201
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Appelt-Menzel A, Oerter S, Mathew S, Haferkamp U, Hartmann C, Jung M, Neuhaus W, Pless O. Human iPSC-Derived Blood-Brain Barrier Models: Valuable Tools for Preclinical Drug Discovery and Development? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 55:e122. [PMID: 32956578 DOI: 10.1002/cpsc.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Translating basic biological knowledge into applications remains a key issue for effectively tackling neurodegenerative, neuroinflammatory, or neuroendocrine disorders. Efficient delivery of therapeutics across the neuroprotective blood-brain barrier (BBB) still poses a demanding challenge for drug development targeting central nervous system diseases. Validated in vitro models of the BBB could facilitate effective testing of drug candidates targeting the brain early in the drug discovery process during lead generation. We here review the potential of mono- or (isogenic) co-culture BBB models based on brain capillary endothelial cells (BCECs) derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), and compare them to several available BBB in vitro models from primary human or non-human cells and to rodent in vivo models, as well as to classical and widely used barrier models [Caco-2, parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA)]. In particular, we are discussing the features and predictivity of these models and how hiPSC-derived BBB models could impact future discovery and development of novel CNS-targeting therapeutics. © 2020 The Authors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Appelt-Menzel
- Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research ISC, Translational Center Regenerative Therapies (TLC-RT), Röntgenring 11, Würzburg, Germany.,University Hospital Würzburg, Chair Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (TERM), Röntgenring 11, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sabrina Oerter
- Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research ISC, Translational Center Regenerative Therapies (TLC-RT), Röntgenring 11, Würzburg, Germany.,University Hospital Würzburg, Chair Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (TERM), Röntgenring 11, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sanjana Mathew
- University Hospital Würzburg, Chair Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (TERM), Röntgenring 11, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Undine Haferkamp
- Fraunhofer IME ScreeningPort, Schnackenburgallee 114, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Carla Hartmann
- University Hospital Halle, University Clinic and Outpatient Clinic for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatic Medicine, Julius-Kuehn-Strasse 7, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Matthias Jung
- University Hospital Halle, University Clinic and Outpatient Clinic for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatic Medicine, Julius-Kuehn-Strasse 7, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Winfried Neuhaus
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Center Health and Bioresources, Competence Unit Molecular Diagnostics, Giefinggasse 4, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ole Pless
- Fraunhofer IME ScreeningPort, Schnackenburgallee 114, Hamburg, Germany
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202
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Xu R, Boreland AJ, Li X, Erickson C, Jin M, Atkins C, Pang ZP, Daniels BP, Jiang P. Developing human pluripotent stem cell-based cerebral organoids with a controllable microglia ratio for modeling brain development and pathology. Stem Cell Reports 2021; 16:1923-1937. [PMID: 34297942 PMCID: PMC8365109 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play critical roles in brain development, homeostasis, and disease. Microglia in animal models cannot accurately model human microglia due to notable transcriptomic and functional differences between human and other animal microglia. Incorporating human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived microglia into brain organoids provides unprecedented opportunities to study human microglia. However, an optimized method that integrates appropriate amounts of microglia into brain organoids at a proper time point, resembling in vivo brain development, is still lacking. Here, we report a new brain region-specific, microglia-containing organoid model by co-culturing hPSC-derived primitive neural progenitor cells and primitive macrophage progenitors. In the organoids, the number of human microglia can be controlled, and microglia exhibit phagocytic activity and synaptic pruning function. Furthermore, human microglia respond to Zika virus infection of the organoids. Our findings establish a new microglia-containing brain organoid model that will serve to study human microglial function in a variety of neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjie Xu
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
| | - Andrew J Boreland
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; Graduate Program in Molecular Biosciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Xiaoxi Li
- Department of Immunology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Caroline Erickson
- Summer Undergraduate Research Program in Neuroscience (NeuroSURP), Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Mengmeng Jin
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Colm Atkins
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Zhiping P Pang
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology and Child Health Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Brian P Daniels
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Peng Jiang
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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203
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Bi FC, Yang XH, Cheng XY, Deng WB, Guo XL, Yang H, Wang Y, Li J, Yao Y. Optimization of cerebral organoids: a more qualified model for Alzheimer's disease research. Transl Neurodegener 2021; 10:27. [PMID: 34372927 PMCID: PMC8349709 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-021-00252-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that currently cannot be cured by any drug or intervention, due to its complicated pathogenesis. Current animal and cellular models of AD are unable to meet research needs for AD. However, recent three-dimensional (3D) cerebral organoid models derived from human stem cells have provided a new tool to study molecular mechanisms and pharmaceutical developments of AD. In this review, we discuss the advantages and key limitations of the AD cerebral organoid system in comparison to the commonly used AD models, and propose possible solutions, in order to improve their application in AD research. Ethical concerns associated with human cerebral organoids are also discussed. We also summarize future directions of studies that will improve the cerebral organoid system to better model the pathological events observed in AD brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng-Chen Bi
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
- Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization, Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Xin-He Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Cheng
- Department of Neurology and Suzhou Clinical Research Center of Neurological Disease, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215004, China
| | - Wen-Bin Deng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Xiao-Li Guo
- School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Hui Yang
- Research Center of Medical Science and Technology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Yin Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China.
| | - Juan Li
- Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Modernization, Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China.
- School of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China.
| | - Yao Yao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China.
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204
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Current tools to interrogate microglial biology. Neuron 2021; 109:2805-2819. [PMID: 34390649 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells perform a plethora of functions in the central nervous system (CNS), involving them in brain development, maintenance of homeostasis in adulthood, and CNS diseases. Significant technical advancements have prompted the development of novel systems adapted to analyze microglia with increasing specificity and intricacy. The advent of single-cell technologies combined with targeted mouse models has been decisive in deciphering microglia heterogeneity and dissecting microglial functions. However sophisticated these tools have become, clear limitations remain. Understanding their pitfalls and advantages ensures their correct application. Therefore, we provide a guide to the cutting-edge methods currently available to dissect microglial biology.
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205
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Jalink P, Caiazzo M. Brain Organoids: Filling the Need for a Human Model of Neurological Disorder. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:740. [PMID: 34439972 PMCID: PMC8389592 DOI: 10.3390/biology10080740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Neurological disorders are among the leading causes of death worldwide, accounting for almost all onsets of dementia in the elderly, and are known to negatively affect motor ability, mental and cognitive performance, as well as overall wellbeing and happiness. Currently, most neurological disorders go untreated due to a lack of viable treatment options. The reason for this lack of options is s poor understanding of the disorders, primarily due to research models that do not translate well into the human in vivo system. Current models for researching neurological disorders, neurodevelopment, and drug interactions in the central nervous system include in vitro monolayer cell cultures, and in vivo animal models. These models have shortcomings when it comes to translating research about disorder pathology, development, and treatment to humans. Brain organoids are three-dimensional (3D) cultures of stem cell-derived neural cells that mimic the development of the in vivo human brain with high degrees of accuracy. Researchers have started developing these miniature brains to model neurodevelopment, and neuropathology. Brain organoids have been used to model a wide range of neurological disorders, including the complex and poorly understood neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we discuss the brain organoid technology, placing special focus on the different brain organoid models that have been developed, discussing their strengths, weaknesses, and uses in neurological disease modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Jalink
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, CG 3584 Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Massimiliano Caiazzo
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, CG 3584 Utrecht, The Netherlands;
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
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206
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Zhang Y, Cui D. Evolving Models and Tools for Microglial Studies in the Central Nervous System. Neurosci Bull 2021; 37:1218-1233. [PMID: 34106404 PMCID: PMC8353053 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-021-00706-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play multiple roles in such processes as brain development, homeostasis, and pathology. Due to their diverse mechanisms of functions, the complex sub-classifications, and the large differences between different species, especially compared with humans, very different or even opposite conclusions can be drawn from studies with different research models. The choice of appropriate research models and the associated tools are thus key ingredients of studies on microglia. Mice are the most commonly used animal models. In this review, we summarize in vitro and in vivo models of mouse and human-derived microglial research models, including microglial cell lines, primary microglia, induced microglia-like cells, transgenic mice, human-mouse chimeric models, and microglial replacement models. We also summarize recent developments in novel single-cell and in vivo imaging technologies. We hope our review can serve as an efficient reference for the future study of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhang
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai, 201108, China
| | - Donghong Cui
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai, 201108, China.
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207
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Agboola OS, Hu X, Shan Z, Wu Y, Lei L. Brain organoid: a 3D technology for investigating cellular composition and interactions in human neurological development and disease models in vitro. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12:430. [PMID: 34332630 PMCID: PMC8325286 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-021-02369-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract The study of human brain physiology, including cellular interactions in normal and disease conditions, has been a challenge due to its complexity and unavailability. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) study is indispensable in the study of the pathophysiology of neurological disorders. Nevertheless, monolayer systems lack the cytoarchitecture necessary for cellular interactions and neurological disease modeling. Brain organoids generated from human pluripotent stem cells supply an ideal environment to model both cellular interactions and pathophysiology of the human brain. This review article discusses the composition and interactions among neural lineage and non-central nervous system cell types in brain organoids, current studies, and future perspectives in brain organoid research. Ultimately, the promise of brain organoids is to unveil previously inaccessible features of neurobiology that emerge from complex cellular interactions and to improve our mechanistic understanding of neural development and diseases. Graphical abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13287-021-02369-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwafemi Solomon Agboola
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical Science College, Harbin Medical University, 194 Xuefu Rd, Nangang District, Heilongjiang Province, Harbin, 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinglin Hu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical Science College, Harbin Medical University, 194 Xuefu Rd, Nangang District, Heilongjiang Province, Harbin, 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiyan Shan
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical Science College, Harbin Medical University, 194 Xuefu Rd, Nangang District, Heilongjiang Province, Harbin, 150081, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanshuang Wu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical Science College, Harbin Medical University, 194 Xuefu Rd, Nangang District, Heilongjiang Province, Harbin, 150081, People's Republic of China.
| | - Lei Lei
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Basic Medical Science College, Harbin Medical University, 194 Xuefu Rd, Nangang District, Heilongjiang Province, Harbin, 150081, People's Republic of China. .,Key Laboratory of Preservative of Human Genetic Resources and Disease Control in China, Harbin Medical University, Ministry of Education, Harbin, China.
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208
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Drobny A, Ngo PA, Neurath MF, Zunke F, López-Posadas R. Molecular Communication Between Neuronal Networks and Intestinal Epithelial Cells in Gut Inflammation and Parkinson's Disease. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:655123. [PMID: 34368179 PMCID: PMC8339315 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.655123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Intestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and constipation, are common in Parkinson's disease patients. These clinical signs normally appear years before the diagnosis of the neurodegenerative disease, preceding the occurrence of motor manifestations. Moreover, it is postulated that Parkinson's disease might originate in the gut, due to a response against the intestinal microbiota leading to alterations in alpha-synuclein in the intestinal autonomic nervous system. Transmission of this protein to the central nervous system is mediated potentially via the vagus nerve. Thus, deposition of aggregated alpha-synuclein in the gastrointestinal tract has been suggested as a potential prodromal diagnostic marker for Parkinson's disease. Interestingly, hallmarks of chronic intestinal inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease, such as dysbiosis and increased intestinal permeability, are also observed in Parkinson's disease patients. Additionally, alpha-synuclein accumulations were detected in the gut of Crohn's disease patients. Despite a solid association between neurodegenerative diseases and gut inflammation, it is not clear whether intestinal alterations represent cause or consequence of neuroinflammation in the central nervous system. In this review, we summarize the bidirectional communication between the brain and the gut in the context of Parkinson's disease and intestinal dysfunction/inflammation as present in inflammatory bowel disease. Further, we focus on the contribution of intestinal epithelium, the communication between intestinal epithelial cells, microbiota, immune and neuronal cells, as well as mechanisms causing alterations of epithelial integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Drobny
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Phuong A Ngo
- Medicine 1, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Markus F Neurath
- Medicine 1, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Friederike Zunke
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
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209
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Groveman BR, Smith A, Williams K, Haigh CL. Cerebral organoids as a new model for prion disease. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009747. [PMID: 34288977 PMCID: PMC8294539 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley R. Groveman
- Prion Cell Biology Unit, Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Anna Smith
- Prion Cell Biology Unit, Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Katie Williams
- Prion Cell Biology Unit, Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Cathryn L. Haigh
- Prion Cell Biology Unit, Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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210
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Abstract
Long-term effective use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) among people with HIV (PWH) has significantly reduced the burden of disease, yet a cure for HIV has not been universally achieved, likely due to the persistence of an HIV reservoir. The central nervous system (CNS) is an understudied HIV sanctuary. Importantly, due to viral persistence in the brain, cognitive disturbances persist to various degrees at high rates in PWH despite suppressive ART. Given the complexity and accessibility of the CNS compartment and that it is a physiologically and anatomically unique immune site, human studies to reveal molecular mechanisms of viral entry, reservoir establishment, and the cellular and structural interactions leading to viral persistence and brain injury to advance a cure and either prevent or limit cognitive impairments in PWH remain challenging. Recent advances in human brain organoids show that they can mimic the intercellular dynamics of the human brain and may recapitulate many of the events involved in HIV infection of the brain (neuroHIV). Human brain organoids can be produced, spontaneously or with addition of growth factors and at immature or mature states, and have become stronger models to study neurovirulent viral infections of the CNS. While organoids provide opportunities to study neuroHIV, obstacles such as the need to incorporate microglia need to be overcome to fully utilize this model. Here, we review the current achievements in brain organoid biology and their relevance to neuroHIV research efforts.
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211
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Bodnar B, Zhang Y, Liu J, Lin Y, Wang P, Wei Z, Saribas S, Zhu Y, Li F, Wang X, Yang W, Li Q, Ho WZ, Hu W. Novel Scalable and Simplified System to Generate Microglia-Containing Cerebral Organoids From Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:682272. [PMID: 34290591 PMCID: PMC8288463 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.682272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cerebral organoid (CO) is a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture system that recapitulates the developing human brain. While CO has proved an invaluable tool for studying neurological disorders in a more clinically relevant matter, there have still been several shortcomings including CO variability and reproducibility as well as lack of or underrepresentation of certain cell types typically found in the brain. As the technology to generate COs has continued to improve, more efficient and streamlined protocols have addressed some of these issues. Here we present a novel scalable and simplified system to generate microglia-containing CO (MCO). We characterize the cell types and dynamic development of MCOs and validate that these MCOs harbor microglia, astrocytes, neurons, and neural stem/progenitor cells, maturing in a manner that reflects human brain development. We introduce a novel technique for the generation of embryoid bodies (EBs) directly from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) that involves simplified steps of transitioning directly from 3D cultures as well as orbital shaking culture in a standard 6-well culture plate. This allows for the generation of MCOs with an easy-to-use system that is affordable and accessible by any general lab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Bodnar
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Yongang Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Stem Cell Research and Application, Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (CAMS and PUMC), Chengdu, China
| | - Jinbiao Liu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Yuan Lin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Peng Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Zhengyu Wei
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Sami Saribas
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Yuanjun Zhu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Fang Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Wenli Yang
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Qingsheng Li
- Nebraska Center for Virology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, United States
| | - Wen-Zhe Ho
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Wenhui Hu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States.,Center for Metabolic Disease Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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212
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Brémond Martin C, Simon Chane C, Clouchoux C, Histace A. Recent Trends and Perspectives in Cerebral Organoids Imaging and Analysis. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:629067. [PMID: 34276279 PMCID: PMC8283195 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.629067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Since their first generation in 2013, the use of cerebral organoids has spread exponentially. Today, the amount of generated data is becoming challenging to analyze manually. This review aims to overview the current image acquisition methods and to subsequently identify the needs in image analysis tools for cerebral organoids. Methods: To address this question, we went through all recent articles published on the subject and annotated the protocols, acquisition methods, and algorithms used. Results: Over the investigated period of time, confocal microscopy and bright-field microscopy were the most used acquisition techniques. Cell counting, the most common task, is performed in 20% of the articles and area; around 12% of articles calculate morphological parameters. Image analysis on cerebral organoids is performed in majority using ImageJ software (around 52%) and Matlab language (4%). Treatments remain mostly semi-automatic. We highlight the limitations encountered in image analysis in the cerebral organoid field and suggest possible solutions and implementations to develop. Conclusions: In addition to providing an overview of cerebral organoids cultures and imaging, this work highlights the need to improve the existing image analysis methods for such images and the need for specific analysis tools. These solutions could specifically help to monitor the growth of future standardized cerebral organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Brémond Martin
- ETIS Laboratory UMR 8051, CY Cergy Paris Université, ENSEA, CNRS, Cergy, France
- WITSEE, Paris, France
| | - Camille Simon Chane
- ETIS Laboratory UMR 8051, CY Cergy Paris Université, ENSEA, CNRS, Cergy, France
| | | | - Aymeric Histace
- ETIS Laboratory UMR 8051, CY Cergy Paris Université, ENSEA, CNRS, Cergy, France
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213
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Harschnitz O, Studer L. Human stem cell models to study host-virus interactions in the central nervous system. Nat Rev Immunol 2021; 21:441-453. [PMID: 33398129 PMCID: PMC9653304 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-020-00474-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Advancements in human pluripotent stem cell technology offer a unique opportunity for the neuroimmunology field to study host-virus interactions directly in disease-relevant cells of the human central nervous system (CNS). Viral encephalitis is most commonly caused by herpesviruses, arboviruses and enteroviruses targeting distinct CNS cell types and often leading to severe neurological damage with poor clinical outcomes. Furthermore, different neurotropic viruses will affect the CNS at distinct developmental stages, from early prenatal brain development to the aged brain. With the unique flexibility and scalability of human pluripotent stem cell technology, it is now possible to examine the molecular mechanisms underlying acute infection and latency, determine which CNS subpopulations are specifically infected, study temporal aspects of viral susceptibility, perform high-throughput chemical or genetic screens for viral restriction factors and explore complex cell-non-autonomous disease mechanisms. Therefore, human pluripotent stem cell technology has the potential to address key unanswered questions about antiviral immunity in the CNS, including emerging questions on the potential CNS tropism of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Harschnitz
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York (NY), USA,The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York (NY), USA,
| | - Lorenz Studer
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York (NY), USA,The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York (NY), USA
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214
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Song G, Zhao M, Chen H, Zhou X, Lenahan C, Ou Y, He Y. The Application of Brain Organoid Technology in Stroke Research: Challenges and Prospects. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:646921. [PMID: 34234646 PMCID: PMC8257041 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.646921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a neurological disease responsible for significant morbidity and disability worldwide. However, there remains a dearth of effective therapies. The failure of many therapies for stroke in clinical trials has promoted the development of human cell-based models, such as brain organoids. Brain organoids differ from pluripotent stem cells in that they recapitulate various key features of the human central nervous system (CNS) in three-dimensional (3D) space. Recent studies have demonstrated that brain organoids could serve as a new platform to study various neurological diseases. However, there are several limitations, such as the scarcity of glia and vasculature in organoids, which are important for studying stroke. Herein, we have summarized the application of brain organoid technology in stroke research, such as for modeling and transplantation purposes. We also discuss methods to overcome the limitations of brain organoid technology, as well as future prospects for its application in stroke research. Although there are many difficulties and challenges associated with brain organoid technology, it is clear that this approach will play a critical role in the future exploration of stroke treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guini Song
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Min Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hanmin Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiangyue Zhou
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Cameron Lenahan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Burrell College of Osteopathic Medicine, Las Cruces, NM, United States
| | - Yibo Ou
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yue He
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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215
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Neckles VN, Feliciano DM. From seed to flower: blossoming of microglia in development and brain repair. Cell Tissue Res 2021; 387:377-389. [PMID: 34151391 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-021-03486-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Physiological functions require coordination of processes between diverse organs, tissues, and cells. This integrative view of science has reemerged complementary to the reductionist philosophy of studying individual cell types. An integrative approach has proven particularly powerful within the field of neuroscience where, intermingled among the most numerous neural cell types of the brain, are immune cells called microglia. Microglia act as a line of defense in the CNS by phagocytizing harmful pathogens and cellular debris and by releasing a variety of factors that mediate immune responses. However, microglia are also appreciated as critical mediators of neurophysiology making them a desired target to rectify neuropathological states. The goal of this review is to discuss microglia ontogenesis, referred to as microgliogenesis, a term that encompasses the events that drive the production, differentiation, migration, and maturation of microglia and opportunities to target microglia for brain repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria N Neckles
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634-0314, USA
| | - David M Feliciano
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634-0314, USA.
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216
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Martens YA, Xu S, Tait R, Li G, Zhao XC, Lu W, Liu CC, Kanekiyo T, Bu G, Zhao J. Generation and validation of APOE knockout human iPSC-derived cerebral organoids. STAR Protoc 2021; 2:100571. [PMID: 34151296 PMCID: PMC8190508 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2021.100571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a major lipid carrier in the brain and closely associated with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we describe a protocol for efficient knockout of APOE in human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) using the CRISPR-Cas9 system. We obtain homozygous APOE knockout (APOE-/- ) iPSCs and further validate the deficiency of apoE in iPSC-derived cerebral organoids. APOE-/- cerebral organoids can serve as a useful tool to study apoE functions and apoE-related pathogenic mechanisms in AD. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Zhao et al. (2020).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka A. Martens
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroregeneration Lab, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | | | | | - Gary Li
- ALSTEM, Richmond, CA, 94806, USA
| | | | - Wenyan Lu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroregeneration Lab, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Takahisa Kanekiyo
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroregeneration Lab, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroregeneration Lab, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
- Neuroregeneration Lab, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
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217
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Makrygianni EA, Chrousos GP. From Brain Organoids to Networking Assembloids: Implications for Neuroendocrinology and Stress Medicine. Front Physiol 2021; 12:621970. [PMID: 34177605 PMCID: PMC8222922 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.621970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain organoids are three-dimensional cultures that contain multiple types of cells and cytoarchitectures, and resemble fetal human brain structurally and functionally. These organoids are being used increasingly to model brain development and disorders, however, they only partially recapitulate such processes, because of several limitations, including inability to mimic the distinct cortical layers, lack of functional neuronal circuitry as well as non-neural cells and gyrification, and increased cellular stress. Efforts to create improved brain organoid culture systems have led to region-specific organoids, vascularized organoids, glia-containing organoids, assembloids, sliced organoids and polarized organoids. Assembloids are fused region-specific organoids, which attempt to recapitulate inter-regional and inter-cellular interactions as well as neural circuitry development by combining multiple brain regions and/or cell lineages. As a result, assembloids can be used to model subtle functional aberrations that reflect complex neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Mammalian organisms possess a highly complex neuroendocrine system, the stress system, whose main task is the preservation of systemic homeostasis, when the latter is threatened by adverse forces, the stressors. The main central parts of the stress system are the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and the locus caeruleus/norepinephrine-autonomic nervous system nuclei in the brainstem; these centers innervate each other and interact reciprocally as well as with various other CNS structures. Chronic dysregulation of the stress system has been implicated in major pathologies, the so-called chronic non-communicable diseases, including neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative, cardiometabolic and autoimmune disorders, which lead to significant population morbidity and mortality. We speculate that brain organoids and/or assembloids could be used to model the development, regulation and dysregulation of the stress system and to better understand stress-related disorders. Novel brain organoid technologies, combined with high-throughput single-cell omics and gene editing, could, thus, have major implications for precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evanthia A Makrygianni
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health and Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - George P Chrousos
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health and Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.,Center for Adolescent Medicine and UNESCO Chair on Adolescent Health Care, First Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Aghia Sophia Children's Hospital, Athens, Greece
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218
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Luo J, Li P. Human pluripotent stem cell-derived brain organoids as in vitro models for studying neural disorders and cancer. Cell Biosci 2021; 11:99. [PMID: 34049587 PMCID: PMC8161602 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-021-00617-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The sheer complexities of brain and resource limitation of human brain tissue greatly hamper our understanding of the brain disorders and cancers. Recently developed three-dimensional (3D) brain organoids (BOs) are self-organized and spontaneously differentiated from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) in vitro, which exhibit similar features with cell type diversity, structural organization, and functional connectivity as the developing human brain. Based on these characteristics, hPSC-derived BOs (hPDBOs) provide new opportunities to recapitulate the complicated processes during brain development, neurodegenerative disorders, and brain cancers in vitro. In this review, we will provide an overview of existing BO models and summarize the applications of this technology in modeling the neural disorders and cancers. Furthermore, we will discuss the challenges associated with their use as in vitro models for disease modeling and the potential future direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Luo
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China
| | - Peng Li
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China.
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219
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The Potential of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells to Treat and Model Alzheimer's Disease. Stem Cells Int 2021; 2021:5511630. [PMID: 34122554 PMCID: PMC8172295 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5511630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An estimated 6.2 million Americans aged 65 or older are currently living with Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disease that disrupts an individual's ability to function independently through the degeneration of key regions in the brain, including but not limited to the hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex, and the motor cortex. The cause of this degeneration is not known, but research has found two proteins that undergo posttranslational modifications: tau, a protein concentrated in the axons of neurons, and amyloid precursor protein (APP), a protein concentrated near the synapse. Through mechanisms that have yet to be elucidated, the accumulation of these two proteins in their abnormal aggregate forms leads to the neurodegeneration that is characteristic of AD. Until the invention of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in 2006, the bulk of research was carried out using transgenic animal models that offered little promise in their ability to translate well from benchtop to bedside, creating a bottleneck in the development of therapeutics. However, with iPSC, patient-specific cell cultures can be utilized to create models based on human cells. These human cells have the potential to avoid issues in translatability that have plagued animal models by providing researchers with a model that closely resembles and mimics the neurons found in humans. By using human iPSC technology, researchers can create more accurate models of AD ex vivo while also focusing on regenerative medicine using iPSC in vivo. The following review focuses on the current uses of iPSC and how they have the potential to regenerate damaged neuronal tissue, in the hopes that these technologies can assist in getting through the bottleneck of AD therapeutic research.
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220
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MacMahon Copas AN, McComish SF, Fletcher JM, Caldwell MA. The Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease: A Complex Interplay Between Astrocytes, Microglia, and T Lymphocytes? Front Neurol 2021; 12:666737. [PMID: 34122308 PMCID: PMC8189423 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.666737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disease, is characterised by the motor symptoms of bradykinesia, rigidity and resting tremor and non-motor symptoms of sleep disturbances, constipation, and depression. Pathological hallmarks include neuroinflammation, degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, and accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein proteins as intra-cytoplasmic Lewy bodies and neurites. Microglia and astrocytes are essential to maintaining homeostasis within the central nervous system (CNS), including providing protection through the process of gliosis. However, dysregulation of glial cells results in disruption of homeostasis leading to a chronic pro-inflammatory, deleterious environment, implicated in numerous CNS diseases. Recent evidence has demonstrated a role for peripheral immune cells, in particular T lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of PD. These cells infiltrate the CNS, and accumulate in the substantia nigra, where they secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines, stimulate surrounding immune cells, and induce dopaminergic neuronal cell death. Indeed, a greater understanding of the integrated network of communication that exists between glial cells and peripheral immune cells may increase our understanding of disease pathogenesis and hence provide novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adina N MacMahon Copas
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Dublin, Ireland.,Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Sarah F McComish
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Dublin, Ireland.,Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jean M Fletcher
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Dublin, Ireland.,School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Maeve A Caldwell
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Dublin, Ireland.,Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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221
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Zilberman A, Cornelison RC. Microphysiological models of the central nervous system with fluid flow. Brain Res Bull 2021; 174:72-83. [PMID: 34029679 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There are over 1,000 described neurological and neurodegenerative disorders affecting nearly 100 million Americans - roughly one third of the U.S. population. Collectively, treatment of neurological conditions is estimated to cost $800 billion every year. Lowering this societal burden will require developing better model systems in which to study these diverse disorders. Microphysiological systems are promising tools for modeling healthy and diseased neural tissues to study mechanisms and treatment of neuropathology. One major benefit of microphysiological systems is the ability to incorporate biophysical forces, namely the forces derived from biological fluid flow. Fluid flow in the central nervous system (CNS) is a complex but important element of physiology, and pathologies as diverse as traumatic or ischemic injury, cancer, neurodegenerative disease, and natural aging have all been found to alter flow pathways. In this review, we summarize recent advances in three-dimensional microphysiological systems for studying the biology and therapy of CNS disorders and highlight the ability and growing need to incorporate biological fluid flow in these miniaturized model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleeza Zilberman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, United States
| | - R Chase Cornelison
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, United States.
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222
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James OG, Selvaraj BT, Magnani D, Burr K, Connick P, Barton SK, Vasistha NA, Hampton DW, Story D, Smigiel R, Ploski R, Brophy PJ, Ffrench-Constant C, Lyons DA, Chandran S. iPSC-derived myelinoids to study myelin biology of humans. Dev Cell 2021; 56:1346-1358.e6. [PMID: 33945785 PMCID: PMC8098746 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Myelination is essential for central nervous system (CNS) formation, health, and function. Emerging evidence of oligodendrocyte heterogeneity in health and disease and divergent CNS gene expression profiles between mice and humans supports the development of experimentally tractable human myelination systems. Here, we developed human iPSC-derived myelinating organoids ("myelinoids") and quantitative tools to study myelination from oligodendrogenesis through to compact myelin formation and myelinated axon organization. Using patient-derived cells, we modeled a monogenetic disease of myelinated axons (Nfasc155 deficiency), recapitulating impaired paranodal axo-glial junction formation. We also validated the use of myelinoids for pharmacological assessment of myelination-both at the level of individual oligodendrocytes and globally across whole myelinoids-and demonstrated reduced myelination in response to suppressed synaptic vesicle release. Our study provides a platform to investigate human myelin development, disease, and adaptive myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen G James
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Bhuvaneish T Selvaraj
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Dario Magnani
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Karen Burr
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Peter Connick
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Samantha K Barton
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Navneet A Vasistha
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Biotech Research and Innovation Centre, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - David W Hampton
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - David Story
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Robert Smigiel
- Department of Pediatrics and Rare Disorders, Wroclaw Medical University, Wrocław 51-618, Poland
| | - Rafal Ploski
- Department of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw 02-106, Poland
| | - Peter J Brophy
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | | | - David A Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Brain Development and Repair, inStem, Bangalore 560065, India.
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223
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Badanjak K, Fixemer S, Smajić S, Skupin A, Grünewald A. The Contribution of Microglia to Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4676. [PMID: 33925154 PMCID: PMC8125756 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
With the world's population ageing, the incidence of Parkinson's disease (PD) is on the rise. In recent years, inflammatory processes have emerged as prominent contributors to the pathology of PD. There is great evidence that microglia have a significant neuroprotective role, and that impaired and over activated microglial phenotypes are present in brains of PD patients. Thereby, PD progression is potentially driven by a vicious cycle between dying neurons and microglia through the instigation of oxidative stress, mitophagy and autophagy dysfunctions, a-synuclein accumulation, and pro-inflammatory cytokine release. Hence, investigating the involvement of microglia is of great importance for future research and treatment of PD. The purpose of this review is to highlight recent findings concerning the microglia-neuronal interplay in PD with a focus on human postmortem immunohistochemistry and single-cell studies, their relation to animal and iPSC-derived models, newly emerging technologies, and the resulting potential of new anti-inflammatory therapies for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Badanjak
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, L-4367 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; (K.B.); (S.F.); (S.S.); (A.S.)
| | - Sonja Fixemer
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, L-4367 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; (K.B.); (S.F.); (S.S.); (A.S.)
- Luxembourg Centre for Neuropathology (LCNP), L-3555 Dudelange, Luxembourg
| | - Semra Smajić
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, L-4367 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; (K.B.); (S.F.); (S.S.); (A.S.)
| | - Alexander Skupin
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, L-4367 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; (K.B.); (S.F.); (S.S.); (A.S.)
- Department of Neuroscience, University California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Anne Grünewald
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, L-4367 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; (K.B.); (S.F.); (S.S.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
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224
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Jiang P, Turkalj L, Xu R. High-Fidelity Modeling of Human Microglia with Pluripotent Stem Cells. Cell Stem Cell 2021; 26:629-631. [PMID: 32386554 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2020.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Gosselin et al. (2017) reported that a tissue-environment-dependent transcriptional network specifies human microglia identity and that in vitro environments drastically alter the human microglia transcriptome. Recent 3-dimensional culture and human-mouse chimeric brain modeling systems developed using human pluripotent stem cells help us understand the complex properties of human microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Jiang
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
| | - Luka Turkalj
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Ranjie Xu
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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225
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Liput M, Magliaro C, Kuczynska Z, Zayat V, Ahluwalia A, Buzanska L. Tools and approaches for analyzing the role of mitochondria in health, development and disease using human cerebral organoids. Dev Neurobiol 2021; 81:591-607. [PMID: 33725382 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are cellular organelles involved in generating energy to power various processes in the cell. Although the pivotal role of mitochondria in neurogenesis was demonstrated (first in animal models), very little is known about their role in human embryonic neurodevelopment and its pathology. In this respect human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC)-derived cerebral organoids provide a tractable, alternative model system of the early neural development and disease that is responsive to pharmacological and genetic manipulations, not possible to apply in humans. Although the involvement of mitochondria in the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative diseases and brain dysfunction has been demonstrated, the precise role they play in cell life and death remains unknown, compromising the development of new mitochondria-targeted approaches to treat human diseases. The cerebral organoid model of neurogenesis and disease in vitro provides an unprecedented opportunity to answer some of the most fundamental questions about mitochondrial function in early human neurodevelopment and neural pathology. Largely an unexplored territory due to the lack of tools and approaches, this review focuses on recent technological advancements in fluorescent and molecular tools, imaging systems, and computational approaches for quantitative and qualitative analyses of mitochondrial structure and function in three-dimensional cellular assemblies-cerebral organoids. Future developments in this direction will further facilitate our understanding of the important role or mitochondrial dynamics and energy requirements during early embryonic development. This in turn will provide a further understanding of how dysfunctional mitochondria contribute to disease processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Liput
- Department of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Chiara Magliaro
- Research Centre "E. Piaggio", and Department of Information Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Zuzanna Kuczynska
- Department of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Valery Zayat
- Department of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Arti Ahluwalia
- Research Centre "E. Piaggio", and Department of Information Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Leonora Buzanska
- Department of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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226
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Albert K, Niskanen J, Kälvälä S, Lehtonen Š. Utilising Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells in Neurodegenerative Disease Research: Focus on Glia. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094334. [PMID: 33919317 PMCID: PMC8122303 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a self-renewable pool of cells derived from an organism's somatic cells. These can then be programmed to other cell types, including neurons. Use of iPSCs in research has been two-fold as they have been used for human disease modelling as well as for the possibility to generate new therapies. Particularly in complex human diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases, iPSCs can give advantages over traditional animal models in that they more accurately represent the human genome. Additionally, patient-derived cells can be modified using gene editing technology and further transplanted to the brain. Glial cells have recently become important avenues of research in the field of neurodegenerative diseases, for example, in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. This review focuses on using glial cells (astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes) derived from human iPSCs in order to give a better understanding of how these cells contribute to neurodegenerative disease pathology. Using glia iPSCs in in vitro cell culture, cerebral organoids, and intracranial transplantation may give us future insight into both more accurate models and disease-modifying therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Albert
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK;
| | - Jonna Niskanen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland; (J.N.); (S.K.)
| | - Sara Kälvälä
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland; (J.N.); (S.K.)
| | - Šárka Lehtonen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland; (J.N.); (S.K.)
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Correspondence:
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227
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Chan WK, Fetit R, Griffiths R, Marshall H, Mason JO, Price DJ. Using organoids to study human brain development and evolution. Dev Neurobiol 2021; 81:608-622. [PMID: 33773072 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in methods for making cerebral organoids have opened a window of opportunity to directly study human brain development and disease, countering limitations inherent in non-human-based approaches. Whether freely patterned, guided into a region-specific fate or fused into assembloids, organoids have successfully recapitulated key features of in vivo neurodevelopment, allowing its examination from early to late stages. Although organoids have enormous potential, their effective use relies on understanding the extent of their limitations in accurately reproducing specific processes and components in the developing human brain. Here we review the potential of cerebral organoids to model and study human brain development and evolution and discuss the progress and current challenges in their use for reproducing specific human neurodevelopmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai-Kit Chan
- Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Rana Fetit
- Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Rosie Griffiths
- Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Helen Marshall
- Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - John O Mason
- Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - David J Price
- Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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228
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Zubareva EV, Nadezhdin SV, Nadezhdina NA, Belyaeva VS, Burda YE, Avtina TV, Gudyrev OS, Kolesnik IM, Kulikova SY, Mishenin MO. 3D organotypic cell structures for drug development and Microorganism-Host interaction research. RESEARCH RESULTS IN PHARMACOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.3897/rrpharmacology.7.62118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The article describes a new method of tissue engineering, which is based on the use of three-dimensional multicellular constructs consisting of stem cells that mimic the native tissue in vivo – organoids.
3D cell cultures: The currently existing model systems of three-dimensional cultures are described.
Characteristics of organoids and strategies for their culturing: The main approaches to the fabrication of 3D cell constructs using pluripotent (embryonic and induced) stem cells or adult stem cells are described.
Brain organoids (Cerebral organoids): Organoids of the brain, which are used to study the development of the human brain, are characterized, with the description of biology of generating region-specific cerebral organoids.
Lung organoids: Approaches to the generation of lung organoids are described, by means of pluripotent stem cells and lung tissue cell lines.
Liver organoids: The features of differentiation of stem cells into hepatocyte-like cells and the creation of 3D hepatic organoids are characterized.
Intestinal organoids: The formation of small intestine organoids from stem cells is described.
Osteochondral organoids: Fabrication of osteochondral organoids is characterised.
Use of organoids as test systems for drugs screening: The information on drug screening using organoids is provided.
Using organoids to model infectious diseases and study adaptive responses of microorganisms when interacting with the host: The use of organoids for modeling infectious diseases and studying the adaptive responses of microorganisms when interacting with the host organism is described.
Conclusion: The creation of three-dimensional cell structures that reproduce the structural and functional characteristics of tissue in vivo, makes it possible to study the biology of the body’s development, the features of intercellular interactions, screening drugs and co-cultivating with viruses, bacteria and parasites.
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229
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Sawai T, Hayashi Y, Niikawa T, Shepherd J, Thomas E, Lee TL, Erler A, Watanabe M, Sakaguchi H. Mapping the Ethical Issues of Brain Organoid Research and Application. AJOB Neurosci 2021; 13:81-94. [PMID: 33769221 DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2021.1896603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In 2008, researchers created human three-dimensional neural tissue - known as the pioneering work of "brain organoids." In recent years, some researchers have transplanted human brain organoids into animal brains for applicational purposes. With these experiments have come many ethical concerns. It is thus an urgent task to clarify what is ethically permissible and impermissible in brain organoid research. This paper seeks (1) to sort out the ethical issues related to brain organoid research and application and (2) to propose future directions for additional ethical consideration and policy debates in the field. Toward (1), this paper first outlines the current state of brain organoid research, and then briefly responds to previously raised related ethical concerns. Looking next at anticipated scientific developments in brain organoid research, we will discuss (i) ethical issues related to in vitro brain organoids, (ii) ethical issues raised when brain organoids form complexes or have relationships with other entities, and (iii) ethical issues of research ethics and governance. Finally, in pursuit of (2), we propose research policies that are mindful of the ethics of brain organoid research and application and also suggest the need for an international framework for research and application of brain organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsutomu Sawai
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (WPI-ASHBi), KUIAS Kyoto University.,Center for iPS Cell Research and Application, Kyoto University
| | | | | | | | | | - Tsung-Ling Lee
- Institute of Health and Biotechnology of Law, Taipei Medical University
| | | | - Momoko Watanabe
- University of California Irvine, School of Medicine.,Sue & Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center
| | - Hideya Sakaguchi
- RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, BDR-Otsuka Pharmaceutical Collaboration Center
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230
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Lanjewar SN, Sloan SA. Growing Glia: Cultivating Human Stem Cell Models of Gliogenesis in Health and Disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:649538. [PMID: 33842475 PMCID: PMC8027322 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.649538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Glia are present in all organisms with a central nervous system but considerably differ in their diversity, functions, and numbers. Coordinated efforts across many model systems have contributed to our understanding of glial-glial and neuron-glial interactions during nervous system development and disease, but human glia exhibit prominent species-specific attributes. Limited access to primary samples at critical developmental timepoints constrains our ability to assess glial contributions in human tissues. This challenge has been addressed throughout the past decade via advancements in human stem cell differentiation protocols that now offer the ability to model human astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. Here, we review the use of novel 2D cell culture protocols, 3D organoid models, and bioengineered systems derived from human stem cells to study human glial development and the role of glia in neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Steven A. Sloan
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
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231
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Vieira de Sá R, Cañizares Luna M, Pasterkamp RJ. Advances in Central Nervous System Organoids: A Focus on Organoid-Based Models for Motor Neuron Disease. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2021; 27:213-224. [PMID: 33446055 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2020.0337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite their large societal burden, the development of therapeutic treatments for neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) has been relatively unsuccessful. This is, in part, due to a lack of representative experimental models that reveal fundamental aspects of human brain pathology. Recently, assays for in vitro modeling of the human central nervous system (CNS) have significantly improved with the development of brain and spinal cord organoids. Coupled with induced-pluripotent stem cell and genome editing technologies, CNS organoids are a promising tool for studying neurodegeneration in a patient-specific manner. An extensive array of protocols for the generation of organoids for different brain regions has been developed and used for studying neurodegenerative and other brain diseases. However, their application in the field of motor neuron disease (MND) has been limited due to a lack of adequate organoid models. The development of protocols to derive spinal cord and trunk organoids and progress in the field of assembloids are providing new opportunities for modeling MND. In this study here we review recent advances in the development of CNS organoid models, their application in NDDs, and technical limitations. Finally, we discuss future perspectives for the development of organoid-based systems for MND and provide a framework for their development. Impact statement Animal models and two-dimensional cultures are currently the main platforms for studying neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). However, central nervous system (CNS) organoid technology offers novel possibilities for studying these diseases. Organoid modeling in combination with emerging organ-on-a-chip approaches, induced-pluripotent stem cell technology, and genome editing render in vitro modeling of NDDs more robust and physiologically relevant. In this study, we review the principles underlying CNS organoid generation, their use in NDD research, and future perspectives in organoid technology. Finally, we discuss how advances in different fields could be combined to generate a multisystem organoid-on-a-chip model to investigate a specific class of NDDs, motor neuron diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Vieira de Sá
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marta Cañizares Luna
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - R Jeroen Pasterkamp
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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232
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Flexible and Accurate Substrate Processing with Distinct Presenilin/γ-Secretases in Human Cortical Neurons. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0500-20.2021. [PMID: 33608391 PMCID: PMC7932187 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0500-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the presenilin genes (PS1, PS2) have been linked to the majority of familial Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Although great efforts have been made to investigate pathogenic PS mutations, which ultimately cause an increase in the toxic form of β-amyloid (Aβ), the intrinsic physiological functions of PS in human neurons remain to be determined. In this study, to investigate the physiological roles of PS in human neurons, we generated PS1 conditional knock-out (KO) induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), in which PS1 can be selectively abrogated under Cre transduction with or without additional PS2 KO. We showed that iPSC-derived neural progenitor cells (NPCs) do not confer a maintenance ability in the absence of both PS1 and PS2, showing the essential role of PS in Notch signaling. We then generated PS-null human cortical neurons, where PS1 was intact until full neuronal differentiation occurred. Aβ40 production was reduced exclusively in human PS1/PS2-null neurons along with a concomitant accumulation of amyloid β precursor protein (APP)-C-terminal fragments CTFs, whereas Aβ42 was decreased in neurons devoid of PS2. Unlike previous studies in mice, in which APP cleavage is largely attributable to PS1, γ-secretase activity seemed to be comparable between PS1 and PS2. In contrast, cleavage of another substrate, N-cadherin, was impaired only in neurons devoid of PS1. Moreover, PS2/γ-secretase exists largely in late endosomes/lysosomes, as measured by specific antibody against the γ-secretase complex, in which Aβ42 species are supposedly produced. Using this novel stem cell-based platform, we assessed important physiological PS1/PS2 functions in mature human neurons, the dysfunction of which could underlie AD pathogenesis.
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233
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Tanaka Y, Park IH. Regional specification and complementation with non-neuroectodermal cells in human brain organoids. J Mol Med (Berl) 2021; 99:489-500. [PMID: 33651139 PMCID: PMC8026433 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-021-02051-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Along with emergence of the organoids, their application in biomedical research has been currently one of the most fascinating themes. For the past few years, scientists have made significant contributions to deriving organoids representing the whole brain and specific brain regions. Coupled with somatic cell reprogramming and CRISPR/Cas9 editing, the organoid technologies were applied for disease modeling and drug screening. The methods to develop organoids further improved for rapid and efficient generation of cerebral organoids. Additionally, refining the methods to develop the regionally specified brain organoids enabled the investigation of development and interaction of the specific brain regions. Recent studies started resolving the issue in the lack of non-neuroectodermal cells in brain organoids, including vascular endothelial cells and microglia, which play fundamental roles in neurodevelopment and are involved in the pathophysiology of acute and chronic neural disorders. In this review, we highlight recent advances of neuronal organoid technologies, focusing on the region-specific brain organoids and complementation with endothelial cells and microglia, and discuss their potential applications to neuronal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiaki Tanaka
- Department of Genetics, Yale Stem Cell Center, Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.,Department of Medicine, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Center, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - In-Hyun Park
- Department of Genetics, Yale Stem Cell Center, Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
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234
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Guttikonda SR, Sikkema L, Tchieu J, Saurat N, Walsh R, Harschnitz O, Ciceri G, Sneeboer M, Mazutis L, Setty M, Zumbo P, Betel D, de Witte LD, Pe’er D, Studer L. Fully defined human pluripotent stem cell-derived microglia and tri-culture system model C3 production in Alzheimer's disease. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:343-354. [PMID: 33558694 PMCID: PMC8382543 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-00796-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Aberrant inflammation in the CNS has been implicated as a major player in the pathogenesis of human neurodegenerative disease. We developed a new approach to derive microglia from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) and built a defined hPSC-derived tri-culture system containing pure populations of hPSC-derived microglia, astrocytes, and neurons to dissect cellular cross-talk along the neuroinflammatory axis in vitro. We used the tri-culture system to model neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease with hPSCs harboring the APPSWE+/+ mutation and their isogenic control. We found that complement C3, a protein that is increased under inflammatory conditions and implicated in synaptic loss, is potentiated in tri-culture and further enhanced in APPSWE+/+ tri-cultures due to microglia initiating reciprocal signaling with astrocytes to produce excess C3. Our study defines the major cellular players contributing to increased C3 in Alzheimer's disease and presents a broadly applicable platform to study neuroinflammation in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudha R. Guttikonda
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Weill Cornell/Rockefeller/Sloan Kettering Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Lisa Sikkema
- Computational and Systems Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Metastasis & Tumor Ecosystems Center, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Jason Tchieu
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Nathalie Saurat
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Ryan Walsh
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Oliver Harschnitz
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Gabriele Ciceri
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Marjolein Sneeboer
- Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Linas Mazutis
- Computational and Systems Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Metastasis & Tumor Ecosystems Center, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Manu Setty
- Computational and Systems Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Metastasis & Tumor Ecosystems Center, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Paul Zumbo
- Applied Bioinformatics Core & Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Doron Betel
- Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Lot D. de Witte
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY Mount Sinai Medical Center,Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Dana Pe’er
- Computational and Systems Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Metastasis & Tumor Ecosystems Center, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Lorenz Studer
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY 10065 USA,Correspondence to: Dr. Lorenz Studer, The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Ave, Box 256, New York, NY 10065, Phone: 212-639-6126,
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235
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Mansour AA, Schafer ST, Gage FH. Cellular complexity in brain organoids: Current progress and unsolved issues. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 111:32-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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236
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Pons-Espinal M, Blasco-Agell L, Consiglio A. Dissecting the non-neuronal cell contribution to Parkinson's disease pathogenesis using induced pluripotent stem cells. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:2081-2094. [PMID: 33210214 PMCID: PMC7966189 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03700-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is an incurable age-linked neurodegenerative disease with characteristic movement impairments that are caused by the progressive loss of dopamine-containing neurons (DAn) within the substantia nigra pars compacta. It has been suggested that misfolded protein aggregates together with neuroinflammation and glial reactivity, may impact nerve cell function, leading to neurodegeneration and diseases, such as PD. However, not many studies have been able to examine the role of human glial cells in the pathogenesis of PD. With the advent of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology, it is now possible to reprogram human somatic cells to pluripotency and to generate viable human patient-specific DA neurons and glial cells, providing a tremendous opportunity for dissecting cellular and molecular pathological mechanisms occurring at early stages of PD. This reviews will report on recent work using human iPSC and 3D brain organoid models showing that iPSC technology can be used to recapitulate PD-relevant disease-associated phenotypes, including protein aggregation, cell death or loss of neurite complexity and deficient autophagic vacuoles clearance and focus on the recent co-culture systems that are revealing new insights into the complex interactions that occur between different brain cell types during neurodegeneration. Consequently, such advances are the key to improve our understanding of PD pathology and generate potential targets for new therapies aimed at curing PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meritxell Pons-Espinal
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bellvitge University Hospital-IDIBELL, 08908, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain.
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB) of the University of Barcelona (UB), 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Lucas Blasco-Agell
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bellvitge University Hospital-IDIBELL, 08908, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB) of the University of Barcelona (UB), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonella Consiglio
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bellvitge University Hospital-IDIBELL, 08908, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain.
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB) of the University of Barcelona (UB), 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Piazza del Mercato, 15, 25121, Brescia, BS, Italy.
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237
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Aldewachi H, Al-Zidan RN, Conner MT, Salman MM. High-Throughput Screening Platforms in the Discovery of Novel Drugs for Neurodegenerative Diseases. Bioengineering (Basel) 2021; 8:30. [PMID: 33672148 PMCID: PMC7926814 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering8020030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are incurable and debilitating conditions that result in progressive degeneration and/or death of nerve cells in the central nervous system (CNS). Identification of viable therapeutic targets and new treatments for CNS disorders and in particular, for NDDs is a major challenge in the field of drug discovery. These difficulties can be attributed to the diversity of cells involved, extreme complexity of the neural circuits, the limited capacity for tissue regeneration, and our incomplete understanding of the underlying pathological processes. Drug discovery is a complex and multidisciplinary process. The screening attrition rate in current drug discovery protocols mean that only one viable drug may arise from millions of screened compounds resulting in the need to improve discovery technologies and protocols to address the multiple causes of attrition. This has identified the need to screen larger libraries where the use of efficient high-throughput screening (HTS) becomes key in the discovery process. HTS can investigate hundreds of thousands of compounds per day. However, if fewer compounds could be screened without compromising the probability of success, the cost and time would be largely reduced. To that end, recent advances in computer-aided design, in silico libraries, and molecular docking software combined with the upscaling of cell-based platforms have evolved to improve screening efficiency with higher predictability and clinical applicability. We review, here, the increasing role of HTS in contemporary drug discovery processes, in particular for NDDs, and evaluate the criteria underlying its successful application. We also discuss the requirement of HTS for novel NDD therapies and examine the major current challenges in validating new drug targets and developing new treatments for NDDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasan Aldewachi
- Biomolecular Sciences Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK;
- College of Pharmacy, Nineveh University, Mosul 41002, Iraq
| | - Radhwan N. Al-Zidan
- College of Pharmacy, University of Mosul, Mosul 41002, Iraq;
- School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH11 4BN, UK
| | - Matthew T. Conner
- School of Sciences, Research Institute in Healthcare Science, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK;
| | - Mootaz M. Salman
- College of Pharmacy, University of Mosul, Mosul 41002, Iraq;
- Oxford Parkinson’s Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
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238
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Azzarelli R, Ori M, Philpott A, Simons BD. Three-dimensional model of glioblastoma by co-culturing tumor stem cells with human brain organoids. Biol Open 2021; 10:bio056416. [PMID: 33619017 PMCID: PMC7928227 DOI: 10.1242/bio.056416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging three-dimensional (3D) cultures of glioblastoma are becoming powerful models to study glioblastoma stem cell behavior and the impact of cell-cell and cell-microenvironment interactions on tumor growth and invasion. Here we describe a method for culturing human glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) in 3D by co-culturing them with pluripotent stem cell-derived brain organoids. This requires multiple coordinated steps, including the generation of cerebral organoids, and the growth and fluorescence tagging of GSCs. We highlight how to recognize optimal organoid generation and how to efficiently mark GSCs, before describing optimized co-culture conditions. We show that GSCs can efficiently integrate into brain organoids and maintain a significant degree of cell fate heterogeneity, paving the way for the analysis of GSC fate behavior and lineage progression. These results establish the 3D culture system as a viable and versatile GBM model for investigating tumor cell biology and GSC heterogeneity.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Azzarelli
- Wellcome - MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0AW, UK
- Department of Oncology, University of Cambridge, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0XZ, UK
- Department of Biology, Unit of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Pisa, S.S. 12 Abetone e Brennero 4, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Michela Ori
- Department of Biology, Unit of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Pisa, S.S. 12 Abetone e Brennero 4, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Anna Philpott
- Wellcome - MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0AW, UK
- Department of Oncology, University of Cambridge, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0XZ, UK
| | - Benjamin D Simons
- Wellcome - MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0AW, UK
- The Wellcome Trust - Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge, CB3 0WA, UK
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239
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Crosstalk between Different DNA Repair Pathways Contributes to Neurodegenerative Diseases. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10020163. [PMID: 33669593 PMCID: PMC7922961 DOI: 10.3390/biology10020163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Constant exposure to endogenous and environmental factors induces oxidative stress and DNA damage. Rare brain disorders caused by defects in DNA repair and DNA damage response (DDR) signaling establish that failure to process DNA damage may lead to neurodegeneration. In this review, we present mechanisms that link DDR with neurodegeneration in these disorders and discuss their relevance for common age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Moreover, we highlight recent insight into the crosstalk between the DDR and other cellular processes known to be disturbed during NDDs. Abstract Genomic integrity is maintained by DNA repair and the DNA damage response (DDR). Defects in certain DNA repair genes give rise to many rare progressive neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), such as ocular motor ataxia, Huntington disease (HD), and spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA). Dysregulation or dysfunction of DDR is also proposed to contribute to more common NDDs, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Here, we present mechanisms that link DDR with neurodegeneration in rare NDDs caused by defects in the DDR and discuss the relevance for more common age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, we highlight recent insight into the crosstalk between the DDR and other cellular processes known to be disturbed during NDDs. We compare the strengths and limitations of established model systems to model human NDDs, ranging from C. elegans and mouse models towards advanced stem cell-based 3D models.
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240
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Lee J, Koehler KR. Skin organoids: A new human model for developmental and translational research. Exp Dermatol 2021; 30:613-620. [PMID: 33507537 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Culturing skin cells outside of the body has been a cornerstone of dermatological investigation for many years; however, human skin equivalent systems typically lack the full complexity of native skin. Notably, skin appendages, such as hair follicles and sweat glands, remain a challenge to generate or maintain in cell cultures and reconstruct in damaged skin. Recent work from our lab has demonstrated methods for generating appendage-bearing skin tissue-known as skin organoids-from pluripotent stem cells. Here, we will summarize this work and other related works, and then discuss the potential future applications of skin organoids in dermatological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyoon Lee
- Department of Otolaryngology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Karl R Koehler
- Department of Otolaryngology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Plastic and Oral Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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241
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Epigenetics and Communication Mechanisms in Microglia Activation with a View on Technological Approaches. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11020306. [PMID: 33670563 PMCID: PMC7923060 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglial cells, the immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), play a crucial role for the proper brain development and function and in CNS homeostasis. While in physiological conditions, microglia continuously check the state of brain parenchyma, in pathological conditions, microglia can show different activated phenotypes: In the early phases, microglia acquire the M2 phenotype, increasing phagocytosis and releasing neurotrophic and neuroprotective factors. In advanced phases, they acquire the M1 phenotype, becoming neurotoxic and contributing to neurodegeneration. Underlying this phenotypic change, there is a switch in the expression of specific microglial genes, in turn modulated by epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, histones post-translational modifications and activity of miRNAs. New roles are attributed to microglial cells, including specific communication with neurons, both through direct cell–cell contact and by release of many different molecules, either directly or indirectly, through extracellular vesicles. In this review, recent findings on the bidirectional interaction between neurons and microglia, in both physiological and pathological conditions, are highlighted, with a focus on the complex field of microglia immunomodulation through epigenetic mechanisms and/or released factors. In addition, advanced technologies used to study these mechanisms, such as microfluidic, 3D culture and in vivo imaging, are presented.
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242
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Jacob F, Schnoll JG, Song H, Ming GL. Building the brain from scratch: Engineering region-specific brain organoids from human stem cells to study neural development and disease. Curr Top Dev Biol 2021; 142:477-530. [PMID: 33706925 PMCID: PMC8363060 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2020.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Human brain development is an intricate process that involves precisely timed coordination of cell proliferation, fate specification, neuronal differentiation, migration, and integration of diverse cell types. Understanding of these fundamental processes, however, has been largely constrained by limited access to fetal brain tissue and the inability to prospectively study neurodevelopment in humans at the molecular, cellular and system levels. Although non-human model organisms have provided important insights into mechanisms underlying brain development, these systems do not fully recapitulate many human-specific features that often relate to disease. To address these challenges, human brain organoids, self-assembled three-dimensional neural aggregates, have been engineered from human pluripotent stem cells to model the architecture and cellular diversity of the developing human brain. Recent advancements in neural induction and regional patterning using small molecules and growth factors have yielded protocols for generating brain organoids that recapitulate the structure and neuronal composition of distinct brain regions. Here, we first provide an overview of early mammalian brain development with an emphasis on molecular cues that guide region specification. We then focus on recent efforts in generating human brain organoids that model the development of specific brain regions and highlight endeavors to enhance the cellular complexity to better mimic the in vivo developing human brain. We also provide examples of how organoid models have enhanced our understanding of human neurological diseases and conclude by discussing limitations of brain organoids with our perspectives on future advancements to maximize their potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fadi Jacob
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States; Medical Scientist Training Program, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jordan G Schnoll
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Hongjun Song
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; The Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Guo-Li Ming
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
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243
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Ramani A, Pranty AI, Gopalakrishnan J. Neurotropic Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Modeled by the Human Brain Organoids. Stem Cell Reports 2021; 16:373-384. [PMID: 33631123 PMCID: PMC7879157 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, is a socioeconomic burden, which exhibits respiratory illness along with unexpected neurological complications. Concerns have been raised about whether the observed neurological symptoms are due to direct effects on CNS or associated with the virus's systemic effect. Recent SARS-CoV-2 infection studies using human brain organoids revealed that SARS-CoV-2 targets human neurons. Human brain organoids are stem cell-derived reductionist experimental systems that have highlighted the neurotropic effects of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we summarize the neurotoxic effects of SARS-CoV-2 using brain organoids and comprehensively discuss how brain organoids could further improve our understanding when they are fine-tuned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Ramani
- Institute of Human Genetics, Universitätsklinikum Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universität Street 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Abida-Islam Pranty
- Institute of Human Genetics, Universitätsklinikum Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universität Street 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jay Gopalakrishnan
- Institute of Human Genetics, Universitätsklinikum Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universität Street 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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244
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Prinz M, Masuda T, Wheeler MA, Quintana FJ. Microglia and Central Nervous System-Associated Macrophages-From Origin to Disease Modulation. Annu Rev Immunol 2021; 39:251-277. [PMID: 33556248 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-093019-110159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The immune system of the central nervous system (CNS) consists primarily of innate immune cells. These are highly specialized macrophages found either in the parenchyma, called microglia, or at the CNS interfaces, such as leptomeningeal, perivascular, and choroid plexus macrophages. While they were primarily thought of as phagocytes, their function extends well beyond simple removal of cell debris during development and diseases. Brain-resident innate immune cells were found to be plastic, long-lived, and host to an outstanding number of risk genes for multiple pathologies. As a result, they are now considered the most suitable targets for modulating CNS diseases. Additionally, recent single-cell technologies enhanced our molecular understanding of their origins, fates, interactomes, and functional cell statesduring health and perturbation. Here, we review the current state of our understanding and challenges of the myeloid cell biology in the CNS and treatment options for related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany; .,Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies and Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies (CIBSS), University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Takahiro Masuda
- Department of Molecular and System Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, 812-8582 Fukuoka, Japan;
| | - Michael A Wheeler
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA; , .,Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Francisco J Quintana
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA; , .,Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
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245
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Pembroke WG, Hartl CL, Geschwind DH. Evolutionary conservation and divergence of the human brain transcriptome. Genome Biol 2021; 22:52. [PMID: 33514394 PMCID: PMC7844938 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-020-02257-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mouse models have allowed for the direct interrogation of genetic effects on molecular, physiological, and behavioral brain phenotypes. However, it is unknown to what extent neurological or psychiatric traits may be human- or primate-specific and therefore which components can be faithfully recapitulated in mouse models. Results We compare conservation of co-expression in 116 independent data sets derived from human, mouse, and non-human primate representing more than 15,000 total samples. We observe greater changes occurring on the human lineage than mouse, and substantial regional variation that highlights cerebral cortex as the most diverged region. Glia, notably microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes are the most divergent cell type, three times more on average than neurons. We show that cis-regulatory sequence divergence explains a significant fraction of co-expression divergence. Moreover, protein coding sequence constraint parallels co-expression conservation, such that genes with loss of function intolerance are enriched in neuronal, rather than glial modules. We identify dozens of human neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disease risk genes, such as COMT, PSEN-1, LRRK2, SHANK3, and SNCA, with highly divergent co-expression between mouse and human and show that 3D human brain organoids recapitulate in vivo co-expression modules representing several human cell types. Conclusions We identify robust co-expression modules reflecting whole-brain and regional patterns of gene expression. Compared with those that represent basic metabolic processes, cell-type-specific modules, most prominently glial modules, are the most divergent between species. These data and analyses serve as a foundational resource to guide human disease modeling and its interpretation. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13059-020-02257-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- William G Pembroke
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Christopher L Hartl
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Daniel H Geschwind
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA. .,Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA. .,Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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246
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Gong J, Meng T, Yang J, Hu N, Zhao H, Tian T. Three-dimensional in vitro tissue culture models of brain organoids. Exp Neurol 2021; 339:113619. [PMID: 33497645 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Brain organoids are three-dimensional self-assembled structures that are derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs). They can recapitulate the spatiotemporal organization and function of the brain, presenting a robust system for in vitro modeling of brain development, evolution, and diseases. Significant advances in biomaterials, microscale technologies, gene editing technologies, and stem cell biology have enabled the construction of human specific brain structures in vitro. However, the limitations of long-term culture, necrosis, and hypoxic cores in different culture models obstruct brain organoid growth and survival. The in vitro models should facilitate oxygen and nutrient absorption, which is essential to generate complex organoids and provides a biomimetic microenvironment for modeling human brain organogenesis and human diseases. This review aims to highlight the progress in the culture devices of brain organoids, including dish, bioreactor, and organ-on-a-chip models. With the modulation of bioactive molecules and biomaterials, the generated organoids recapitulate the key features of the human brain in a more reproducible and hyperoxic fashion. Furthermore, an outlook for future preclinical studies and the genetic modifications of brain organoids is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Gong
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Tianyue Meng
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Ning Hu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Hezhao Zhao
- Gastrointestinal Cancer Center, Chongqing University Cancer Hospital, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Tian Tian
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China.
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247
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Spijkers XM, Pasteuning-Vuhman S, Dorleijn JC, Vulto P, Wevers NR, Pasterkamp RJ. A directional 3D neurite outgrowth model for studying motor axon biology and disease. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2080. [PMID: 33483540 PMCID: PMC7822896 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81335-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
We report a method to generate a 3D motor neuron model with segregated and directed axonal outgrowth. iPSC-derived motor neurons are cultured in extracellular matrix gel in a microfluidic platform. Neurons extend their axons into an adjacent layer of gel, whereas dendrites and soma remain predominantly in the somal compartment, as verified by immunofluorescent staining. Axonal outgrowth could be precisely quantified and was shown to respond to the chemotherapeutic drug vincristine in a highly reproducible dose-dependent manner. The model was shown susceptible to excitotoxicity upon exposure with excess glutamate and showed formation of stress granules upon excess glutamate or sodium arsenite exposure, mimicking processes common in motor neuron diseases. Importantly, outgrowing axons could be attracted and repelled through a gradient of axonal guidance cues, such as semaphorins. The platform comprises 40 chips arranged underneath a microtiter plate providing both throughput and compatibility to standard laboratory equipment. The model will thus prove ideal for studying axonal biology and disease, drug discovery and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xandor M. Spijkers
- grid.474144.6MIMETAS BV, Organ-On-a-Chip Company, 2333 CH Leiden, The Netherlands ,grid.5477.10000000120346234Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Svetlana Pasteuning-Vuhman
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jennifa C. Dorleijn
- grid.474144.6MIMETAS BV, Organ-On-a-Chip Company, 2333 CH Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Vulto
- grid.474144.6MIMETAS BV, Organ-On-a-Chip Company, 2333 CH Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Nienke R. Wevers
- grid.474144.6MIMETAS BV, Organ-On-a-Chip Company, 2333 CH Leiden, The Netherlands ,grid.10419.3d0000000089452978Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Einthovenweg 20, 2333 ZC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - R. Jeroen Pasterkamp
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Department of Translational Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
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248
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Reis de Assis D, Szabo A, Requena Osete J, Puppo F, O’Connell KS, A. Akkouh I, Hughes T, Frei E, A. Andreassen O, Djurovic S. Using iPSC Models to Understand the Role of Estrogen in Neuron-Glia Interactions in Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder. Cells 2021; 10:209. [PMID: 33494281 PMCID: PMC7909800 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BIP) are severe mental disorders with a considerable disease burden worldwide due to early age of onset, chronicity, and lack of efficient treatments or prevention strategies. Whilst our current knowledge is that SCZ and BIP are highly heritable and share common pathophysiological mechanisms associated with cellular signaling, neurotransmission, energy metabolism, and neuroinflammation, the development of novel therapies has been hampered by the unavailability of appropriate models to identify novel targetable pathomechanisms. Recent data suggest that neuron-glia interactions are disturbed in SCZ and BIP, and are modulated by estrogen (E2). However, most of the knowledge we have so far on the neuromodulatory effects of E2 came from studies on animal models and human cell lines, and may not accurately reflect many processes occurring exclusively in the human brain. Thus, here we highlight the advantages of using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models to revisit studies of mechanisms underlying beneficial effects of E2 in human brain cells. A better understanding of these mechanisms opens the opportunity to identify putative targets of novel therapeutic agents for SCZ and BIP. In this review, we first summarize the literature on the molecular mechanisms involved in SCZ and BIP pathology and the beneficial effects of E2 on neuron-glia interactions. Then, we briefly present the most recent developments in the iPSC field, emphasizing the potential of using patient-derived iPSCs as more relevant models to study the effects of E2 on neuron-glia interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Reis de Assis
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Attila Szabo
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jordi Requena Osete
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Francesca Puppo
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Kevin S. O’Connell
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
| | - Ibrahim A. Akkouh
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Timothy Hughes
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Evgeniia Frei
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole A. Andreassen
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0372 Oslo, Norway
| | - Srdjan Djurovic
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo & Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway; (A.S.); (J.R.O.); (F.P.); (K.S.O.); (I.A.A.); (T.H.); (E.F.); (O.A.A.)
- NORMENT, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, 5020 Bergen, Norway
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Pérez MJ, Ivanyuk D, Panagiotakopoulou V, Di Napoli G, Kalb S, Brunetti D, Al-Shaana R, Kaeser SA, Fraschka SAK, Jucker M, Zeviani M, Viscomi C, Deleidi M. Loss of function of the mitochondrial peptidase PITRM1 induces proteotoxic stress and Alzheimer's disease-like pathology in human cerebral organoids. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:5733-5750. [PMID: 32632204 PMCID: PMC8758476 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-0807-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in pitrilysin metallopeptidase 1 (PITRM1), a mitochondrial protease involved in mitochondrial precursor processing and degradation, result in a slow-progressing syndrome characterized by cerebellar ataxia, psychotic episodes, and obsessive behavior, as well as cognitive decline. To investigate the pathogenetic mechanisms of mitochondrial presequence processing, we employed cortical neurons and cerebral organoids generated from PITRM1-knockout human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). PITRM1 deficiency strongly induced mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) and enhanced mitochondrial clearance in iPSC-derived neurons. Furthermore, we observed increased levels of amyloid precursor protein and amyloid β in PITRM1-knockout neurons. However, neither cell death nor protein aggregates were observed in 2D iPSC-derived cortical neuronal cultures. On the other hand, over time, cerebral organoids generated from PITRM1-knockout iPSCs spontaneously developed pathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD), including the accumulation of protein aggregates, tau pathology, and neuronal cell death. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed a perturbation of mitochondrial function in all cell types in PITRM1-knockout cerebral organoids, whereas immune transcriptional signatures were substantially dysregulated in astrocytes. Importantly, we provide evidence of a protective role of UPRmt and mitochondrial clearance against impaired mitochondrial presequence processing and proteotoxic stress. Here, we propose a novel concept of PITRM1-linked neurological syndrome whereby defects of mitochondrial presequence processing induce an early activation of UPRmt that, in turn, modulates cytosolic quality control pathways. Thus, our work supports a mechanistic link between mitochondrial function and common neurodegenerative proteinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- María José Pérez
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dina Ivanyuk
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Vasiliki Panagiotakopoulou
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gabriele Di Napoli
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Kalb
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dario Brunetti
- grid.4708.b0000 0004 1757 2822Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Rawaa Al-Shaana
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stephan A. Kaeser
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sabine Anne-Kristin Fraschka
- DFG NGS Competence Center Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mathias Jucker
- grid.424247.30000 0004 0438 0426German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany ,grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Massimo Zeviani
- grid.462573.10000 0004 0427 1414MRC-Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Cambridge, CB2 0XY UK
| | - Carlo Viscomi
- grid.462573.10000 0004 0427 1414MRC-Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Cambridge, CB2 0XY UK
| | - Michela Deleidi
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany. .,Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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PsychENCODE and beyond: transcriptomics and epigenomics of brain development and organoids. Neuropsychopharmacology 2021; 46:70-85. [PMID: 32659782 PMCID: PMC7689467 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0763-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Crucial decisions involving cell fate and connectivity that shape the distinctive development of the human brain occur in the embryonic and fetal stages-stages that are difficult to access and investigate in humans. The last decade has seen an impressive increase in resources-from atlases and databases to biological models-that is progressively lifting the curtain on this critical period. In this review, we describe the current state of genomic, transcriptomic, and epigenomic datasets charting the development of normal human brain with a particular focus on recent single-cell technologies. We discuss the emergence of brain organoids generated from pluripotent stem cells as a model to compensate for the limited availability of fetal tissue. Indeed, comparisons of neural lineages, transcriptional dynamics, and noncoding element activity between fetal brain and organoids have helped identify gene regulatory networks functioning at early stages of brain development. Altogether, we argue that large multi-omics investigations have pushed brain development into the "big data" era, and that current and future transversal approaches needed to leverage both fetal brain and organoid resources promise to answer major questions of brain biology and psychiatry.
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