Age-related change in executive function: developmental trends and a latent variable analysis

Contrasting executive function development among primary school children from Hong Kong and Germany

Previous research findings indicate that young children from East Asia outperform their counterparts from Europe and North America on executive function (EF) tasks. However, very few cross-national studies have focused on EF development during middle childhood. The current study assessed the EF performance of 170 children in grades 2 and 4 from Hong Kong (n = 80) and Germany (n = 90) in a cross-sectional design. Children completed tasks assessing the main components of EF, namely inhibition (child-friendly Stroop task), updating (Object Span task), and shifting (Contingency Naming task). Results of multilevel models showed that all three EF measures differentiated well between younger and older children across the full sample. However, contrary to our hypothesis and previous research, we did not find any significant differences in EF performance between children from Hong Kong and Germany at primary school age. Our findings highlight the possibility that issues related to the measurement of EF and features specific to Hong Kong and Germany underlie our results.

Do cognitive training applications improve executive function in children with adverse childhood experiences? A pilot study

Executive function (EF) is comprised of inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility, core components which more complex skills and abilities develop from, including problem solving, reasoning and planning. Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) negatively impact the development of these skills and in turn life outcomes. This pilot-study explores the use of computerized cognitive training applications (CCTA) (software-based training programs) in school, to improve these skills in children aged 6-11 with ACE. A pre-post-test, between-subject experimental design using an experimental and a placebo-control group was used. The control group were matched to the experimental group by prior academic attainment level and age. A one-way multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) assessed changes in EF across two time-points between the experimental and the control group. Both groups of participants were selected based on an ACE parent-report questionnaire score of 4+ (n = 32). EF was measured using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), assessing far-transfer of training to behavioral measures of EF. Results show CCTA had a significant positive impact on executive function, particularly on working memory. This small-scale pilot study presents exciting directions for future research into the role of CCTA in order to confirm conclusions drawn.

A Lifespan Model of Interference Resolution and Inhibitory Control: Risk for Depression and Changes with Illness Progression

The cognitive processes involved in inhibitory control accuracy (IC) and interference resolution speed (IR) or broadly - inhibition - are discussed in this review, and both are described within the context of a lifespan model of mood disorders. Inhibitory control (IC) is a binary outcome (success or no for response selection and inhibition of unwanted responses) for any given event that is influenced to an extent by IR. IR refers to the process of inhibition, which can be manipulated by task design in earlier and later stages through use of distractors and timing, and manipulation of individual differences in response proclivity. We describe the development of these two processes across the lifespan, noting factors that influence this development (e.g., environment, adversity and stress) as well as inherent difficulties in assessing IC/IR prior to adulthood (e.g., cross-informant reports). We use mood disorders as an illustrative example of how this multidimensional construct can be informative to state, trait, vulnerability and neuroprogression of disease. We present aggregated data across numerous studies and methodologies to examine the lifelong development and degradation of this subconstruct of executive function, particularly in mood disorders. We highlight the challenges in identifying and measuring IC/IR in late life, including specificity to complex, comorbid disease processes. Finally, we discuss some potential avenues for treatment and accommodation of these difficulties across the lifespan, including newer treatments using cognitive remediation training and neuromodulation.

The direct and indirect impact of trauma types and cumulative stressors and traumas on executive functions

The goal was to measure the effects of trauma types, cumulative trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), existential annihilation anxiety (EAA), and posttraumatic growth (PTG) on executive functions. The study sample consists of 1155 from Egypt and Kuwait. Measures included adults working memory deficits (WMD) and inhibition deficits (ID), and cumulative stressors and traumas (CST) and trauma types, PTSD, EAA, and PTG. We used Stepwise regression and PROCESS macro to analyze the data. Results indicated that survival and cumulative traumas have direct effects on a lower WMD and ID, attachment traumas and gender discrimination by parents have direct impacts on higher WMD and ID, while personal identity, status identity, secondary trauma, gender discrimination by society, community violence do not have any direct effects on WMD or ID. All traumas have indirect effects on higher WMD or/and ID via PTSD. Gender discrimination by society, community violence, and CST has an additional indirect higher impact on WMD and ID via EAA. There were indirect trajectories from survival trauma, personal identity, status identity trauma, secondary trauma, gender discrimination by society, and CST on lower WMD or/and ID via PTG. Attachment trauma, gender discrimination by parents, perpetration traumas, and community violence were not associated with PTG and its trajectories of lower WMD or/and ID. We discussed the research and clinical implication for these results.

Global Cognitive Functioning versus Controlled Functioning throughout the Stages of Development

According to the All or None Hypothesis (Diamond, 2009), the cognitive system can operate in a global manner that is not very discriminate or in a more discriminate mode that demands greater precision, control, and cognitive effort. There are five corollaries to this hypothesis that describe, in an operative way, the conditions under which the controlled mode of functioning in the cognitive domain can be activated and thus tested. Given the impact this theory has generated and the absence of studies analyzing the corollaries in a collective and systematic way at different stages of development, this study was proposed, first of all, to test three of these corollaries in children, adolescents and adults and, secondly, to analyze the changes in the controlled mode of functioning during these three stages of development. To this end, the Fingers Task, a modified version of Arrows Task (with two rules: response ipsilateral where the stimulus is presented, symmetry; and response contralateral, asymmetry), was administered to a sample of 123 participants (43 children, 44 adolescents, and 36 adults). In general, the results verify the corollaries and identify the changes that the controlled mode of functioning experiences at different stages of development.

Toddlers, Tools, and Tech: The Cognitive Ontogenesis of Innovation

The development of tool innovation presents a paradox. How do humans have such diverse and complex technology, ranging from smartphones to aircraft, and yet young children find even simple tool innovation challenges, such as fashioning a hook to retrieve a basket from a tube, remarkably difficult? We propose that the solution to this paradox is the cognitive ontogenesis of tool innovation. Using a common measure of children's tool innovation, we describe how multiple cognitive mechanisms work in concert at each step of its process: recognizing the problem, generating appropriate solutions, and the social transmission of innovations. We discuss what the ontogeny of this skill tells us about cognitive and cultural evolution and provide recommendations for future research.

Development and validation of dichotic double digit test in Kannada

OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the study was to develop, validate and construct norms for a double dichotic digit test in the language 'Kannada' in normal healthy adults, for both free and forced recall conditions.

METHOD

This study was carried out in 2 phases. Phase 1 involved the development of the dichotic tests and phase 2 consisted of validation, data collection and normative estimation on 70 normal right-handed adults (18-60 years) and 50 normal children (10-15 years) in both free recall and forced attention condition.

RESULTS

The results indicated no significant difference between scores obtained on the three separate lists, in the free recall condition (p = 0.189). There was a significant difference between the right and the left ear scores in all three lists, which indicates a right ear advantage (p = 0.001). In the forced recall condition, there was no significant difference between the right and left ear scores, across the three lists.

CONCLUSION

The current study has provided a content-validated double dichotic digit test with normative data in Kannada. Overall the test evaluates right ear advantage with good accuracy.

Associations Between Task Performance and Self-Report Measures of Cognitive Control: Shared Versus Distinct Abilities

Despite overlapping terminology and assumptions that they tap the same constructs, executive function (EF) task performance and EF/effortful control (EC) questionnaires have been reported to be only weakly correlated. It is unclear if this reflects true lack of association or methodological limitations. The current study addresses past methodological limitations using a preregistered latent variable approach in a community youth sample (N = 291, age 13-22 years). EF task performance was assessed with a well-validated battery inhibition, shifting, and updating tasks. Self-reported EF/EC was assessed using the predominant temperament measure (Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised [EATQ-R]), and a self-report assessment more closely aligned with EF constructs (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Self-Report [BRIEF-SR]). Bifactor models fit the BRIEF-SR, EATQ-R and EF task measures well. Self-reported EF/EC and EF task factors were only weakly correlated on average in youth, although there were some stronger associations in older youth. These results suggest that task-based measures of EF and self-report measures of EF/EC may be best viewed as complementary, but largely distinct, windows on cognitive control.

Examining the Influence of Interactions Between Early Reading Skills and Executive Functioning on Second Grade Reading Achievement

Questions still exist about the interplay between foundational literacy components and budding cognitive structures that are thought to influence advanced reading abilities. Understanding interactions between executive functions (EFs) and specific early reading skills could contribute to our understanding of later reading achievement. The present study used multilevel modeling to examine whether EFs (i.e., working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition) moderate the relation between various early reading skills in kindergarten and second grade reading achievement in a sample of 18,174 participants from the ECLS: K-2011 database. Our findings suggested that early teacher-rated reading skills are related to second grade reading abilities. Both working memory and inhibition were important moderators for reading independently in kindergarten and are associated with later reading achievement in second grade. Research implications and the importance of understanding the intersection of cognitive processes and learning in early childhood are discussed.

A Longitudinal Analysis of the Executive Functions in High-Level Soccer Players

INTRODUCTION

Assessments of executive functions (EFs) with varying levels of perceptual information or action fidelity are common talent-diagnostic tools in soccer, yet their validity still has to be established. Therefore, a longitudinal development of EFs in high-level players to understand their relationship with increased exposure to training is required.

METHODS

A total of 304 high-performing male youth soccer players (10-21 years old) in Germany were assessed across three seasons on various sport-specific and non-sport-specific cognitive functioning assessments.

RESULTS

The posterior means (90% highest posterior density) of random slopes indicated that both abilities predominantly developed between 10 and 15 years of age. A plateau was apparent for domain-specific abilities during adolescence, whereas domain-generic abilities improved into young adulthood.

CONCLUSION

The developmental trajectories of soccer players' EFs follow the general populations' despite long-term exposure to soccer-specific training and game play. This brings into question the relationship between high-level experience and EFs and renders including EFs in talent identification questionable.

No effect of 6-month supplementation with 300 mg/d docosahexaenoic acid on executive functions among healthy school-aged children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

PURPOSE

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) plays an essential role in brain, and its status is dependent on dietary intakes. School-aged children in rural China, who consume diets low in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, may benefit from DHA supplementation. Therefore, this trial was performed to examine the effect of 6-month DHA supplementation on executive functions (EFs) among healthy school-aged children in rural China.

METHODS

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted among 106 primary school children aged 7-12 years in rural China. Participants were randomized to receive either 300 mg/d DHA or placebo for 6 months. EFs including working memory and cognitive flexibility were evaluated at baseline, at 3 months and at 6 months, using Digit Span Backwards and Wisconsin card sorting test, respectively. Socio-demographic data were collected at baseline, and erythrocyte membrane fatty acids and serum neurotransmitters were measured at baseline and after 6-month intervention.

RESULTS

Ninety-four children (88.7%) completed the study according to the protocol. Changes in erythrocyte membrane fatty acids indicated good compliance of the participants. There was no significant intervention effect on serum neurotransmitters. In two-factor ANCOVA, both groups showed a significant improvement in the Digit Span Backwards and the Wisconsin card sorting test from baseline to endpoint. However, no significant intervention effect was found on any EF scores. Linear regression analysis suggested no significant association between changes in erythrocyte DHA level with changes in any EF scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Supplementation with 300 mg/d DHA for 6 months had no benefit on EFs including working memory and cognitive flexibility among healthy school-aged children. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02308930 on December 5, 2014.

Do Children With Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) Have Difficulties With Interference Control, Visuospatial Working Memory, and Selective Attention? Developmental Patterns and the Role of Severity and Persistence of DLD

Purpose Many children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have weaknesses in executive functioning (EF), specifically in tasks testing interference control and working memory. It is unknown how EF develops in children with DLD, if EF abilities are related to DLD severity and persistence, and if EF weaknesses expand to selective attention. This study aimed to address these gaps. Method Data from 78 children with DLD and 39 typically developing (TD) children were collected at three times with 1-year intervals. At Time 1, the children were 5 or 6 years old. Flanker, Dot Matrix, and Sky Search tasks tested interference control, visuospatial working memory, and selective attention, respectively. DLD severity was based on children's language ability. DLD persistence was based on stability of the DLD diagnosis. Results Performance on all tasks improved in both groups. TD children outperformed children with DLD on interference control. No differences were found for visuospatial working memory and selective attention. An interference control gap between the DLD and TD groups emerged between Time 1 and Time 2. Severity and persistence of DLD were related to interference control and working memory; the impact on working memory was stronger. Selective attention was unrelated to DLD severity and persistence. Conclusions Age and DLD severity and persistence determine whether or not children with DLD show EF weaknesses. Interference control is most clearly impaired in children with DLD who are 6 years and older. Visuospatial working memory is impaired in children with severe and persistent DLD. Selective attention is spared.

Latent Growth in Self-Regulatory Subdimensions in Relation to Adjustment Outcomes in Youth Aged 12-19

This study assessed latent growth in behavioral inhibition, anger regulation, and goal-setting from ages 12 to 18, as well as links between latent growth and depression, externalizing behavior, and prosocial behavior at age 19. A second goal included examining whether latent growth in these constructs and associations with distal outcomes varied by sex. Generally speaking, self-regulatory subdimensions displayed distinct patterns of developmental growth from ages 12 to 18. Growth in self-regulatory subdimensions did not vary by sex, though initial levels of anger regulation and goal-setting did vary by sex. In addition, self-regulatory subdimensions from ages 12 to 18 were differentially related to adjustment outcomes at age 19. However, sex did not moderate associations between growth in self-regulatory subdimensions and distal outcomes.

Early child stimulation and attention-related executive functions at 11 years: 2004 Pelotas birth cohort study

The study aimed to explore associations between socioeconomic position (SEP) indicators, early child stimulation (ECS) and attention-related executive functions (EF) at age 11. Children born in Pelotas, Brazil, in 2004, were recruited to a birth cohort (n = 4231, non-response rate at recruitment < 1%) and followed from birth to age 11. SEP variables were family income and maternal schooling. At the 24 and 48-month follow-ups, five markers of cognitive stimulation and social interaction were recorded and positive answers were summed to a score ranging from 0 to 5. At age 11, attentional-switching and control, and selective-attention were assessed using the adapted Test-of-Everyday-Attention-for-Children (TEA-Ch). We used multivariable logistic regression models and mediation analysis to investigate potential mediator role of ECS in the association between SEP and EF. 3106 children were included in the analyses. Less than 7% of the more stimulated individuals showed low performance in attention-related EFs at age 11 compared with almost 20% in the bottom groups of stimulation. Higher child stimulation scores were associated with fewer impairments in attentional-control (OR adj 0.84; CI 95% 0.72-0.98) and attentional-switching (OR adj 0.85; CI 95% 0.73-0.99). Mediation analysis suggested that for attentional-switching, ECS mediated almost 20% of the total protective effect of maternal schooling for impaired EF. Assuming causal relationships, if maximum stimulation was provided to all children, the advantageous effect of maternal schooling on EF would be reduced by 47%. ECS may represent a protective factor for cognitive impairments in childhood and can be easily implemented at relatively low cost.

Age Moderates Link Between Training Effects and Treatment Response to Attention Bias Modification Treatment for Social Anxiety Disorder

Attention bias modification treatment (ABMT) aims to reduce anxiety symptoms via practice on computerized attention training tasks. Despite evidence of efficacy, clinical effects appear heterogeneous. More research on ABMT mechanisms and moderators of treatment response is needed. Age is one potentially important moderator, as developmental differences in training effects may impact response. We examined developmental links between ABMT training effects and response in social anxiety disorder (SAD). We pooled data from two randomized controlled trials in treatment-seeking youths and adults with SAD (N = 99) that used identical ABMT methods. We first characterized learning effects associated with the eight-session ABMT training protocol. We then tested whether learning magnitude predicted the clinical (change in SAD symptoms) and cognitive (change in attention bias) responses to treatment. Finally, we tested whether age moderated the association between ABMT learning and treatment response. Results indicate that ABMT was associated with an incremental learning curve during the protocol, and that learning improved with age. Age further moderated the association between learning gains during the ABMT protocol and subsequent reduction in self-reported SAD symptoms, such that this association was stronger with age. These effects were not evident in bias scores or clinician ratings. Finally, pre-treatment SAD symptoms and bias scores predicted ABMT learning gains. This study highlights the links among age, learning processes, and clinical response to ABMT. These insights may inform attempts to increase the clinical efficacy of ABMT for anxiety.

Early delay of gratification predicts later inhibitory control and academic performance in children with prenatal alcohol exposure

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) affects 2-5% of the children in the United States. In the preschool age-range, inhibitory deficits frequently manifest as impaired ability to delay gratification, which is associated with deficits in cognitive flexibility in these children. The goal of this longitudinal study was to determine whether the ability to delay gratification in preschool children with FASD is (1) associated with broader manifestations in temperament and behavior; (2) predictive of later inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory in middle childhood; and (3) predictive of later parent-reported behavioral problems and school functioning in middle childhood. Forty-seven children with FASD, ages 2.5-5 years were administered a delay of gratification task in which they chose between receiving 2 snacks immediately or 10 snacks after waiting for 10 min. Two groups were defined based on a median split of waiting time. Four years later, 29 children completed measures of inhibitory control (Flanker task), cognitive flexibility (Dimensional Change Card Sort Test), and working memory (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales), and their parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist as a measure of the child's behavioral problems and school functioning. Children with longer wait times on the delay of gratification task in preschool showed better inhibitory control on the Flanker task in middle childhood and better parent-reported school functioning in English. These findings indicate that early inhibitory capacity persists into middle childhood in those with FASD, and may be a promising target for early intervention to improve later cognitive outcomes in these children.

Performance differences between aphasia and healthy aging on an executive function test battery

Purpose: Executive function (EF) deficits commonly co-occur with other linguistic and non-linguistic deficits in aphasia. The questions about whether, and to what extent, people with aphasia (PWA) present deficits on different executive functions (EFs) is relatively understudied.Method: In this study, four EFs, set-switching, updating, inhibition, and dual task processing were evaluated in aphasia and healthy groups. Three groups of participants: 30 healthy young, 30 healthy old, and 10 PWA were assessed on four tasks, Colour Trails Test (CTT 1 and 2), Conners' Continuous Performance Test II (CPT II), n-back (1- and 2-back), and divided attention task that tapped into different EFs. In order to examine performance differences on the EF tasks between the participant groups, repeated measures and multivariate analysis of variances with follow-up pairwise comparisons were computed. Pearson product-moment correlations were conducted to evaluate the strength and direction of the association between aphasia severity (on Western Aphasia Battery-Revised) and executive functioning.Result: PWA demonstrated significantly diminished performance on all EF tasks in comparison to healthy groups and differences were distinct on the higher-level complexity tasks such as the 2-back and CTT 2. The healthy older group demonstrated elevated response times on the CTT, CPT II, and divided attention tasks, and decreased sensitivity scores on the CPT II and n-back in comparison to the younger group. Also, aphasia severity correlated with reduced performance on selective EF measures.Conclusion: This study emphasises the importance of investigating EF deficits in PWA and its potential relationship to language behaviour. Understanding EF is critical for comprehension of linguistic and non-linguistic deficits and in planning treatment for PWA.

Longitudinal associations between inhibitory control and externalizing and internalizing symptoms in school-aged children

Inhibitory control (IC) deficits have been associated with psychiatric symptoms in all ages. However, longitudinal studies testing the direction of the associations in childhood are scarce. We used a sample of 2,874 children (7 to 9 years old) to test the following three hypotheses: (a) IC deficits are an underlying risk factor with a potentially causal role for psychopathology, (b) IC deficits are a complication of psychopathology, and (c) IC deficits and psychopathology are associated at the trait level but not necessarily causally related. We used the go/no-go task to assess IC, the parent-rated Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire to evaluate externalizing/internalizing symptoms, and the random intercepts cross-lagged panel model to test the hypotheses. The results showed no support for the underlying risk factor hypothesis, suggesting that IC unlikely has a causal role in this age group's psychopathology. The complication hypothesis received support for externalizing symptoms, suggesting that externalizing symptoms may hamper the normal development of IC. IC deficits and both externalizing and internalizing symptoms were correlated at the trait level, indicating a possible common origin. We suggest that it may be useful to support children with externalizing symptoms to promote and protect their IC development.

Robotic assessment of rapid motor decision making in children with perinatal stroke

Background

Activities of daily living frequently require children to make rapid decisions and execute desired motor actions while inhibiting unwanted actions. Children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy due to perinatal stroke may have deficits in executive functioning in addition to motor impairments. The objective of this study was to use a robotic object hit and avoid task to assess the ability of children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy to make rapid motor decisions.

Methods

Forty-five children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy due to perinatal stroke and 146 typically developing children (both groups ages 6–19 years) completed a robotic object hit and avoid task using the Kinarm Exoskeleton. Objects of different shapes fell from the top of the screen with increasing speed and frequency. Children were instructed to hit two specific target shapes with either hand, while avoiding six distractor shapes. The number of targets and distractors hit were compared between children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy and typically developing children, accounting for age effects. We also compared performance to a simpler object hit task where there were no distractors.

Results

We found that children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy hit a greater proportion of total distractors compared to typically developing children, demonstrating impairments in inhibitory control. Performance for all children improved with age. Children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy hit a greater percentage of targets with each arm on the more complex object hit and avoid task compared to the simpler object hit task, which was not found in typically developing children.

Conclusions

Children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy due to perinatal stroke demonstrated impairments in rapid motor decision making including inhibitory control, which can impede their ability to perform real-world tasks. Therapies that address both motor performance and executive functions are necessary to maximize function in children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy.

The Role of Executive Functions for Motor Performance in Preschool Children as Compared to Young Adults

Evidence suggests that executive and motor functions are functionally intertwined, with the interrelation between the two processes influenced by the developmental stage of the individual. This study examined executive and motor functions in preschool children (n = 41; 65-83 months), and investigated if, and how, preschoolers cognitive-motor functioning differs from that of young adults (n = 40; 18-31 years), who served as a control group reflecting the upper bound of cognitive-motor development. As expected, performance of young adults was significantly better than that of preschool children for all cognitive and motor domains tested. The results further showed differential associations among, and between, cognitive and motor functions in preschool children when compared to young adults. While similar correlations among motor variables are found in both groups, correlations among executive functions and between executive and motor variables are only found in preschool children. It thus appears that executive functions (especially working memory) contribute more to successful motor performance in preschool years than in young adulthood. The findings highlight the importance of considering the developmental stage and/or the proficiency level of the individual when examining cognitive-motor interactions or when drawing implications for childhood cognitive-motor training and interventions.

Basic Cognitive Abilities Relevant to Male Adolescents' Soccer Performance

While there is a theoretical and empirical consensus that specific cognitive abilities gained through deliberate sports practice influence sports performance, it is less clear whether basic cognitive abilities that are not specifically related to sports practice are relevant to sports performance. Accordingly, this research examined the roles of basic concentration and visuospatial ability in adolescent soccer performance. Participants were 46 adolescent male soccer players (M_age = 16.15 years, standard deviation = 1.13) who averaged 7.21 years (standard deviation = 2.2) of prior soccer training. We measured participant's basic cognitive abilities with the Corsi block and the concentration grid tasks, and we measured their soccer performance through five soccer skills. Concentration had no predictive role in elements of soccer performance, but visuospatial ability was significantly related to tactical abilities, technical skills, mental toughness, and situational awareness and thus, to overall soccer performance. These findings provided support for the importance of visuospatial ability but not concentration (as measured by the concentration grid) in young males' soccer performance.

Assessing executive functions in Brazilian children: A critical review of available tools

The goal of this review is to perform a critical analysis of the instruments used to assess executive functions (EFs) in preschool and school-age children in Brazil. We identified 37 assessment measures through a systematic review. Some performance-based tests for assessing working memory and inhibition were identified. However, there is a lack of rating measures and instruments to assess flexibility and planning in clinical practice. We observed regional differences in the performance of EFs measures. One possible explanation may be the use of normative samples from more highly-developed regions to characterize performance in less-developed regions. However, there may be alternative explanations, such as variations in the exposure to testing and the adequacy of test materials in different regions. Joint efforts among research groups should be encouraged in order to obtain normative references that are more representative of the socio-cultural diversity of the country. This improvement is essential to better understand the typical and atypical development of EFs and how the peculiarities of each country's context and culture can impact its trajectory.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Age, and Multiple Aspects of Executive Function Among Preadolescent Children

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and age have been positively associated with children's executive function; however, few studies have simultaneously assessed the associations between both variables and different aspects of executive function among preadolescent children. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to evaluate the simultaneous influence of CRF and age on three aspects of executive function. Preadolescent children's (n = 338) CRF levels were estimated based on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test and then grouped into two age groups (Young Group: 9-10 years old and Old Group: 11-12 years old). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted for the 2-back task, the Flanker task, and the Local-Global task to assess the influence of CRF and age on working memory, inhibitory control, and shifting, respectively. Preadolescent children with greater CRF levels were associated with higher response accuracy during the 2-back task and shorter response time across congruent and incongruent conditions of the Flanker task, whereas older children showed generally superior cognitive performance. Notably, only the Old Group's CRF was positively correlated with the accuracy in the switching condition of the Local-Global task. These findings suggest that CRF or age was generally associated with better performances in working memory and inhibitory control aspects of executive function. Furthermore, the positive influence of CRF on shifting may be modulated by developed cortical maturation.

Frontoparietal structural properties mediate adult life span differences in executive function

Executive function (EF) refers to a set of cognitive functions that support goal-directed behaviors. Recent findings have suggested that the frontoparietal network (FPN) subserves neural processes that are related to EF. However, the FPN structural and functional network properties that mediate age-related differences in EF components remain unclear. To this end, we used three experimental tasks to test the component processes of EF based on Miyake and Friedman’s model: one common EF component process (incorporating inhibition, shifting, and updating) and two specific EF component processes (shifting and updating). We recruited 126 healthy participants (65 females; 20 to 78 years old) who underwent both structural and functional MRI scanning. We tested a mediation path model of three structural and functional properties of the FPN (i.e., gray matter volume, white matter fractional anisotropy, and intra/internetwork functional connectivity) as mediators of age-related differences in the three EF components. The results indicated that age-related common EF component differences are mediated by regional gray matter volume changes in both hemispheres of the frontal lobe, which suggests that structural changes in the frontal lobe may have an indirect influence on age-related general elements of EF. These findings suggest that the FPN mediates age-related differences in specific components of EF.

The Contribution of Executive Functions in Predicting Mathematical Creativity in Typical Elementary School Classes: A Twofold Role for Updating

The goal of the current study was to investigate the role of executive functions in mathematical creativity. The sample included 278 primary school children (ages 8–13). Two models were compared: the starting model tested whether executive functions (shifting, updating, and inhibition), domain-general creativity, and mathematical ability directly predicted mathematical creativity. The second model, which fitted the data best, included the additional assumption that updating influences mathematical creativity indirectly through mathematical ability and domain-general creativity. Updating was positively related to mathematical creativity. Additionally, updating was positively related to mathematical ability and domain-general creativity. Inhibition, shifting, domain-general creativity and mathematical ability did not have a significant contribution to either model but did positively correlate with mathematical creativity. This study reports the first empirical evidence that updating is a predictor of mathematical creativity in primary school children and demonstrates that creativity is a higher order cognitive process, activating a variety of cognitive abilities.

Global executive dysfunction, not core executive skills, mediate the relationship between adversity exposure and later health in undergraduate students

Executive function (EF) represents a set of higher-order cognitive skills that permit engagement in goal-oriented behavior. EF deficits are associated with wide-ranging negative health-related consequences, including psychopathology and engagement in risky health-related behaviors. Because neural substrates supporting EF develop over a protracted period of time, an extended window of vulnerability exists whereby environmental stressors can interrupt development, culminating in lifelong EF deficits. We capitalized on this understanding of the vulnerability of EF-relevant neural structures to elucidate the link between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and early mortality. ACEs are highly prevalent in the general population and exert negative downstream implications for many health-related behaviors, ultimately hastening mortality. However, underlying mechanisms linking ACEs with poor health remain less understood. To address this gap in the literature, we assessed ACE history and health factors, including psychopathology and risky alcohol use behaviors in undergraduates. We further assessed EF using performance-based and rating scale measures. Results revealed that some measures of EF mediated the relationship between ACEs and current mental health, but EF did not mediate the association between ACEs and engagement in risky health-related behaviors. These results partially support a neurodevelopmental model of ACE exposure vis-à-vis future health, focusing on the role of EF.

Cognitive and Linguistic Predictors of Language Control in Bilingual Children

In order to communicate effectively with a variety of conversation partners and in a variety of settings, bilingual children must develop language control, the ability to control which language is used for production. Past work has focused on linguistic skills as the limiting factor in children's ability to control their language choice, while cognitive control has been the focus of adult models of language control. The current study examined the effects of both language ability and cognitive control on language control in 4-6 year old Spanish/English bilingual children with a broad range of language skills, including those with low skills in both languages. To measure language control, children participated in an interactive scripted confederate dialogue paradigm in which they took turns describing picture scenes with video partners who presented themselves as monolingual speakers of English or monolingual speakers of Spanish. The paradigm had two conditions: a single-language context, in which children interacted with only one partner, and a dual-language context, in which children needed to switch between languages to address different partners. The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) indexed cognitive control. The findings revealed an overall effect of language ability, such that children with lower language skills were more likely to produce words in the language not understood by their conversation partner. There was also an effect of cognitive control on children's ability to adjust to the dual-language context. Based on these findings, we suggest that a model of language control in children should consider both linguistic and cognitive factors. However, language ability appears to be the main limiting factor, with cognitive control playing a more restricted role in adapting to a dual-language context.

Inhibition is associated with whole-brain structural brain connectivity on network level in school-aged children born very preterm and at term

Inhibition abilities are often impaired in children born very preterm. In typically-developing individuals, inhibition has been associated with structural brain connectivity (SC). As SC is frequently altered following preterm birth, this study investigated whether aberrant SC underlies inhibition deficits in school-aged children born very preterm. In a group of 67 very preterm participants aged 8-13 years and 69 term-born peers, inhibition abilities were assessed with two tasks. In a subgroup of 50 very preterm and 62 term-born participants, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data were collected. Using network-based statistics (NBS), mean fractional anisotropy (FA_mean) was compared between groups. Associations of FA_mean and inhibition abilities were explored through linear regression. The composite score of inhibition abilities was lower in the very preterm group (M ​= ​-0.4, SD ​= ​0.8) than in the term-born group (M ​= ​0.0, SD ​= ​0.8) but group differences were not significant when adjusting for age, sex and socio-economic status (β ​= ​-0.13, 95%-CI [-0.30, 0.04], p ​= ​0.13). In the very preterm group, FA_mean was significantly lower in a network comprising thalamo-frontal, thalamo-temporal, frontal, cerebellar and intra-hemispheric connections than in the term-born group (t ​= ​5.21, lowest p-value ​= ​0.001). Irrespective of birth status, a network comprising parietal, cerebellar and subcortical connections was positively associated with inhibition abilities (t ​= ​4.23, lowest p-value ​= ​0.02). Very preterm birth results in long-term alterations of SC at network-level. As networks underlying inhibition abilities do not overlap with those differing between the groups, FA_mean may not be adequate to explain inhibition problems in very preterm children. Future studies should combine complementary measures of brain connectivity to address neural correlates of inhibition abilities.

Executive Function, Theory of Mind, and Conduct-Problem Symptoms in Middle Childhood

Studies show relations between executive function (EF), Theory of Mind (ToM), and conduct-problem (CP) symptoms. However, many studies have involved cross-sectional data, small clinical samples, pre-school children, and/or did not consider potential mediation effects. The present study examined the longitudinal relations between EF, ToM abilities, and CP symptoms in a population-based sample of 1,657 children between 6 and 11 years (T1: M = 8.3 years, T2: M = 9.1 years; 51.9% girls). We assessed EF skills and ToM abilities via computerized tasks at first measurement (T1), CP symptoms were rated via parent questionnaires at T1 and approximately 1 year later (T2). Structural-equation models showed a negative relation between T1 EF and T2 CP symptoms even when controlling for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and other variables. This relation was fully mediated by T1 ToM abilities. The study shows how children’s abilities to control their thoughts and behaviors and to understand others’ mental states interact in the development of CP symptoms.

The relationship between pubertal hormones and brain plasticity: Implications for cognitive training in adolescence

Adolescence may mark a sensitive period for the development of higher-order cognition through enhanced plasticity of cortical circuits. At the same time, animal research indicates that pubertal hormones may represent one key mechanism for closing sensitive periods in the associative neocortex, thereby resulting in decreased plasticity of cortical circuits in adolescence. In the present review, we set out to solve some of the existing ambiguity and examine how hormonal changes associated with pubertal onset may modulate plasticity in higher-order cognition during adolescence. We build on existing age-comparative cognitive training studies to explore how the potential for change in neural resources and behavioral repertoire differs across age groups. We review animal and human brain imaging studies, which demonstrate a link between brain development, neurochemical mechanisms of plasticity, and pubertal hormones. Overall, the existent literature indicates that pubertal hormones play a pivotal role in regulating the mechanisms of experience-dependent plasticity during adolescence. However, the extent to which hormonal changes associated with pubertal onset increase or decrease brain plasticity may depend on the specific cognitive domain, the sex, and associated brain networks. We discuss implications for future research and suggest that systematical longitudinal assessments of pubertal change together with cognitive training interventions may be a fruitful way toward a better understanding of adolescent plasticity. As the age of pubertal onset is decreasing across developed societies, this may also have important educational and clinical implications, especially with respect to the effects that earlier puberty has on learning.

Relating mindfulness and executive function in children

Despite the important role of cognitions in mindful awareness, research on the cognitive processes underlying mindfulness in young populations is scarce. This study explores the association between the core executive functions (i.e. inhibition, working memory, and shifting) and mindfulness within the same model in a sample of children. Seventy-two parent-child dyads participated in the study. Difficulties with executive functioning and child mindfulness level were assessed. Inhibition, working memory, and shifting were significantly correlated with mindfulness. Furthermore, moderate to good fit was found in a model testing the association between mindfulness and the latent executive function variable composed by the three executive functions, and individual executive functions demonstrated significant loadings in relation to the latent variable. In a model relating mindfulness to each individual executive function, mindfulness was uniquely associated with inhibition, working memory, and shifting. The application of current theoretical models of mindfulness to child populations and clinical implications are discussed.

Accessing the development and heritability of the capacity of cognitive control

Cognitive control serves as a core construct, with limited capacity, to support executive functions and other higher-level mental processes such as intellectual activity. Although previous studies have investigated the development of executive functions during specific age periods, the development of the capacity of cognitive control (CCC) from early childhood to late adolescence and the heritability of the CCC have yet to be delineated. In this study, we estimated the CCC based on the performance of a perceptual decision-making task in monozygotic (n = 95) and dizygotic (n = 81) twin pairs with an age range from 6 to 18 years and in a reference young adult group (n = 41, mean age = 26.15 years). In addition, the intelligence quotient (IQ) of these participants was assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scales. We found an increase in the CCC from 1.55 bits per second (bps) at age 6 years to its 95% capacity of 3.87 bps at age 21 years, with a reduced growth rate as a function of age. The estimated heritability of the CCC was 0.66, and shared and non-shared environmental influences on the CCC were 0.18 and 0.16, respectively. The CCC was significantly correlated to IQ (r = 0.34). These findings indicate that the CCC is developed throughout the school years, is highly heritable, and is associated with higher-level cognition.

The Factor Structure of Cognitive Functioning in Cognitively Healthy Participants: a Meta-Analysis and Meta-Analysis of Individual Participant Data

Many neuropsychologists are of the opinion that the multitude of cognitive tests may be grouped into a much smaller number of cognitive domains. However, there is little consensus on how many domains exist, what these domains are, nor on which cognitive tests belong to which domain. This incertitude can be solved by factor analysis, provided that the analysis includes a broad range of cognitive tests that have been administered to a very large number of people. In this article, two such factor analyses were performed, each combining multiple studies. However, because it was not possible to obtain complete multivariate data on more than the most common test variables in the field, not all possible domains were examined here. The first analysis was a factor meta-analysis of correlation matrices combining data of 60,398 healthy participants from 52 studies. Several models from the literature were fitted, of which a version based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model was found to describe the correlations better than the others. The second analysis was a factor analysis of the Advanced Neuropsychological Diagnostics Infrastructure (ANDI) database, combining scores of 11,881 participants from 54 Dutch and Belgian studies not included in the first meta-analysis. Again, the model fit was better for the CHC model than for other models. Therefore, we conclude that the CHC model best characterizes both cognitive domains and which test belongs to each domain. Therefore, although originally developed in the intelligence literature, the CHC model deserves more attention in neuropsychology.

Cognitive flexibility training has direct and near transfer effects, but no far transfer effects, in preschoolers

The current project studied the direct, near transfer, and far transfer effects of cognitive flexibility training in two experiments with 117 3-year-olds. In both Experiments 1 and 2, children performed three Dimensional Change Card Sorting (DCCS) tasks in a pre-training/training/post-training design. The training consisted of giving corrective feedback in the training DCCS task. In Experiment 2, in addition, three other executive control tasks were administered during pre-training and post-training. Results showed a direct effect of feedback in the training DCCS task and transfer of this effect to the post-training DCCS task after 1 week with different sorting rules and different stimuli. These findings show that preschoolers learned to switch sorting rules in the context of the DCCS task, independent of the specific sorting rules, and that this effect is not transient. No support was found for transfer to the other executive control tasks. A possible explanation is that the feedback mainly improved rule switching, an ability that is specifically required for performing a cognitive flexibility task but not the other executive control tasks.

Responses to academic stress mediate the association between sleep difficulties and depressive/anxiety symptoms in Chinese adolescents

OBJECTIVE

Sleep difficulties are pervasive in Chinese adolescents, which exert aversive influence on their emotional health. However, the underlying mechanisms of this effect remain unclear. This study addressed whether stress responses mediate the concurrent and prospective relationship between sleep difficulties and depressive/anxiety symptoms in Chinese adolescents.

METHOD

17,946 adolescents (14-18 years-old) were administrated the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale and the Responses to Stress Questionnaire. Further, 710 of them finished the one-year follow-up assessments. Structural equation models were conducted to determine the concurrent and prospective mediation effects of stress responses and the moderated effect of gender and age.

RESULTS

Involuntary engagement and disengagement responses, as well as engagement coping, significantly mediated the cross-sectional relationship between sleep difficulties and depressive/anxiety symptoms. Moreover, sleep difficulties at baseline predicted enhanced involuntary engagement responses but reduced the use of engagement coping strategies one year later, resulting in an elevated level of depressive/anxiety symptoms. Finally, females and younger adolescents with greater sleep difficulties were more likely to generate maladaptive stress responses.

LIMITATIONS

First, sleep difficulties were only measured using self-reported approaches. Second, potential confounding variables (e.g., socioeconomic status) were not adjusted for. Third, our study only focused on typically-developing youth samples rather than clinical samples.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the important role of stress responses in the relationship between sleep difficulties and depressive/anxiety symptoms. The findings might also shed some light on the psychological intervention of sleep difficulties and mood disorder in adolescent populations.

Sex and Pubertal Status Influence Dendritic Spine Density on Frontal Corticostriatal Projection Neurons in Mice

In humans, nonhuman primates, and rodents, the frontal cortices exhibit grey matter thinning and dendritic spine pruning that extends into adolescence. This maturation is believed to support higher cognition but may also confer psychiatric vulnerability during adolescence. Currently, little is known about how specific cell types in the frontal cortex mature or whether puberty plays a role in the maturation of some cell types but not others. Here, we used mice to characterize the spatial topography and adolescent development of cross-corticostriatal (cSTR) neurons that project through the corpus collosum to the dorsomedial striatum. We found that apical spine density on cSTR neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex decreased significantly between late juvenile (P29) and young adult time points (P60), with females exhibiting higher spine density than males at both ages. Adult males castrated prior to puberty onset had higher spine density compared to sham controls. Adult females ovariectomized before puberty onset showed greater variance in spine density measures on cSTR cells compared to controls, but their mean spine density did not significantly differ from sham controls. Our findings reveal that these cSTR neurons, a subtype of the broader class of intratelencephalic-type neurons, exhibit significant sex differences and suggest that spine pruning on cSTR neurons is regulated by puberty in male mice.

Distentangling the systems contributing to changes in learning during adolescence

Multiple neurocognitive systems contribute simultaneously to learning. For example, dopamine and basal ganglia (BG) systems are thought to support reinforcement learning (RL) by incrementally updating the value of choices, while the prefrontal cortex (PFC) contributes different computations, such as actively maintaining precise information in working memory (WM). It is commonly thought that WM and PFC show more protracted development than RL and BG systems, yet their contributions are rarely assessed in tandem. Here, we used a simple learning task to test how RL and WM contribute to changes in learning across adolescence. We tested 187 subjects ages 8 to 17 and 53 adults (25-30). Participants learned stimulus-action associations from feedback; the learning load was varied to be within or exceed WM capacity. Participants age 8-12 learned slower than participants age 13-17, and were more sensitive to load. We used computational modeling to estimate subjects' use of WM and RL processes. Surprisingly, we found more protracted changes in RL than WM during development. RL learning rate increased with age until age 18 and WM parameters showed more subtle, gender- and puberty-dependent changes early in adolescence. These results can inform education and intervention strategies based on the developmental science of learning.

Social competence in newly diagnosed pediatric brain tumor patients

Brain tumors (BTs) are a common pediatric malignancy. Improved treatment has resulted in higher survival rates. There is, however, increasing concern about adverse effects of the disease and its treatment, including effects on social competence (i.e. effective social functioning in everyday life). The aim of this study is to examine multiple levels of social competence (i.e. social skills and social adjustment) in newly diagnosed pediatric BT patients. Thirty newly diagnosed BT patients aged 5-12 years were assessed shortly after diagnosis with a neuropsychological test battery focusing on social competence, including tests for IQ, social skills (i.e. social-affective and executive functioning) and social adjustment (rated by parents and teachers). Their performance was compared to 95 healthy controls who completed the same assessment. Patients and healthy controls were largely comparable with regard to demographic and environmental factors and did not differ on measures of IQ, social skills and social adjustment. Furthermore, age was found to have a positive significant effect on social skills independent of group. Shortly after diagnosis, pediatric BT patients did not perform different from healthy controls on IQ and measures of social skills and social adjustment. This is an encouraging finding. However, because of potentially neurotoxic adjuvant therapy and the ongoing development of social skills, longitudinal follow-up studies are needed to investigate long-term outcome regarding social competence in BT survivors.

Prepubertal gonadectomy reveals sex differences in approach-avoidance behavior in adult mice

Adolescence is a developmental period that is associated with physical, cognitive, and affective maturation and a time when sex biases in multiple psychiatric diseases emerge. While puberty onset marks the initiation of adolescence, it is unclear whether the pubertal rise in gonadal hormones generates sex differences in approach-avoidance behaviors that may impact psychiatric vulnerability. To examine the influence of pubertal development on adult behavior, we removed the gonads or performed sham surgery in male and female mice just prior to puberty onset and assessed performance in an odor-guided foraging task and anxiety-related behaviors in adulthood. We observed no significant sex differences in foraging or anxiety-related behaviors between intact adult male and female mice but found significant differences between adult male and female mice that had been gonadectomized (GDX) prior to puberty onset. GDX males failed to acquire the odor-guided foraging task, showed reduced locomotion, and exhibited increased anxiety-like behavior, while GDX females showed the opposite pattern of behavior. These data suggest that puberty may minimize rather than drive differences in approach-avoidance phenotypes in male and female mice.

Working memory predictors of mathematics across the middle primary school years

BACKGROUND

Work surrounding the relationship between visuospatial working memory (WM) and mathematics performance is gaining significant traction as a result of a focus on improving academic attainment.

AIMS

This study examined the relative contributions of verbal and visuospatial simple and complex WM measures to mathematics in primary school children aged 6-10 years.

SAMPLE

A sample of 111 children in years 2-5 were assessed (M_age  = 100.06 months, SD = 14.47).

METHOD

Children were tested individually on all memory measures, followed by a separate mathematics testing session as a class group in the same assessment wave.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Results revealed an age-dependent relationship, with a move towards visuospatial influence in older children. Further analyses demonstrated that backward word span and backward matrices contributed unique portions of variance of mathematics, regardless of the regression model specified. We discuss possible explanations for our preliminary findings in relation to the existing literature alongside their implications for educators and further research.

Inhibitory Processes and Fluid Intelligence: a Performance at Early Years of Schooling

Inhibition constitutes one of the main executive functions and it is important to more complex skills such as fluid intelligence. Actually, there is an agreement on distinguishing three inhibitory types: perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. Several studies show the differential engagement of these inhibitory types in different skills. However, there is no registered evidence about the differential relation of inhibitory types with fluid intelligence. This inquiry is especially important during the first school years, since in this stage, inhibitory processes would already be differentiated, and inhibitory processes and fluid intelligence are linked to the performance of children in the school setting. For these reasons, the goal of this work is to study the relation and contribution of perceptual, cognitive, and response inhibition with fluid intelligence, in children in the first years of primary school. For that purpose, a sample of children from six to eight years old (N = 178) was tested with a perceptual inhibition task (perception of similarities and differences task); a cognitive inhibition task (proactive interference task); a response inhibition task (stop signal task); and a fluid intelligence task (progressive matrices task). We observed significant correlations between perceptual and response inhibition and fluid intelligence (controlling for age), but only perceptual inhibition explains significantly part of the performance in the fluid intelligence task. This study provides data about the specific contribution, during childhood, of an inhibitory type to fluid intelligence and contributes empirical evidence in support of the non-unitary approach of inhibition.