyelination after a demyelinating insult. We found no histological or behavioral differences between adult wild-type and GALC +/- animals under normal conditions. Following exposure to the demyelinating agent cuprizone, however, GALC +/- animals had significantly reduced remyelination during recovery. In addition, the microglial phagocytic response and elevation of Trem2, both necessary for clearing damaged myelin, were markedly reduced in GALC +/- animals. These altered responses could be corrected in vitro by treatment with NKH-477, a compound discovered as protective in our previous studies on Krabbe disease, which is caused by mutations in both GALC alleles. Our data are the first to show remyelination defects in individuals with a single mutant GALC allele, suggesting such carriers may have increased vulnerability to myelin damage following injury or disease due to inefficient myelin debris clearance. We thus provide a potential functional link between GALC variants and increased MS susceptibility, particularly due to the failure of remyelination associated with progressive MS. Finally, this work demonstrates that genetic variants identified through genome-wide association studies may contribute significantly to complex diseases, not by driving initial symptoms, but by altering repair mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole J Scott-Hewitt
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Christopher J Folts
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Jessica M Hogestyn
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Gavin Piester
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Margot Mayer-Pröschel
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Mark D Noble
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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228
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Scott-Hewitt NJ, Folts CJ, Noble MD. Heterozygous carriers of galactocerebrosidase mutations that cause Krabbe disease have impaired microglial function and defective repair of myelin damage. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:393-401. [PMID: 29623914 PMCID: PMC5900492 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.228712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This review addresses two puzzling findings related to mutations in galactocerebrosidase (GALC) that cause Krabbe disease (KD), a severe lysosomal storage disorder characterized by extensive myelin damage in children with mutations in both GALC alleles. First, heterozygous carriers of KD-causing mutations, which include the biological parents of children with KD, exhibit increased risk for developing other diseases. Second, variants in the GALC locus increase the risk of developing multiple sclerosis (MS), another disease characterized by extensive myelin damage. What explains these correlations? In studies on cuprizone-induced myelin damage in heterozygous (GALC+/–) mice carrying one copy of a mutation that causes KD-like disease, the extent of damage was similar in GALC+/– and wild-type (WT) mice. In contrast, GALC+/- mice had striking defects in repair of cuprizone-induced damage. We further found unexpected microglial defects in myelin debris clearance and in the ability to up-regulate the Trem2 microglial protein critical for debris uptake. These defects were rescued by exposure to a lysosomal re-acidifying drug discovered in our studies on KD, and which provides multiple clinically relevant benefits in the twitcher (GALC+/–) mouse model of KD. Thus, heterozygous GALC mutations cause effects on biological function that may help to understand the increased disease risk in heterozygous carriers of such mutations and to understand why GALC variations increase the risk of MS. Our findings indicate that while some genetic risk factors may contribute to complex diseases by increasing the risk of tissue damage, others may do so by compromising tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole J Scott-Hewitt
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Christopher J Folts
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Mark D Noble
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA
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229
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Jiang T, Zhang L, Pan X, Zheng H, Chen X, Li L, Luo J, Hu X. Physical Exercise Improves Cognitive Function Together with Microglia Phenotype Modulation and Remyelination in Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:404. [PMID: 29311834 PMCID: PMC5743796 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Myelin is closely associated with cognitive function and is extremely vulnerable to damage in ischemic cerebrovascular diseases. The failure of remyelination is mainly due to limitations in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) differentiation in the damaged area. Previous studies have shown that physical exercise can improve vascular cognitive impairment, but whether it can reverse the defect in remyelination during ischemic injury and the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we observed the effects of physical exercise on chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) established by bilateral carotid artery occlusion. The cognitive function, myelin integrity, OPCs proliferation and differentiation, as well as microglia polarization were analyzed at 28 days after CCH. Besides, the expression of CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal cascades were also evaluated. We found that physical exercise improved the cognitive function of rats with CCH, alleviated myelin injury, triggered OPCs proliferation and differentiation, facilitated microglia polarization toward M2, augmented the expression of CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis, and reduced ERK and JNK phosphorylation. The results indicated that physical exercise improved the cognitive function of rats with CCH, possibly through microglial phenotype modulation and enhancement of oligodendrocytegenesis and remyelination. Moreover, the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis played an important role in this process by mediating ERK- and JNK-dependent pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Jiang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liying Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaona Pan
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Haiqing Zheng
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lili Li
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiquan Hu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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230
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Murakami M, Nagahama M, Abe Y, Niikura T. Humanin affects object recognition and gliosis in short-term cuprizone-treated mice. Neuropeptides 2017; 66:90-96. [PMID: 29070438 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Humanin (HN) is a 24-residue peptide that manipulates cell survival under various stresses. A highly potent HN derivative, HNG, reduced amyloid burden and neuroinflammation and suppressed cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease model mice. Cuprizone (CPZ), a copper chelator, provokes demyelination in the central nervous system of mice. A shorter (one week) exposure to CPZ induces schizophrenia-like behavior and glial activation prior to demyelination. We tested the effect of HNG on these short-term responses to CZP in mice. Intraperitoneal injection of HNG for one week improved object recognition memory but not working memory in CPZ-treated mice. Quantitative PCR analyses showed that HNG significantly suppressed CPZ-induced activation of microglia, but did not alter the reduced level of a myelin-specific transcript. These results suggest that HN can suppress neuroinflammation and the associated cognitive deficit in a wider range of neurological disorders beyond Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minetaka Murakami
- Department of Information and Communication Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Nagahama
- Department of Information and Communication Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Japan
| | - Yoichiro Abe
- Department of Pharmacology, Keio University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Takako Niikura
- Department of Information and Communication Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University, Japan.
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Sanadgol N, Golab F, Tashakkor Z, Taki N, Moradi Kouchi S, Mostafaie A, Mehdizadeh M, Abdollahi M, Taghizadeh G, Sharifzadeh M. Neuroprotective effects of ellagic acid on cuprizone-induced acute demyelination through limitation of microgliosis, adjustment of CXCL12/IL-17/IL-11 axis and restriction of mature oligodendrocytes apoptosis. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2017; 55:1679-1687. [PMID: 28447514 PMCID: PMC6130560 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2017.1319867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2016] [Revised: 10/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Ellagic acid (EA) is a natural phenol antioxidant with various therapeutic activities. However, the efficacy of EA has not been examined in neuropathologic conditions. OBJECTIVE In vivo neuroprotective effects of EA on cuprizone (cup)-induced demyelination were evaluated. MATERIAL AND METHODS C57BL/6 J mice were fed with chow containing 0.2% cup for 4 weeks to induce oligodendrocytes (OLGs) depletion predominantly in the corpus callosum (CC). EA was administered at different doses (40 or 80 mg/kg body weight/day/i.p.) from the first day of cup diet. Oligodendrocytes apoptosis [TUNEL assay and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG+)/caspase-3+ cells), gliosis (H&E staining, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP+) and macrophage-3 (Mac-3+) cells) and inflammatory markers (interleukin 17 (IL-17), interleukin 11 (IL-11) and stromal cell-derived factor 1 α (SDF-1α) or CXCL12] during cup intoxication were examined. RESULTS High dose of EA (EA-80) increased mature oligodendrocytes population (MOG+ cells, p < 0.001), and decreased apoptosis (p < 0.05) compared with the cup mice. Treatment with both EA doses did not show any considerable effects on the expression of CXCL12, but significantly down-regulated the expression of IL-17 and up-regulated the expression of IL-11 in mRNA levels compared with the cup mice. Only treatment with EA-80 significantly decreased the population of active macrophage (MAC-3+ cells, p < 0.001) but not reactive astrocytes (GFAP+ cells) compared with the cup mice. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION In this model, EA-80 effectively reduces lesions via reduction of neuroinflammation and toxic effects of cup on mature OLGs. EA is a suitable therapeutic agent for moderate brain damage in neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nima Sanadgol
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran
| | - Fereshteh Golab
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zakiyeh Tashakkor
- MSc in Cell and Developmental Biology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nooshin Taki
- MSc in Cell and Developmental Biology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Samira Moradi Kouchi
- MSc in Cell and Developmental Biology, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Mostafaie
- Medical Biology Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mehdi Mehdizadeh
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Abdollahi
- Toxicology and Diseases Group, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ghorban Taghizadeh
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sharifzadeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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232
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Berghoff SA, Düking T, Spieth L, Winchenbach J, Stumpf SK, Gerndt N, Kusch K, Ruhwedel T, Möbius W, Saher G. Blood-brain barrier hyperpermeability precedes demyelination in the cuprizone model. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2017; 5:94. [PMID: 29195512 PMCID: PMC5710130 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-017-0497-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In neuroinflammatory disorders such as multiple sclerosis, the physiological function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is perturbed, particularly in demyelinating lesions and supposedly secondary to acute demyelinating pathology. Using the toxic non-inflammatory cuprizone model of demyelination, we demonstrate, however, that the onset of persistent BBB impairment precedes demyelination. In addition to a direct effect of cuprizone on endothelial cells, a plethora of inflammatory mediators, which are mainly of astroglial origin during the initial disease phase, likely contribute to the destabilization of endothelial barrier function in vivo. Our study reveals that, at different time points of pathology and in different CNS regions, the level of gliosis correlates with the extent of BBB hyperpermeability and edema. Furthermore, in mutant mice with abolished type 3 CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR3) signaling, inflammatory responses are dampened and BBB dysfunction ameliorated. Together, these data have implications for understanding the role of BBB permeability in the pathogenesis of demyelinating disease.
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233
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Yu Q, Hui R, Park J, Huang Y, Kusnecov AW, Dreyfus CF, Zhou R. Strain differences in cuprizone induced demyelination. Cell Biosci 2017; 7:59. [PMID: 29142736 PMCID: PMC5670722 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-017-0181-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a severe neurological disorder, characterized by demyelination of the central nervous system (CNS), and with a prevalence of greater than 2 million people worldwide. In terms of research in MS pathology, the cuprizone toxicity model is widely used. Here we investigated the contribution of genetic differences in response to cuprizone-induced demyelination in two genetically different mouse strains: CD1 and C57BL/6. Results We demonstrate that exposure to a diet containing 0.2% cuprizone resulted in less severe demyelination in the midline of the corpus callosum over the fornix in CD1 mice than C57BL/6 mice. With continuous cuprizone feeding, demyelination in CD1 mice was not prominent until after 7 weeks, in contrast to C57BL/6 mice, which showed prominent demyelination after 4 weeks of exposure. Concomitantly, immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated more oligodendrocytes, as well as fewer oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, microglia and astrocytes in cuprizone treated CD1 mice. We also analyzed 4-weeks-cuprizone treated corpus callosum tissue samples and found that cuprizone treated CD1 mice showed a smaller reduction of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) and a smaller increase of Iba1 and NG2. Conclusions These observations suggest that CD1 mice are less vulnerable to cuprizone-induced demyelination than C57BL/6 mice and thus genetic background factors appear to influence the susceptibility to cuprizone-induced demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qili Yu
- Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
| | - Ryan Hui
- Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
| | - Jiyoung Park
- Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
| | - Yangyang Huang
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
| | - Alexander W Kusnecov
- Department of Psychology, School of Arts and Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
| | - Cheryl F Dreyfus
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
| | - Renping Zhou
- Department of Chemical Biology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA.,School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020 China.,International Healthcare Innovation Institute (Jiangmen), Jiangmen, 529000 China
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234
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Sun ZY, Gu HS, Chen X, Zhang L, Li XM, Zhang JW, Li L. A novel flavanone derivative ameliorates cuprizone-induced behavioral changes and white matter pathology in the brain of mice. Psychiatry Res 2017; 257:249-259. [PMID: 28783571 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.07.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Revised: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that white matter lesions play an important role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. DHF-6 is a novel flavanone derivative synthesized in our laboratory. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of DHF-6 on behavioral changes and white matter pathology in a 0.2% cuprizone-fed C57BL/6 mice model. The results showed that cuprizone induced a decrease in spontaneous alternations in the Y-maze test, an increase in locomotor activity in the open field test, demyelination determined by electron microscopy, a decline in the expression of myelin basic protein (MBP), a decrease in the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) into mature oligodendrocytes (OLs), and an activation of microglia and astrocytes in the corpus callosum measured by western blot and/or immunocytochemical analyses. Intragastric administration of DHF-6 (25 and 50mg/kg) for 5-weeks increased the spontaneous alternations, reduced locomotor activity, reversed demyelination and MBP decrease, promoted OPCs differentiation into mature OLs, and inhibited the activation of microglia and astrocytes. These results suggest that DHF-6 may improve cognitive impairment and the positive symptoms of schizophrenia by alleviating white matter lesions via facilitating remyelination and inhibiting neuroinflammation, thus may be beneficial in the treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Yu Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nerve System Drugs, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Hong-Shun Gu
- Department of Pharmacology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nerve System Drugs, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nerve System Drugs, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Lan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nerve System Drugs, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Xin-Min Li
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2R3
| | - Jian-Wei Zhang
- School of Chemical Biology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.
| | - Lin Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nerve System Drugs, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China.
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235
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Palle P, Monaghan KL, Milne SM, Wan ECK. Cytokine Signaling in Multiple Sclerosis and Its Therapeutic Applications. Med Sci (Basel) 2017; 5:medsci5040023. [PMID: 29099039 PMCID: PMC5753652 DOI: 10.3390/medsci5040023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most common neurological disorders in young adults. The etiology of MS is not known but it is widely accepted that it is autoimmune in nature. Disease onset is believed to be initiated by the activation of CD4+ T cells that target autoantigens of the central nervous system (CNS) and their infiltration into the CNS, followed by the expansion of local and infiltrated peripheral effector myeloid cells that create an inflammatory milieu within the CNS, which ultimately lead to tissue damage and demyelination. Clinical studies have shown that progression of MS correlates with the abnormal expression of certain cytokines. The use of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model further delineates the role of these cytokines in neuroinflammation and the therapeutic potential of manipulating their biological activity in vivo. In this review, we will first present an overview on cytokines that may contribute to the pathogenesis of MS or EAE, and provide successful examples and roadblock of translating data obtained from EAE to MS. We will then focus in depth on recent findings that demonstrate the pathological role of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in MS and EAE, and briefly discuss the potential of targeting effector myeloid cells as a treatment strategy for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pushpalatha Palle
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
- Center for Basic and Translational Stroke Research and the Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
| | - Kelly L Monaghan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
- Center for Basic and Translational Stroke Research and the Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
| | - Sarah M Milne
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
- Center for Basic and Translational Stroke Research and the Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
| | - Edwin C K Wan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
- Center for Basic and Translational Stroke Research and the Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
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236
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Yamazaki R, Baba H, Yamaguchi Y. Unconventional Myosin ID is Involved in Remyelination After Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination. Neurochem Res 2017; 43:195-204. [PMID: 28986688 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-017-2413-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Myelin, which is a multilamellar structure that sheathes the axon, is essential for normal neuronal function. In the central nervous system (CNS), myelin is produced by oligodendrocytes (OLs), which wrap their plasma membrane around axons. The dynamic membrane trafficking system, which relies on motor proteins, is required for myelin formation and maintenance. Previously, we reported that myosin ID (Myo1d) is distributed in rat CNS myelin and is especially enriched in the outer and inner cytoplasm-containing loops. Further, small interfering RNA (siRNA) treatment highlighted the involvement of Myo1d in the formation and maintenance of myelin in cultured OLs. Myo1d is one of the unconventional myosins, which may contribute to membrane dynamics, either in the wrapping process or transport of myelin membrane proteins during myelination. However, the function of Myo1d in myelin formation in vivo remains unclear. In the current study, to clarify the function of Myo1d in vivo, we surgically injected siRNA in the corpus callosum of a cuprizone-treated demyelination mouse model via stereotaxy. Knockdown of Myo1d expression in vivo decreased the intensities of myelin basic protein and myelin proteolipid protein immunofluorescence staining. However, neural/glial antigen 2-positive signals and adenomatous polyposis coli (APC/CC1)-positive cell numbers were unchanged by siRNA treatment. Furthermore, Myo1d knockdown treatment increased pro-inflammatory microglia and astrocytes during remyelination. In contrast, anti-inflammatory microglia were decreased. The percentage of caspase 3-positive cells in total CC1-positive OLs were also increased by Myo1d knockdown. These results indicated that Myo1d plays an important role during the regeneration process after demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiji Yamazaki
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432-1 Horinouchi, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan
| | - Hiroko Baba
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432-1 Horinouchi, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan
| | - Yoshihide Yamaguchi
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432-1 Horinouchi, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan.
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237
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Mullin AP, Cui C, Wang Y, Wang J, Troy E, Caggiano AO, Parry TJ, Colburn RW, Pavlopoulos E. rHIgM22 enhances remyelination in the brain of the cuprizone mouse model of demyelination. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 105:142-155. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
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Torre-Fuentes L, Moreno-Jiménez L, Pytel V, Matías-Guiu JA, Gómez-Pinedo U, Matías-Guiu J. Experimental models of demyelination and remyelination. Neurologia 2017; 35:32-39. [PMID: 28863829 PMCID: PMC7115679 DOI: 10.1016/j.nrl.2017.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Introducción El uso de modelos experimentales en animales permite aumentar el conocimiento sobre la patología del sistema nervioso central. Sin embargo, en la esclerosis múltiple, no existe un modelo que permita una visión general de la enfermedad, de forma que es necesario utilizar una variedad de modelos que abarquen los distintos cambios que se producen. Desarrollo Se revisan los distintos modelos experimentales que pueden ser utilizados en la investigación en la esclerosis múltiple, tanto in vitro como in vivo. En relación a los modelos in vitro se analizan los distintos cultivos celulares y sus potenciales modificaciones así como los modelos en rodajas. En los modelos in vivo, se analizan los modelos de base inmune-inflamatoria como la encefalitis alérgica experimental en los distintos animales, además de las enfermedades desmielinizantes por virus. Por otro lado, se analizan los modelos de desmielinización-remielinización incluyéndose las lesiones químicas por cuprizona, lisolecitina, bromuro de etidio, así como el modelo de zebrafish y los modelos transgénicos. Conclusiones Los modelos experimentales nos permiten acercarnos al conocimiento de los diversos mecanismos que ocurren en la esclerosis múltiple. La utilización de cada uno de ellos depende de los objetivos de investigación que planteen.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Torre-Fuentes
- Servicio de Neurología, Instituto de Neurociencias, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, España.
| | - L Moreno-Jiménez
- Servicio de Neurología, Instituto de Neurociencias, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, España
| | - V Pytel
- Servicio de Neurología, Instituto de Neurociencias, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, España
| | - J A Matías-Guiu
- Servicio de Neurología, Instituto de Neurociencias, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, España
| | - U Gómez-Pinedo
- Servicio de Neurología, Instituto de Neurociencias, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, España
| | - J Matías-Guiu
- Servicio de Neurología, Instituto de Neurociencias, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, España
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239
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Araújo SES, Mendonça HR, Wheeler NA, Campello-Costa P, Jacobs KM, Gomes FCA, Fox MA, Fuss B. Inflammatory demyelination alters subcortical visual circuits. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:162. [PMID: 28821276 PMCID: PMC5562979 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0936-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease classically associated with axonal damage and loss; more recently, however, synaptic changes have been recognized as additional contributing factors. An anatomical area commonly affected in MS is the visual pathway; yet, changes other than those associated with inflammatory demyelination of the optic nerve, i.e., optic neuritis, have not been described in detail. Methods Adult mice were subjected to a diet containing cuprizone to mimic certain aspects of inflammatory demyelination as seen in MS. Demyelination and inflammation were assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. Synaptic changes associated with inflammatory demyelination in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) were determined by immunohistochemistry, Western blot analysis, and electrophysiological field potential recordings. Results In the cuprizone model, demyelination was observed in retinorecipient regions of the subcortical visual system, in particular the dLGN, where it was found accompanied by microglia activation and astrogliosis. In contrast, anterior parts of the pathway, i.e., the optic nerve and tract, appeared largely unaffected. Under the inflammatory demyelinating conditions, as seen in the dLGN of cuprizone-treated mice, there was an overall decrease in excitatory synaptic inputs from retinal ganglion cells. At the same time, the number of synaptic complexes arising from gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-generating inhibitory neurons was found increased, as were the synapses that contain the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunit GluN2B and converge onto inhibitory neurons. These synaptic changes were functionally found associated with a shift toward an overall increase in network inhibition. Conclusions Using the cuprizone model of inflammatory demyelination, our data reveal a novel form of synaptic (mal)adaption in the CNS that is characterized by a shift of the excitation/inhibition balance toward inhibitory network activity associated with an increase in GABAergic inhibitory synapses and a possible increase in excitatory input onto inhibitory interneurons. In addition, our data recognize the cuprizone model as a suitable tool in which to assess the effects of inflammatory demyelination on subcortical retinorecipient regions of the visual system, such as the dLGN, in the absence of overt optic neuritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila Espírito Santo Araújo
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA.,Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto de Biologia, Programa de Neurociências, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil.,Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Henrique Rocha Mendonça
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA.,Instituto de Biologia, Programa de Neurociências, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Natalie A Wheeler
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Paula Campello-Costa
- Instituto de Biologia, Programa de Neurociências, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Kimberle M Jacobs
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Flávia C A Gomes
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Michael A Fox
- Developmental and Translational Neurobiology Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, USA
| | - Babette Fuss
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA.
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240
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Oyagbemi AA, Omobowale TO, Ochigbo GO, Asenuga ER, Ola-Davies OE, Ajibade TO, Saba AB, Adedapo AA. Polyphenol-Rich Fraction of Parquetina nigrescens Mitigates Dichlorvos-Induced Cardiorenal Dysfunction Through Reduction in Cardiac Nitrotyrosine and Renal p38 Expressions in Wistar Rats. J Diet Suppl 2017; 15:269-284. [DOI: 10.1080/19390211.2017.1336148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ademola A. Oyagbemi
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Temidayo O. Omobowale
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Grace O. Ochigbo
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Ebunoluwa R. Asenuga
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
| | - Olufunke Eunice Ola-Davies
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Temitayo O. Ajibade
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Adebowale B. Saba
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Adeolu A. Adedapo
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
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241
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Hyperpolarized 13C MR metabolic imaging can detect neuroinflammation in vivo in a multiple sclerosis murine model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E6982-E6991. [PMID: 28760957 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1613345114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Proinflammatory mononuclear phagocytes (MPs) play a crucial role in the progression of multiple sclerosis (MS) and other neurodegenerative diseases. Despite advances in neuroimaging, there are currently limited available methods enabling noninvasive detection of MPs in vivo. Interestingly, upon activation and subsequent differentiation toward a proinflammatory phenotype MPs undergo metabolic reprogramming that results in increased glycolysis and production of lactate. Hyperpolarized (HP) 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) is a clinically translatable imaging method that allows noninvasive monitoring of metabolic pathways in real time. This method has proven highly useful to monitor the Warburg effect in cancer, through MR detection of increased HP [1-13C]pyruvate-to-lactate conversion. However, to date, this method has never been applied to the study of neuroinflammation. Here, we questioned the potential of 13C MRSI of HP [1-13C]pyruvate to monitor the presence of neuroinflammatory lesions in vivo in the cuprizone mouse model of MS. First, we demonstrated that 13C MRSI could detect a significant increase in HP [1-13C]pyruvate-to-lactate conversion, which was associated with a high density of proinflammatory MPs. We further demonstrated that the increase in HP [1-13C]lactate was likely mediated by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 up-regulation in activated MPs, resulting in regional pyruvate dehydrogenase inhibition. Altogether, our results demonstrate a potential for 13C MRSI of HP [1-13C]pyruvate as a neuroimaging method for assessment of inflammatory lesions. This approach could prove useful not only in MS but also in other neurological diseases presenting inflammatory components.
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242
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Campbell A, Hogestyn JM, Folts CJ, Lopez B, Pröschel C, Mock D, Mayer-Pröschel M. Expression of the Human Herpesvirus 6A Latency-Associated Transcript U94A Disrupts Human Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Migration. Sci Rep 2017. [PMID: 28638124 PMCID: PMC5479784 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04432-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Progression of demyelinating diseases is caused by an imbalance of two opposing processes: persistent destruction of myelin and myelin repair by differentiating oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). Repair that cannot keep pace with destruction results in progressive loss of myelin. Viral infections have long been suspected to be involved in these processes but their specific role remains elusive. Here we describe a novel mechanism by which HHV-6A, a member of the human herpesvirus family, may contribute to inadequate myelin repair after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Campbell
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, NY, 14642, USA.,Environmental Health Science Center, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
| | - Jessica M Hogestyn
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, NY, 14642, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
| | - Christopher J Folts
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital/Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Brittany Lopez
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, NY, 14642, USA
| | - Christoph Pröschel
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, NY, 14642, USA
| | - David Mock
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, NY, 14642, USA.
| | - Margot Mayer-Pröschel
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, NY, 14642, USA. .,Environmental Health Science Center, University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 633, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA.
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243
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Hainz N, Becker P, Rapp D, Wagenpfeil S, Wonnenberg B, Beisswenger C, Tschernig T, Meier C. Probenecid-treatment reduces demyelination induced by cuprizone feeding. J Chem Neuroanat 2017. [PMID: 28629631 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Recent experiments showed that a pannexin-1 inhibitor, probenecid, reduced clinical symptoms in the murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis when applied during the initial phase of neuronal inflammation. An inflammatory component is also present in a toxically induced inflammation and demyelination using cuprizone diet. Probenecid is a pannexin-1 antagonist and a probenecid therapy was investigated. Mice were fed for 10days with a cuprizone diet. In the following, the diet was continued but combined with a daily injection of a low dose of probenecid or solvent for 10days. Electron microscopy revealed demyelination in the optic nerve. The demyelination as measured by the axonal diameter was significantly reduced in the animals treated with 100mg per kg body weight probenecid. In comparison to controls, the number of leukocytes and lymphocytes in the peripheral blood was reduced in all cuprizone groups including the treatment group. In conclusion, early demyelination in the optic nerve was moderately reduced by 10days treatment with a low dose probenecid. This is a hint for the involvement of pannexin-1 modulated inflammation in cuprizone feeding induced toxic demyelination. Thus, probenecid is a candidate for the treatment of neuro-inflammation and multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Hainz
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland University, Germany
| | - Philipp Becker
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland University, Germany
| | - Daniel Rapp
- Institute for Medical Biometry, Epidemiology and Medical Informatics, Saarland University, Germany
| | - Stefan Wagenpfeil
- Institute for Medical Biometry, Epidemiology and Medical Informatics, Saarland University, Germany
| | - Bodo Wonnenberg
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland University, Germany
| | - Christoph Beisswenger
- Department of Internal Medicine V - Pulmonology, Allergology and Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, Saarland University, Germany
| | - Thomas Tschernig
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland University, Germany.
| | - Carola Meier
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland University, Germany
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244
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Zhang Y, Yin L, Zheng N, Zhang L, Liu J, Liang W, Wang Q. Icariin enhances remyelination process after acute demyelination induced by cuprizone exposure. Brain Res Bull 2017; 130:180-187. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2017.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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245
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Multiple functional therapeutic effects of TnP: A small stable synthetic peptide derived from fish venom in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0171796. [PMID: 28235052 PMCID: PMC5325231 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathological condition of multiple sclerosis (MS) relies on innate and adaptive immunity. New types of agents that beneficially modify the course of MS, stopping the progression and repairing the damage appear promising. Here, we studied TnP, a small stable synthetic peptide derived from fish venom in the control of inflammation and demyelination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis as prophylactic treatment. TnP decreased the number of the perivascular infiltrates in spinal cord, and the activity of MMP-9 by F4/80+ macrophages were decreased after different regimen treatments. TnP reduces in the central nervous system the infiltration of IFN-γ-producing Th1 and IL-17A-producing Th17 cells. Also, treatment with therapeutic TnP promotes the emergence of functional Treg in the central nervous system entirely dependent on IL-10. Therapeutic TnP treatment accelerates the remyelination process in a cuprizone model of demyelination. These findings support the beneficial effects of TnP and provides a new therapeutic opportunity for the treatment of MS.
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246
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Zhang J, Zhang ZG, Lu M, Wang X, Shang X, Elias SB, Chopp M. MiR-146a promotes remyelination in a cuprizone model of demyelinating injury. Neuroscience 2017; 348:252-263. [PMID: 28237816 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The death of mature oligodendrocytes (OLs) which are the sole myelinating cells of the central nervous system (CNS), leads to demyelination and functional deficits. Currently, there is lack of effective remyelination therapies for patients with demyelinating diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) mediate OL function. We hypothesized that miR-146a, by inactivating interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1), promotes differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) and thereby enhances remyelination. To test this hypothesis, a demyelination model induced by a cuprizone (CPZ) diet was employed, in which C57BL/6J mice were fed with a CPZ diet for 5weeks. After termination of CPZ diet, the mice were randomly treated with continuous infusion of miR-146a mimics or mimic controls into the corpus callosum for 7days. Compared to the mimic control, infusion of miR-146a mimics facilitated remyelination assessed by increased myelin basic proteins in the corpus callosum, which was associated with augmentation of newly generated mature OLs. Infusion of miR-146a mimics also substantially elevated miR-146a levels in the corpus callosum and fluorescently tagged miR-146a mimics were mainly detected in OPCs. Western blot and double immmunofluorescent staining analysis showed that the miR-146a treatment considerably reduced IRAK1 protein levels and the number of IRAK1-positive cells, respectively. Collectively, these data indicate that exogenous miR-146a enhances remyelination, possibly by promoting OPCs to differentiate into myelinated OLs via targeting IRAK1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, United States.
| | - Zheng Gang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Mei Lu
- Biostatistics and Research Epidemiology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Xinli Wang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Xia Shang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Stanton B Elias
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Michael Chopp
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, United States; Department of Physics, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, United States
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247
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Jäkel S, Dimou L. Glial Cells and Their Function in the Adult Brain: A Journey through the History of Their Ablation. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:24. [PMID: 28243193 PMCID: PMC5303749 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Glial cells, consisting of microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocyte lineage cells as their major components, constitute a large fraction of the mammalian brain. Originally considered as purely non-functional glue for neurons, decades of research have highlighted the importance as well as further functions of glial cells. Although many aspects of these cells are well characterized nowadays, the functions of the different glial populations in the brain under both physiological and pathological conditions remain, at least to a certain extent, unresolved. To tackle these important questions, a broad range of depletion approaches have been developed in which microglia, astrocytes, or oligodendrocyte lineage cells (i.e., NG2-glia and oligodendrocytes) are specifically ablated from the adult brain network with a subsequent analysis of the consequences. As the different glial populations are very heterogeneous, it is imperative to specifically ablate single cell populations instead of inducing cell death in all glial cells in general. Thanks to modern genetic manipulation methods, the approaches can now directly be targeted to the cell type of interest making the ablation more specific compared to general cell ablation approaches that have been used earlier on. In this review, we will give a detailed summary on different glial ablation studies, focusing on the adult mouse central nervous system and the functional readouts. We will also provide an outlook on how these approaches could be further exploited in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jäkel
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians UniversityMunich, Germany; MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, UK
| | - Leda Dimou
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians UniversityMunich, Germany; Munich Cluster for Systems NeurologyMunich, Germany; Molecular and Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, University of UlmUlm, Germany
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248
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Lassmann H, Bradl M. Multiple sclerosis: experimental models and reality. Acta Neuropathol 2017; 133:223-244. [PMID: 27766432 PMCID: PMC5250666 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-016-1631-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 342] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
One of the most frequent statements, provided in different variations in the introduction of experimental studies on multiple sclerosis (MS), is that "Multiple sclerosis is a demyelinating autoimmune disease and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a suitable model to study its pathogenesis". However, so far, no single experimental model covers the entire spectrum of the clinical, pathological, or immunological features of the disease. Many different models are available, which proved to be highly useful for studying different aspects of inflammation, demyelination, remyelination, and neurodegeneration in the central nervous system. However, the relevance of results from such models for MS pathogenesis has to be critically validated. Current EAE models are mainly based on inflammation, induced by auto-reactive CD4+ T-cells, and these models reflect important aspects of MS. However, pathological data and results from clinical trials in MS indicate that CD8+ T-cells and B-lymphocytes may play an important role in propagating inflammation and tissue damage in established MS. Viral models may reflect key features of MS-like inflammatory demyelination, but are difficult to use due to their very complex pathogenesis, involving direct virus-induced and immune-mediated mechanisms. Furthermore, evidence for a role of viruses in MS pathogenesis is indirect and limited, and an MS-specific virus infection has not been identified so far. Toxic models are highly useful to unravel mechanisms of de- and remyelination, but do not reflect other important aspects of MS pathology and pathogenesis. For all these reasons, it is important to select the right experimental model to answer specific questions in MS research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Lassmann
- Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Spitalgasse 4, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Monika Bradl
- Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Spitalgasse 4, 1090, Vienna, Austria
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249
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Lapato AS, Szu JI, Hasselmann JPC, Khalaj AJ, Binder DK, Tiwari-Woodruff SK. Chronic demyelination-induced seizures. Neuroscience 2017; 346:409-422. [PMID: 28153692 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.01.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) patients are three to six times more likely to develop epilepsy compared to the rest of the population. Seizures are more common in patients with early onset or progressive forms of the disease and prognosticate rapid progression to disability and death. Gray matter atrophy, hippocampal lesions, interneuron loss, and elevated juxtacortical lesion burden have been identified in MS patients with seizures; however, translational studies aimed at elucidating the pathophysiological processes underlying MS epileptogenesis are limited. Here, we report that cuprizone-mediated chronically demyelinated (9-12weeks) mice exhibit marked changes to dorsal hippocampal electroencephalography (EEG) and evidence of overt seizure activity. Immunohistochemical (IHC) analyses within the hippocampal CA1 region revealed extensive demyelination, loss of parvalbumin (PV+) interneurons, widespread gliosis, and changes in aquaporin-4 (AQP4) expression. Our results suggest that chronically demyelinated mice are a valuable model with which we may begin to understand the mechanisms underlying demyelination-induced seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Lapato
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Jenny I Szu
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Jonathan P C Hasselmann
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Anna J Khalaj
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Devin K Binder
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Seema K Tiwari-Woodruff
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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250
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Espitia Pinzon N, Sanz-Morello B, Brevé JJP, Bol JGJM, Drukarch B, Bauer J, Baron W, van Dam AM. Astrocyte-derived tissue Transglutaminase affects fibronectin deposition, but not aggregation, during cuprizone-induced demyelination. Sci Rep 2017; 7:40995. [PMID: 28128219 PMCID: PMC5269585 DOI: 10.1038/srep40995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrogliosis as seen in Multiple Sclerosis (MS) develops into astroglial scarring, which is beneficial because it seals off the site of central nervous system (CNS) damage. However, astroglial scarring also forms an obstacle that inhibits axon outgrowth and (re)myelination in brain lesions. This is possibly an important cause for incomplete remyelination in the CNS of early stage MS patients and for failure in remyelination when the disease progresses. In this study we address whether under demyelinating conditions in vivo, tissue Transglutaminase (TG2), a Ca2+ -dependent enzyme that catalyses posttranslational modification of proteins, contributes to extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition and/or aggregation. We used the cuprizone model for de- and remyelination. TG2 immunoreactivity and enzymatic activity time-dependently appeared in astrocytes and ECM, respectively, in the corpus callosum of cuprizone-treated mice. Enhanced presence of soluble monomeric and multimeric fibronectin was detected during demyelination, and fibronectin immunoreactivity was slightly decreased in cuprizone-treated TG2-/- mice. In vitro TG2 overexpression in astrocytes coincided with more, while knock-down of TG2 with less fibronectin production. TG2 contributes, at least partly, to fibronectin production, and may play a role in fibronectin deposition during cuprizone-induced demyelination. Our observations are of interest in understanding the functional implications of TG2 during astrogliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaly Espitia Pinzon
- VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Dept. Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Berta Sanz-Morello
- VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Dept. Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - John J. P. Brevé
- VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Dept. Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - John G. J. M. Bol
- VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Dept. Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin Drukarch
- VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Dept. Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Bauer
- Center for Brain Research, Dept. Neuroimmunology, Vienna, A-1090, Austria
| | - Wia Baron
- University Medical Center Groningen, Dept. of Cell Biology, Groningen, 9713 AV, The Netherlands
| | - Anne-Marie van Dam
- VU University Medical Center, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Dept. Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
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