A developmental perspective on executive function

Does preschool executive control mediate the impact of early environmental unpredictability and deprivation on the general factor of psychopathology a decade later?

BACKGROUND

Although deprivation has been consistently shown to increase risk for psychopathology through impaired executive control, the unique effects of other dimensions of early adversity, such as unpredictability, on executive control development are poorly understood. The current study evaluated whether deprivation and/or unpredictability early in life have unique effects on the general factor of psychopathology through impaired preschool executive control.

METHODS

Participants included 312 children (51% female) oversampled for greater sociodemographic risk. Preschool executive control was measured using a battery of nine developmentally appropriate executive control tasks. Dimensions of adversity were measured with observational and caregiver assessments, and psychopathology was measured with caregiver and child reports.

RESULTS

In separate models, both deprivation and unpredictability had significant indirect effects on the adolescent general factor of psychopathology through impaired preschool executive control. However, when both dimensions of adversity were included simultaneously, early life deprivation, but not unpredictability, was uniquely associated with the general factor of psychopathology in adolescence through impaired preschool executive control.

CONCLUSIONS

Preschool executive control appears to be a transdiagnostic mechanism through which deprivation, but not unpredictability, increases risk for the general factor of psychopathology in adolescence. Results elucidate potential transdiagnostic targets for intervention efforts aimed at reducing the development and maintenance of psychopathology across the life span.

High executive functioning is associated with reduced posttraumatic stress after trauma exposure among male U.S. military personnel

Introduction

Evidence suggests that executive function (EF) may play a key role in development of PTSD, possibly influenced by factors such as trauma type and timing. Since EF can be improved through intervention, it may be an important target for promoting resilience to trauma exposure. However, more research is needed to understand the relation between trauma exposure, EF, and PTSD. The goal of this study was to improve understanding of EF as a potential antecedent or protective factor for the development of PTSD among military personnel.

Method

In a cohort of U.S. Marines and Navy personnel (N = 1,373), the current study tested the association between exposure to traumatic events (pre-deployment and during deployment) and PTSD severity, and whether EF moderated these associations. Three types of pre-deployment trauma exposure were examined: cumulative exposure, which included total number of events participants endorsed as having happened to them, witnessed, or learned about; direct exposure, which included total number of events participants endorsed as having happened to them; and interpersonal exposure, which included total number of interpersonally traumatic events participants' endorsed. EF was measured using the Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery.

Results

EF was associated with less PTSD symptom severity at pre-deployment, even when adjusting for trauma exposure, alcohol use, traumatic brain injury, and number of years in the military. EF also moderated the relation between cumulative trauma exposure and interpersonal trauma exposure and PTSD, with higher EF linked to a 20 and 33% reduction in expected point increase in PTSD symptoms with cumulative and interpersonal trauma exposure, respectively. Finally, higher pre-deployment EF was associated with reduced PTSD symptom severity at post-deployment, independent of deployment-related trauma exposure and adjusting for pre-deployment PTSD.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that EF plays a significant, if small role in the development of PTSD symptoms after trauma exposure among military personnel. These findings provide important considerations for future research and intervention and prevention, specifically, incorporating a focus on improving EF in PTSD treatment.

A Literature Review on the Effects of Exergames on Executive Function in Youth

Exergames (video games that promote cognitive and physical activity simultaneously) benefit executive function in elderly populations. It has been suggested that exergames may induce larger effects than cognitive or exercise training alone, but few reviews have synthesized the causal factors of exergames on executive function from experimental research with youth. This review investigates (1) the various types of exergames and associated comparison conditions (2) the executive function outcome assessments commonly utilized in exergame research with youth (3) the efficacy of exergames by evaluating experimental studies that compared exergaming to cognitive, exercise, and passive control conditions inclusive of effect sizes and (4) the potential mechanisms underlying the changes in executive function induced from exergames. Eligible outcome data were available from 607 participants across ten studies, with the age of participants ranging from 4-21 (M age = 10.46 ). The findings indicate that exergames improve aspects of executive function from both acute and chronic studies. Despite the high variability of exergame contexts, dosage, populations, and outcome assessments, improvements in executive function comparing exergaming to passive control conditions were exhibited across all studies. While there is evidence of exergaming demonstrating advantages over passive control conditions, evidence is mixed when comparing exergaming to sedentary cognitive and exercise comparison conditions. Potential sources of these mixed results and future directions to address current gaps in the field are identified. As video game and technology use grows exponentially and concerns of childhood sedentary behavior and play deprivation increase, evidence-based practices that promote both physical and cognitive activity are needed.

Ice Cream: new virtual reality tool for the assessment of executive functions in children and adolescents: a normative study

This study focuses on the obtention of normative data for participants between 8 and 16 years old who were administered the Ice Cream test, a virtual reality tool designed to evaluate executive functions. The normative sample comprised n = 821 participants (49% female), with an age range of 8 to 16 years old, recruited across nine different testing sites in Spain. Experienced evaluators in psychological assessment, recruited and trained by the developer of the test, administered the test to the recruited sample. An empirical analysis of Ice Cream identified three factors, namely planning, learning and flexibility. Descriptive normative groups by age and gender were initially provided. A homoscedasticity analysis by gender showed no statistically significant differences between male and female participants. Cluster analysis by age suggested the creation of different age groups, respectively, 8 to 11 and 12 to 16 in Planning and Flexibility, and 8 to 9 and 10 to 16 in Learning, and subsequently, descriptive data for the established age groups per factor are shown. A confirmatory factor analysis showed the suitability of the 3 factors established as measured of three differentiated executive functions. Complementary data on the validity and reliability, and internal consistency of the scales are provided. Obtained normative data are relevant for evaluating executive functions in children and adolescents in a more ecological way. Further studies are needed to determine sensitivity and specificity of Ice Cream VR test to measure executive functions in different clinical populations.

Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task and EF in two samples of adolescents in Brazil and United States

Executive function (EF) is a foundational cognitive construct, which is linked to better cognitive and physical health throughout development. The present study examines the construct validity of an EF task, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (HTKS) that was initially developed for young children, in a sample of adolescents. We investigate the initial validity and range in scores between 54 adolescents from Brazil (mean age 12.58) and 56 US adolescents (mean age 12.48) from different socioeconomic contexts. Results indicated that the HTKS showed sufficient variability in both samples, especially for a measure of HTKS efficiency (completion time divided by the total score). The US sample performed better on all cognitive measures. For the Brazilian sample, regression models controlling for age and sex showed a significant relationship between the digit span working memory task, the HTKS total score, and the HTKS efficiency score. The Heart and Flowers cognitive flexibility measure was also included as an independent variable only for the Brazil sample, showing a significant relationship with both HTKS scores. For the US sample, results showed that only the HTKS efficiency score was significantly related to the digit span working memory task. This study highlights the importance of cognitive efficiency measures to achieve greater validity, as they can assess a broader range of performance with different populations. The HTKS showed good ecological validity with two adolescent samples, as it differentiated between populations with high and low socioeconomic status from different cultural contexts.

Contributions of socioeconomic status and cognition to emotion processes and internalizing psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review

This systematic review evaluated evidence from 25 manuscripts regarding three possible relationships of socioeconomic disadvantage (SESD) and cognition to emotion knowledge (EK), emotion regulation (ER), and internalizing psychopathology (IP) across development; a) independent contributions of disadvantage and cognition; b) cognition mediates relations of disadvantage; or c) cognition moderates' relations of disadvantage. Results support associations between SESD and cognition to emotion that differ by cognitive domain and developmental epoch. For EK, in early and middle childhood language and executive functions contribute to EK independent of SESD, and early childhood executive functions may interact with socioeconomic status (SES) to predict prospective EK. Regarding ER, language contributes to ER independent of SES across development and may mediate associations between SES and ER in adolescence. Regarding IP, SES, language, executive function, and general ability have independent contributions to IP across development; in adolescence executive function may mediate or moderate associations between SES and IP. Findings highlight the need for nuanced and developmentally sensitive research on the contributions of SESD and domains of cognition to emotion.

Construction of Meta-Thinking Educational Program Based on Mental-Brain Simulation (MTMBS) and Evaluating its Effectiveness on Executive Functions, Emotion Regulation, and Impulsivity in Children With ADHD: A Resting-State Functional MRI Study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of present research was to make a Meta-Thinking educational program based on mental-brain simulation and to evaluate its effectiveness on executive functions, emotion regulation and impulsivity in children with ADHD.

METHODS

The research method was Embedded Design: Embedded Experimental Model. The research sample included 32 children with ADHD who were randomly assigned to two experimental and control groups. The intervention was implemented for eight sessions of 1.5 hr for the experimental group, and fMRI images were taken from them, while the control group didn't receive any treatment. Finally, using semi-structured interviews, coherent information was collected from the parents of the experimental group about the changes made. Data were analyzed with SPSS-24, MAXQDA, fMRIprep, and FSL software.

RESULTS

The Meta-Thinking Educational Program had effect on performance of ADHD children and suppressed brain regions related to DMN.

CONCLUSION

The Implementation of this educational program plays a vital role in improving psychological problems of children with ADHD.

Examining normative values using the Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery and developmental traits of executive functions among elementary school-aged children in Japan

The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) is a computerized and child-friendly neuropsychological assessment battery that includes subtests aimed at evaluating some aspects of executive functions. Using the CANTAB, this study aims to establish normative values based on the aspects of executive functions among school-aged children in Japan. The participants included 234 children (135 boys and 99 girls aged 6-12 years) enrolled in regular classes, without any clinical records of developmental disorders or educational support. The participants were grouped according to age (6-7, 8-9, and 10-12 years). Four CANTAB subtests, including spatial working memory (SWM) to assess spatial working memory, Stockings of Cambridge (SOC) to evaluate planning, intra/extradimensional set shift (IED) to evaluate attentional set shifting and flexibility, and stop signal task (SST) to evaluate inhibition, were administered to each participant. The results showed that performance in all the CANTAB subtests administered changed with age. Among the subtests, compared with performances in the SOC and IED, those in the SWM and SST improved earlier, thereby indicating that spatial working memory and inhibition develop earlier than planning as well as attentional set shifting and flexibility. Additionally, in the SST subtest, girls made fewer errors than boys did in the 6-7 years group. This study presents normative data of four CANTAB subtests according to age and sex among school-aged children in Japan. We expect that the findings will be used to develop effective tools for the early detection of and support for children with executive dysfunction.

The Relationship between Narrative Skills and Executive Functions across Childhood: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Executive functions (EFs) and narrative competence (NC) are two important predictors of many outcomes in human development. To date, however, it is unclear whether these skills develop synergistically-supporting or opposing each other-or whether they are independent of each other. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to understand if these skills are related to over development and if the magnitude of their association changes over time; differs in typical and atypical development; and changes with EF (inhibition, working memory, flexibility, planning) and NC (oral, written; micro and macrostructural level). For this purpose, 30 studies containing 285 effect sizes were selected and combined. The results show that EFs and NC are weakly associated with each other (r = 0.236, p < 0.001) and that this association decreases with age (b(267) = -0.0144, p = 0.001). They are more associated in preschool and early elementary school grades, becoming more independent after seven years old. Between 3 and 7 years of age, the association seems stronger in atypically developing children and for macrostructural NC. Additionally, before 7 years old, the various EF domains seem to associate indistinctly with NC, and only later specific links between EFs and NC would be observed.

Spatiotemporal evidence uncovers differential neural activity patterns in cognitive and affective conflict control

Studies have shown that there are overlapping neural bases for cognitive and affective conflict control, but whether the neural activity patterns caused by the two types of conflict are similar remains to be explored. The present study utilizes electroencephalogram (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to temporally and spatially analyze the differences between cognitive and affective conflict control. We employ a semantic conflict task which includes blocks of cognitive and affective judgements primed by conflicting and non-conflicting contexts. The results showed a typical neural conflict effect in the cognitive judgment blocks as reflected by greater amplitudes of P2, N400, and the late positive potential (LPP), as well as greater activation of the left pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) and the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) in the conflict condition relative to the non-conflict condition. These patterns did not emerge in the affective judgments, but instead, showed reversed effects of the LPP and in the left SMA. Taken together, these findings suggest that cognitive and affective conflict control result in different neural activity patterns.

Early executive control buffers risk for adolescent psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a global impact on youth mental health, and there is a critical need for research examining individual factors that contribute to increased psychopathology during the pandemic. The current study explored whether executive control (EC) abilities in early childhood interact with COVID-related stress to attenuate risk for adolescent psychopathology during the first 6 months of the pandemic.

METHODS

Participants were 337 youth (49% female) living in a small midwestern city in the United States. Participants completed EC tasks when they were approximately 4.5 years old as part of a longitudinal study investigating cognitive development. At annual laboratory visits during adolescence and before the pandemic, participants (Mage  = 14.57) reported on mental health symptoms. In July and August of 2020, participants (Mage  = 16.57) reported on COVID-related stress and depression, anxiety, and trauma symptoms.

RESULTS

COVID-related stress was associated with increased internalizing problems after controlling for prepandemic symptom levels. Further, the impact of COVID-related stress on adolescent internalizing problems was moderated by preschool EC, with higher levels of EC buffering the effects of COVID-related stress on adolescent internalizing problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the importance of promoting EC early in development, as well as screening for EC deficits and implementing targeted intervention strategies across the lifespan to help reduce the impact of stress on adolescent internalizing problems.

Psychometric evaluation of a working memory assessment measure in young children with Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

Working memory involves the temporary storage and manipulation of information and is frequently an area of challenge for individuals with Down syndrome (DS). Despite the potential benefits of intervention, laboratory assessments of working memory that could capture intervention effects have not undergone rigorous evaluation for use with young children with DS. It is critical to evaluate assessments of working memory in young children with DS to ensure the reliable and accurate measurement of performance.

AIM

This study evaluated an adapted laboratory measure of working memory for young children with DS 2-8 years old.

METHOD

A self-ordered pointing task, the Garage Game, was administered to 78 children with DS (mean = 5.17 years; SD = 1.49). Adaptations were made to the task to minimize potential DS phenotype-related language and motor confounds.

RESULTS

Results indicate that the measure is feasible, scalable, and developmentally sensitive, with minimal floor and practice effects for this population within this chronological and developmental age range.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate that the Garage Game is promising for use in studies of early working memory and treatment trials that aim to support the development of this critical dimension of executive functioning for children with DS.

A plausible role of imagination in pretend play, counterfactual reasoning, and executive functions

A notable observation is the similarities in the cognitive processes of pretend play (PP) and counterfactual reasoning (CFR) as both involve thinking about alternatives to reality. It is argued by Weisberg and Gopnik (Cogn. Sci., 37, 2013, 1368) that alternative thinking in PP and CFR is underpinned by an imaginary representational capacity but few studies have empirically investigated this link. We use a variable latent modelling approach to test a hypothetical model of the structural relationship of PP and CFR predicting that if PP and CFR are cognitively similar; they should have similar patterns of associations with Executive Functions (EFs). Data were collected on PP, CFR, EFs and Language from 189 children (M = 4.8 years, males = 101, females = 88). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that measures of PP and CFR loaded onto single latent constructs and were significantly correlated (r = .51, p = .001) with each other. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that EF accounted for unique significant variance in both PP (β = 21) and CFR (β = 22). The results of the structural equation modelling revealed that the data were a good fit for the hypothetical model. We discuss the plausible role of a general underlying imaginative representational capacity to explain similarities in the cognitive mechanisms of different states of alternative thinking like PP and CFR.

The effects of socioeconomic status on working memory in childhood are partially mediated by intersensory processing of audiovisual events in infancy

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established predictor of individual differences in childhood language and cognitive functioning, including executive functions such as working memory. In infancy, intersensory processing-selectively attending to properties of events that are redundantly specified across the senses at the expense of non-redundant, irrelevant properties-also predicts language development. Our recent research demonstrates that individual differences in intersensory processing in infancy predict a variety of language outcomes in childhood, even after controlling for SES. However, relations among intersensory processing and cognitive outcomes such as working memory have not yet been investigated. Thus, the present study examines relations between intersensory processing in infancy and working memory in early childhood, and the role of SES in this relation. Children (N = 101) received the Multisensory Attention Assessment Protocol at 12-months to assess intersensory processing (face-voice and object-sound matching) and received the WPPSI at 36-months to assess working memory. SES was indexed by maternal education, paternal education, and income. A variety of novel findings emerged. 1) Individual differences in intersensory processing at 12-months predicted working memory at 36-months of age even after controlling for SES. 2) Individual differences in SES predicted intersensory processing at 12-months of age. 3) The well-established relation between SES and working memory was partially mediated by intersensory processing. Children from families of higher-SES have better intersensory processing skills at 12-months and this combination of factors predicts greater working memory two years later at 36-months. Together these findings reveal the role of intersensory processing in cognitive functioning.

The influence of aerobic exercise on model-based decision making in women with posttraumatic stress disorder

Individuals with PTSD often exhibit deficits in executive functioning. An unexplored aspect of neurocognitive functions associated with PTSD is the type of learning system engaged in during decision-making. A model-free (MF) system is habitual in nature and involves trial-and-error learning that is often updated based on the most recent experience (e.g., repeat action if rewarded). A model-based (MB) system is goal-directed in nature and involves the development of an abstract representation of the environment to facilitate decisions (e.g., choose sequence of actions according to current contextual state and predicted outcomes). The existing neurocognitive literature on PTSD suggests the hypothesis of greater reliance on MF vs MB learning strategies when navigating their environment. While MF systems may be more cognitively efficient, they do not afford flexibility when making prospective predictions about likely outcomes of different decision-tree branches. Emerging research suggests that an acute bout of aerobic exercise improves certain aspects of neurocognition, and thereby could promote the utilization of MB over MF systems during decision making, although prior research has not yet tested this hypothesis. Accordingly, the current study administered a lab-based two-stage Markov decision-making task capable of discriminating MF vs MB decision making, in order to determine if moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (either shortly after or 30-minutes after the exercise bout has ended) promotes greater engagement in MB behavioral strategies compared to light-intensity aerobic exercise in adult women with and without PTSD (N=61). Results revealed that control women generally displayed higher levels of MB behavior that was further increased following immediate exercise, particularly moderate-intensity exercise. By contrast, the PTSD group generally displayed lower levels of MB behavior, and exhibited greater MB behavior when completing the task following moderate-intensity aerobic exercise compared to light-intensity aerobic exercise regardless of whether there was a short or long delay between exercise and the task. Additionally, women with PTSD demonstrated less impairment in MB decision-making compared to controls following moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. These results suggest that an acute bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise boosts MB behavior in women with PTSD, and suggests that aerobic exercise may play an important role in enhancing cognitive outcomes for PTSD.

The longitudinal contributions of child language, negative emotionality, and maternal positive affect on toddler executive functioning development

Executive functions (EF) develop rapidly across early childhood and play a prominent role in promoting adaptive outcomes later in development. Although the existing literature suggests that the development of early EF is sensitive to the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, limited research has examined the joint contributions of multiple child and contextual factors in infancy/toddlerhood. The purpose of our longitudinal study was therefore to identify early environmental, behavioral, biologically-based factors that influence children's EF outcomes in late toddlerhood. Participants included 409 mother-child dyads (209 girls) and the data was collected across children's first three postnatal years. Parent-report measures were used to assess infant negative affectivity (5-months; IBQ-R) and toddler language (age 2; MCDI), and both maternal positive affect (5-months) and toddler frustration (age 2) were coded during mother-child interaction tasks. A battery of behavioral tasks was used to measure child EF in late toddlerhood (age 3). After controlling for maternal education (a proxy for children's socio-economic environment), path analysis indicated that both infant and maternal affect at 5-months directly predicted toddlers' language skills and frustration expression at age 2. Toddler language (but not frustration) also predicted child performance on multiple EF tasks at age 3. Finally, 5-month infant and maternal affect indirectly predicted age 3 EF via age 2 language. Our results identify language as a mechanism through which children's early caregiving environment influences their EF development. Taken together, these findings illustrate the importance of applying a biopsychosocial perspective to the examination of early childhood EF development.

Approach-avoidance orientations can predict young children's decision-making

When facing situations that involve risk and reward, some may focus on the opportunity for reward, whereas others may focus on potential risks. Here, we used an original set of pictorial scenarios to try and predict 3- to 8-year-olds' reward-seeking and risk-avoiding behavior in three decision-making scenarios (N = 99; Mage = 5.6; 47% girls). We found that children's reward-risk tendencies did not predict sharing behavior in a dictator-game 'sharing' task. However, they predicted children's monopolizing behavior in a dictator-game 'taking' task and their preferences between taking home a 'risky' or a 'safe' reward in a novel prize-preference task. Overall, using a set of original pictorial scenarios to assess individual differences early on in development now provides initial evidence that bridges individual differences and decision-making domains and exposes behavioral patterns that were thus far hidden.

Better together: novel methods for measuring and modeling development of executive function diversity while accounting for unity

INTRODUCTION

Executive functions (EFs) are linked to positive outcomes across the lifespan. Yet, methodological challenges have prevented precise understanding of the developmental trajectory of their organization.

METHODS

We introduce novel methods to address challenges for both measuring and modeling EFs using an accelerated longitudinal design with a large, diverse sample of students in middle childhood (N = 1,286; ages 8 to 14). We used eight adaptive assessments hypothesized to measure three EFs, working memory, context monitoring, and interference resolution. We deployed adaptive assessments to equate EF challenge across ages and a data-driven, network analytic approach to reveal the evolving diversity of EFs while simultaneously accounting for their unity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Using this methodological paradigm shift brought new precision and clarity to the development of these EFs, showing these eight tasks are organized into three stable components by age 10, but refinement of composition of these components continues through at least age 14.

Cognitive stimulation of executive functions through computational thinking

The healthy development of cognitive functions, including executive functions, has been shown to depend mainly on the experiences and learning opportunities of people, especially during childhood. Over the past few years, researchers have been studying the impacts of diverse types of interventions on children's cognitive development in which computational thinking programs are a recent field. This pilot study evaluated the effect of computational thinking training based on the "Programming for Children" program on the executive functions of children aged 10 and 11 years: working memory, inhibition, and planning (N = 30). The results showed that children in the experimental group improved on tests of visuospatial working memory, cognitive inhibition, and sequential planning compared with the control group. However, tests of verbal working memory, memory strategy, and visual spatial planning did not show any observed changes. Although this was an exploratory study, and its findings should be interpreted cautiously due to the small sample size, the findings support the relevance and feasibility of conducting similar larger studies with larger samples.

Can Interacting with Animals Improve Executive Functions? A Systematic Review

There has been growing interest in the potential benefits of using human-animal interactions to improve executive functions: cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, solve problems, and self-regulate behaviour. To date, no comprehensive review has been conducted. The purpose of this study was to evaluate existing literature, adopting broad inclusion criteria. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 16 papers were identified from peer-reviewed literature. Additional papers were identified from grey literature, including 6 dissertations and 1 thesis. A review of these 23 studies found that human-animal interactions and executive functions are investigated in three main ways: (1) exploring the potential benefits of the human-pet relationship, (2) exploring the impact of an animal's presence during administration of executive function tests, and (3) evaluating the efficacy of animal-assisted services (e.g., animal-assisted therapy) on executive functions. Five of the included studies reported a significant improvement across all measured domains of executive functions, but effect sizes were underreported. Comparatively, 9 studies reported mixed findings, d = 0.32-0.55, while 8 studies reported no significant results. The overall rigour of the research was limited, with great heterogeneity between the study methodologies and outcome measures used. It is recommended that future studies utilise high-quality research methodologies through the use of randomisation, pre- and postmeasures, and appropriate control conditions, where possible.

A meta-analysis of the validity of the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task in predicting young children's academic performance

The present study represents the first meta-analytic synthesis of the utility of a widely used early-childhood self-regulation measure, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, in predicting children's academic achievement. A systematic review of the literature yielded 69 studies accessed from peer reviewed journals representing 413 effect sizes and 19,917 children meeting the complete set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Robust variance analysis demonstrated that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was a consistent predictor of children's academic achievement across literacy, oral language, and mathematical outcomes. A moderator analysis indicated that in accordance with prior research, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was more strongly associated with children's mathematics performance relative to their performance on language and literacy measures. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task demonstrated statistically significant, positive associations with children's overall academic performance. These associations remained stable across different participant and measurement factors and are comparable to meta-analyses examining the self-regulation and academic association with multiple measures of self-regulation and executive function.

Is there a cognitive advantage in inhibition and switching for bilingual children? A systematic review

Several studies have pointed to beneficial effects of bilingualism on executive functioning. However, observations of these beneficial effects have at times proven difficult to reproduce. Moreover, findings of studies on cognitive effects of bilingualism have been contested altogether. These contradictory outcomes leave the research field of bilingualism at unease. In the present review article, we aim to give a systematic overview of previous research on bilingual advantages in inhibition and switching in children up to the age of 12. Particular attention is paid to the experimental tasks that have been applied and the persistence of possible effects throughout critical and post-critical periods for cognitive development in children. In doing so, the review gives an insight in both the validity and robustness of possible domain-general cognitive effects of bilingualism in children. Terminological issues are also discussed.

The Development of Flexible Problem Solving: An Integrative Approach

Flexible problem solving, the ability to deal with currently goal-irrelevant information that may have been goal-relevant in previous, similar situations, plays a prominent role in cognitive development and has been repeatedly investigated in developmental research. However, this research, spanning from infancy to the school years, lacks a unifying framework, obscuring the developmental timing of flexible problem solving. Therefore, in this review paper, previous findings are gathered, organized, and integrated under a common framework to unveil how and when flexible problem solving develops. It is showed that the development of flexible problem solving coincides with increases in executive functions, that is, inhibition, working memory and task switching. The analysis of previous findings shows that dealing with goal-irrelevant, non-salient information received far more attention than generalizing in the presence of goal-irrelevant, salient information. The developmental timing of the latter can only be inferred from few transfer studies, as well as executive functions, planning and theory of mind research, to highlight gaps in knowledge and sketch out future research directions. Understanding how transfer in the presence of seemingly relevant but truly irrelevant information develops has implications for well-balanced participation in information societies, early and lifespan education, and investigating the evolutionary trajectory of flexible problem solving.

Childhood trauma and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems among adolescents: Role of executive function and life events stress

INTRODUCTION

Exposure to childhood trauma is found to increase internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in adolescents, however, the potential mechanism of this link remains underexplored. This study investigated the associations between childhood trauma and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems among adolescents, and tested the mediating role of executive function and the moderating role of life events stress in this relationship.

METHODS

Questionnaire data were collected from 952 junior students in Northwest China. Participants ranged in age from 11 to 15 years old (M = 12.88 years, SD = 0.72; 53% females). SPSS 26.0 was used to analyze the relationship between variables and examine the mediation model and the moderated mediation model.

RESULTS

Childhood trauma was positively associated with internalizing and externalizing behavior problems among adolescents. In addition, executive function partially mediated the relations between childhood trauma and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Life events stress was observed to moderate the relations between childhood trauma and executive function, as well as executive function and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, but the effect sizes were relatively small.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore the role of executive function and life events stress in the association between childhood trauma and behavioral problems among adolescents.

Developmental trajectory of hot and cold executive functions in children with and without attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

BACKGROUND

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have a delayed development. Two main cognitive models of ADHD are executive (cold) and motivational (hot) models. In this study, we aimed to compare the development of hot and cold executive functions in children with and without ADHD.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Forty-six children with ADHD symptoms (56% boys) and forty-four typically developing controls (54% boys), in three age groups of 6-8, 8-10 and 10-12 years, were participated in the study. Go/No-Go Task (GNGT), One-Back Test (OBT) and Shifting Attention Test (SAT), Delay Discounting Test (DDT) and Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) were used for assessment.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Children with ADHD showed lower performance in GNG, OBT, SAT, and BART, but intact performance in DDT. The tasks' performance was significantly different between three age groups in GNG and SAT, but similar in OBT and BART. The interaction effect was significant only for the BART measures.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Children with ADHD compared to typically developing children, experience impaired hot and cold executive functions. The cognitive delay was found only in risky decision making as a hot executive function.

Cognitive rehabilitation in paediatric acquired brain injury-A 2-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial

Background

Goal management training (GMT), a metacognitive rehabilitation method that has been demonstrated to improve executive function (EF) in adults with acquired brain injury (ABI), could potentially be effective for children in the chronic phase of ABI. In a previously published randomised controlled trial (RCT), the efficacy of a paediatric adaptation of GMT (pGMT) compared to a psychoeducative control intervention (paediatric Brain Health Workshop, pBHW) was investigated. Comparable improvements in EF in both groups were found at 6-month follow-up. However, a specific effect of pGMT could not be conclusively proven. The present study reports 2-year follow-up data (T4; T1: baseline, T2: post-intervention, T3: 6-month follow-up, and T4: 2-year follow-up) from this original RCT.

Methods

A total of 38 children and adolescents and also their parents completed questionnaires tapping into daily life EF. Explorative analyses were conducted comparing the 2-year follow-up data (T4) with the baseline (T1) and 6-month follow-up data (T3) for T4-participants in the two intervention groups (pGMT; n = 21, pBHW; n = 17), and we also assessed T4-participants vs. non-responders (n = 38) in the RCT. Primary outcome measures were the Behavioural Regulation Index (BRI) and the Metacognition Index (MI) derived from the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) parent report.

Results

No difference between intervention groups was found (BRI, F = 2.25, p = 0.143, MI, F = 1.6, p = 0.213), and no time^*group interaction (BRI, F = 0.07, p = 0.976, MI, F = 0.137, p = 0.937) could be seen at the 2-year follow-up. Nevertheless, both pGMT and the pBHW groups improved daily EF as measured by parental reports over time from the baseline to T4 (p = 0.034). T4 participants and non-responders shared similar baseline characteristics.

Conclusion

Our results extend the findings from the 6-month follow-up previously published. Both pGMT and pBHW groups sustained their improvements in daily life EFs from the baseline, but additional effectiveness of pGMT relative to pBHW was not found.

Resting-state cortical hubs in youth organize into four categories

During childhood, neural systems supporting high-level cognitive processes undergo periods of rapid growth and refinement, which rely on the successful coordination of activation across the brain. Some coordination occurs via cortical hubs-brain regions that coactivate with functional networks other than their own. Adult cortical hubs map into three distinct profiles, but less is known about hub categories during development, when critical improvement in cognition occurs. We identify four distinct hub categories in a large youth sample (n = 567, ages 8.5-17.2), each exhibiting more diverse connectivity profiles than adults. Youth hubs integrating control-sensory processing split into two distinct categories (visual control and auditory/motor control), whereas adult hubs unite under one. This split suggests a need for segregating sensory stimuli while functional networks are experiencing rapid development. Functional coactivation strength for youth control-processing hubs are associated with task performance, suggesting a specialized role in routing sensory information to and from the brain's control system.

A Three-Fold Integrated Perspective on Healthy Development: An Opinion Paper

Mental health and wellbeing are increasingly threatened in the current post-pandemic times, with stress, especially in students, reaching preoccupying levels. In addition, while many educational programs are unidimensional (i.e., lacking integration between physical, emotional and cognitive elements), there are ways to promote physical, social and mental health in children and adolescents. In this opinion paper, we will discuss the importance of an integrative approach for health development and examine relevant factors, such as awareness and emotional intelligence. We will highlight evidence ranging from behavioral to electrophysiological, structural and molecular, and report several recent studies supporting the effectiveness of a holistic approach in supporting wellbeing and creativity in children and adults, and detailing a specific paradigm named the Quadrato Motor Training (QMT). QMT is a specifically structured movement meditation, involving cognitive, motor and affective components. Finally, we will support a holistic view on education, integrating motion, emotion and cognition to develop a person-centered, or in this case student-centered, approach to wellbeing and health.

How executive functioning, sentence processing, and vocabulary are related at 3 years of age

There is a wealth of evidence demonstrating that executive function (EF) abilities are positively associated with language development during the preschool years, such that children with good executive functions also have larger vocabularies. However, why this is the case remains to be discovered. In this study, we focused on the hypothesis that sentence processing abilities mediate the association between EF skills and receptive vocabulary knowledge, in that the speed of language acquisition is at least partially dependent on a child's processing ability, which is itself dependent on executive control. We tested this hypothesis in longitudinal data from a cohort of 3- and 4-year-old children at three age points (37, 43, and 49 months). We found evidence, consistent with previous research, for a significant association between three EF skills (cognitive flexibility, working memory [as measured by the Backward Digit Span], and inhibition) and receptive vocabulary knowledge across this age range. However, only one of the tested sentence processing abilities (the ability to maintain multiple possible referents in mind) significantly mediated this relationship and only for one of the tested EFs (inhibition). The results suggest that children who are better able to inhibit incorrect responses are also better able to maintain multiple possible referents in mind while a sentence unfolds, a sophisticated sentence processing ability that may facilitate vocabulary learning from complex input.

Executive functioning in preschoolers with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and the impact of congenital heart defects

BACKGROUND

Executive functioning (EF) is an umbrella term for various cognitive functions that play a role in monitoring and planning to effectuate goal-directed behavior. The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), the most common microdeletion syndrome, is associated with a multitude of both somatic and cognitive symptoms, including EF impairments in school-age and adolescence. However, results vary across different EF domains and studies with preschool children are scarce. As EF is critically associated with later psychopathology and adaptive functioning, our first aim was to study EF in preschool children with 22q11DS. Our second aim was to explore the effect of a congenital heart defects (CHD) on EF abilities, as CHD are common in 22q11DS and have been implicated in EF impairment in individuals with CHD without a syndromic origin.

METHODS

All children with 22q11DS (n = 44) and typically developing (TD) children (n = 81) were 3.0 to 6.5 years old and participated in a larger prospective study. We administered tasks measuring visual selective attention, visual working memory, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. The presence of CHD was determined by a pediatric cardiologist based on medical records.

RESULTS

Analyses showed that children with 22q11DS were outperformed by TD peers on the selective attention task and the working memory task. As many children were unable to complete the broad EF task, we did not run statistical analyses, but provide a qualitative description of the results. There were no differences in EF abilities between children with 22q11DS with and without CHDs.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first study measuring EF in a relatively large sample of young children with 22q11DS. Our results show that EF impairments are already present in early childhood in children with 22q11DS. In line with previous studies with older children with 22q11DS, CHDs do not appear to have an effect on EF performance. These findings might have important implications for early intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy.

A true reflection of executive functioning or a representation of task-specific variance? Re-evaluating the unity/diversity framework

The unity/diversity framework, originally published by Miyake et al. (2000) has become the most cited model of executive functioning. Consequently, when researchers operationalise executive function (EF) they often exclusively assess the three "core" EFs: updating, shifting, and inhibition. However, rather than core EFs representing domain general cognitive abilities, these three EFs may instead represent specific procedural skills from the overlapping methodologies of the tasks selected. In this study, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) which showed both the traditional three-factor and nested-factor model from the unity/diversity framework failed to reach satisfactory levels of fit. Subsequently, an exploratory factor analysis supported a three-factor model reflecting: an expanded working memory factor, a combined shifting/inhibition factor representing cognitive flexibility, and a factor comprised solely of the Stroop task. These results demonstrate that working memory remains the most robustly operationalised EF construct, whereas shifting and inhibition may represent task-specific mechanisms of a broader domain-general cognitive flexibility factor. Ultimately, there is little evidence to suggest that updating, shifting, and inhibition encapsulates all core EFs. Further research is needed to develop an ecologically valid model of executive functioning that captures the cognitive abilities associated with real world goal-directed behaviour.

Developmentally appropriate mental health literacy content for school-aged children and adolescents

Although improving the mental health of children and adolescents has become a global priority, resources outlining developmentally appropriate content for improving mental health literacy (MHL) across school-aged children are scarce. A comprehensive, life-course approach to building MHL is needed to address the evolving competencies, needs, capacities, and risk factors for mental health, especially to establish school-based interventions that can be equitably and sustainably implemented. We conducted a theoretical review highlighting the relation of research and practice in building MHL through developmentally appropriate knowledge and competencies for children and adolescents. A two-pronged review of the literature was conducted to provide an overview of (1) research with a focus on neurobiological, psychological, cognitive, and social developmental milestones of school-aged children relevant for building MHL and (2) evidence-based and theory-driven content for the development of universal MHL interventions for children and adolescents considering the four components of MHL. A map of relevant key milestones highlights the range of development that occurs and ample opportunity for increasing universal MHL during these sensitive years primed for learning. We reflect on current understandings and global considerations for MHL interventions with an emphasis on applying developmental science to the future strengthening of intervention development, uptake, adaptation, implementation, evaluation, and scale-up.

20 years on: Confirmation of P. Anderson's (2002) paediatric model of executive functioning in a healthy adult sample

Executive Functioning (EF) is a construct that encompasses multiple interrelated higher order skills, however, conceptualising this nebulous construct remains challenging. This study aimed to confirm the validity of Anderson's (2002) paediatric model of EF in a healthy adult sample using congeneric modelling. Measures of EF were selected based on utility with adult populations giving rise to minor methodological differences from the original paper. Separate congeneric models were constructed using each of Anderson's constructs in order to isolate the sub-skills represented by each (Attentional Control-AC, Cognitive Flexibility-CF, Information Processing-IP, Goal Setting-GS), with a minimum of three tests per subskill. One hundred and thirty-three adults (42 males and 91 females) aged between 18 and 50 (M = 29.68, SD = 7.46) completed a cognitive test battery comprising 20 EF tests. AC revealed a good fitting model χ²(2) = 1.61, p = .447, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, after removing the non-significant indicator Map Search (p = .349), and BS-Bk as BS-Bk was required to covary with both BS-Fwd (M.I = 7.160, Par Change = .706), and TMT-A (M.I = 5.759, Par Change = -2.417). CF revealed a good fitting model χ²(8) = 2.90, p = .940, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000 after covarying TSC-E and Stroop (M.I = 9.696, Par Change = .085). IP revealed a good fitting model χ²(4) = 1.15, p = .886, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000 after covarying Animals total and FAS total (M.I. = 4.619, Par Change = 9.068). Lastly, GS indicated a good fitting model χ²(8) = 7.22, p = .513, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000 after covarying TOH total time and PA (M.I = 4.25, Par Change = -77.868). Therefore, all four constructs were reliable and valid, and the utility of a parsimonious EF battery is suggested. Investigation of the inter-relationships between the constructs using regression techniques, de-emphasises the role of Attentional Control and argue instead for capacity bound skills.

The mediating role of neurocognitive functions in the relation between physical competencies and academic achievement of primary school children

Previous studies into associations between physical, neurocognitive and academic skills have reported inconsistent results. This study aimed to get more insight into these relations by examining all three domains simultaneously, testing a complete mediational model including measures of physical competencies (cardiovascular fitness and motor skills), neurocognitive skills (attention, information processing, and core executive functions), and academic achievement (reading, mathematics, and spelling). Dutch primary school students (n = 891, 440 boys, mean age 9.17 years) were assessed on the Shuttle Run Test (cardiovascular fitness), items of the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test-II (fundamental motor skills), computerized neurocognitive tests, and standardized academic achievement tests. A multilevel structural equation model showed that physical competencies were only indirectly related to academic achievement, via specific neurocognitive functions depending on the academic domain involved. Results provide important implications, highlighting the importance of well-developed physical competencies in children.

A one-year follow-up of the cognitive and psycho-behavioural skills in artistic gymnastics

A good set of cognitive and psycho-behavioural skills are beneficial for young athletes to overcome and benefit from developmental challenges. Unfortunately, there is still a dearth of knowledge on how both these cognitive (i.e., executive functions; EF) and psycho-behavioural (i.e., psychological characteristics of developing excellence; PCDE) skills develop in youth athletes. Especially for athletes in early specialisation sports such as artistic gymnastics, the early EF and PCDE development might be important to be able to cope with the pressure and challenges that comes with a transition to the next stage. In the current study, artistic gymnasts between 9 and 22 years old were tested twice with a 12-month interval to investigate the changes in EF and PCDE. Results showed that EF developed within the youngest stage, but plateaued at the later stages. Most PCDE did not seem to change over time within each stage. Furthermore, the transition to a new stage does not seem to coincide with an increased improvement of PCDE. However, with a case study approach in the oldest stages, still inter-individual differences in EF and PCDE scores over time were observed. This study shows that EF and PCDE develop over time, albeit in a non-linear way, and along a variety of developmental trajectories.

Neurocomputational mechanisms of food and physical activity decision-making in male adolescents

We examined the neurocomputational mechanisms in which male adolescents make food and physical activity decisions and how those processes are influenced by body weight and physical activity levels. After physical activity and dietary assessments, thirty-eight males ages 14-18 completed the behavioral rating and fMRI decision tasks for food and physical activity items. The food and physical activity self-control decisions were significantly correlated with each other. In both, taste- or enjoyment-oriented processes were negatively associated with successful self-control decisions, while health-oriented processes were positively associated. The correlation between taste/enjoyment and healthy attribute ratings predicted actual laboratory food intake and physical activities (2-week activity monitoring). fMRI data showed the decision values of both food and activity are encoded in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, suggesting both decisions share common reward value-related circuits at the time of choice. Compared to the group with overweight/obese, the group with normal weight showed stronger brain activations in the cognitive control, multisensory integration, and motor control regions during physical activity decisions. For both food and physical activity, self-controlled decisions utilize similar computational and neurobiological mechanisms, which may provide insights into how to promote healthy food and physical activity decisions.

Cognitive impairment and factors influencing depression in adolescents with suicidal and self-injury behaviors: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicide attempts (SAs) by adolescent patients with depression have become serious public health problems. There is still insufficient research evidence on the effects of NSSI and SAs on neurocognitive functioning in adolescents. Cognitive function alterations may be associated with SAs and self-injury. NSSI and SAs have different influencing factors.

METHODS

Participants were recruited from outpatient clinics and included 142 adolescent patients with depression (12-18 years old). This cohort included the SAs group (n = 52), NSSI group (n = 65), and depression without SAs/NSSI control group (n = 25). All participants underwent a clinical interview and neuropsychological assessment for group comparisons, and post-hoc tests were performed. Finally, partial correlation analysis was used to explore factors related to changes in cognitive function.

RESULTS

The SAs group performed significantly worse than the control group in executive function and working memory. The depression score was directly proportional to the executive function of the SAs group, whereas cognitive functioning in the NSSI group was associated with borderline traits and rumination.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that impairment of executive function and working memory may be a common pattern in adolescent depressed patients with SAs. However, borderline traits and rumination may be indicative of NSSI but not SAs.

Preschool Executive Control, Temperament, and Adolescent Dietary Behaviors

BACKGROUND

Child temperament styles characterized by increased emotionality or pleasure seeking may increase risk for less healthful eating patterns, while strong executive control (EC) may be protective. The interaction of these characteristics with longitudinal outcomes has not yet been examined.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to examine the association of preschool temperament and EC, as well as their interaction with adolescent eating.

METHODS

Preschoolers (N = 313) were recruited into a longitudinal study, with behavioral measurement of EC at age 5.25 years, temperament assessed multiple times across preschool, and eating outcomes assessed in adolescence (mean age = 15.34 years).

RESULTS

Separate latent moderated structural equation models demonstrated that weaker EC was associated with eating less healthful foods, including high sugar foods, sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), and convenience foods (p < .05). In the moderation models, negative affectivity temperament was correlated with eating less healthful foods, high sugar foods, and SSBs (p < .05). Children lower in surgency/extraversion temperament were more likely to drink SSBs. There was an interaction between temperament and EC, such that children high in negative affectivity with weaker EC were particularly more likely to consume less healthful foods, high sugar foods, and SSBs (p < .05). There was no interaction of surgency with EC and food consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Child characteristics measured early in development were associated with later adolescent eating behaviors. Adequate EC could be necessary to counteract the drive toward eating associated with temperaments high in negative affectivity.

First-grade multilingual students' executive function profiles and links to English reading achievement and difficulties: a person-centered latent profile analysis

Although the important role of children's executive function (EF) in their reading development has been well-established, less is known about the extent to which multilingual children's EF components vary and whether the variability in different EF abilities explains multilingual children's English reading achievement. The present study explored the US first-grade multilingual children's (N = 3,819) profiles of EF abilities and how the profile membership was associated with their English reading achievement, using a nationally representative sample of multilingual children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K: 2011) study. We fit latent profile analysis with various EF components, including working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, approaches to learning, and attentional focus, and found three distinct EF profiles in multilingual children: (a) Below-Average EFs with Above-Average Cognitive Flexibility (10.13%), (b) Above-Average EFs (84.09%), and (c) Very Low Cognitive Flexibility (5.78%). Controlling for kindergarten English reading achievement scores and demographic variables, children in the Above-Average EFs profile attained a significantly higher English reading achievement score than their peers, while children in the Very Low Cognitive Flexibility group had the lowest English reading achievement score. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding multilingual children's heterogeneity in EF and have implications for the early identification of and tailored intervention for multilingual children at risk for reading difficulties.

Computational mechanisms underpinning greater exploratory behaviour in excess weight relative to healthy weight adolescents

Obesity in adolescence is associated with cognitive changes that lead to difficulties in shifting unhealthy habits in favour of alternative healthy behaviours, similar to addictive behaviours. An outstanding question is whether this shift in goal-directed behaviour is driven by over-exploitation or over-exploration of rewarding outcomes. Here, we addressed this question by comparing explore/exploit behaviour on the Iowa Gambling Task in 43 adolescents with excess weight against 38 adolescents with healthy weight. We computationally modelled both exploitation behaviour (e.g., reinforcement sensitivity and inverse decay parameters), and explorative behaviour (e.g., maximum directed exploration value). We found that overall, adolescents with excess weight displayed more behavioural exploration than their healthy-weight counterparts - specifically, demonstrating greater overall switching behaviour. Computational models revealed that this behaviour was driven by a higher maximum directed exploration value in the excess-weight group (U = 520.00, p = .005, BF₁₀ = 5.11). Importantly, however, we found substantial evidence that groups did not differ in reinforcement sensitivity (U = 867.00, p = .641, BF₁₀ = 0.30). Overall, our study demonstrates a preference for exploratory behaviour in adolescents with excess weight, independent of sensitivity to reward. This pattern could potentially underpin an intrinsic desire to explore energy-dense unhealthy foods - an as-yet untapped mechanism that could be targeted in future treatments of obesity in adolescents.

Inhibitory control as a significant predictor of academic performance in Chinese high schoolers

Studies investigating the relationship between cognitive function and academic performance have recently shifted focus from differences in intelligence to executive function. To date, these studies have focused disproportionately on samples recruited from Western countries, despite evidence in support of cultural differences in the development of executive function. To address this gap, the present study investigated whether differences in two dimensions of executive function, inhibitory and attentional control, could predict academic performance in a sample of Chinese adolescents (n = 42). Participants reported on demographic details and completed both the Simon task and Attention Network Test. Data were analyzed using multiple linear regression controlling for gender, age, SES, English language proficiency, processing speed, and fluid intelligence. Results showed that one index of inhibitory control derived from non-cue trials on the Attention Network Test explained a significant amount of unique variance in academic performance. Our findings provide evidence that executive function, specifically inhibitory control, plays a significant role in academic performance.

The Relationship between Executive Functions, Working Memory, and Intelligence in Kindergarten Children

Executive functions (EF), working memory (WM), and intelligence are closely associated, but distinct constructs. What underlies the associations between these constructs, especially in childhood, is not well understood. In this pre-registered study, along with the traditional aggregate accuracy and RT-based measures of EF, we investigated post-error slowing (PES) in EF as a manifestation of metacognitive processes (i.e., monitoring and cognitive control) in relation to WM and intelligence. Thereby, we aimed to elucidate whether these metacognitive processes may be one underlying component to explain the associations between these constructs. We tested kindergarten children (M_age = 6.4 years, SD_age = 0.3) in an EF, WM (verbal and visuospatial), and fluid (non-verbal) intelligence task. We found significant associations of mainly the inhibition component of EF with fluid intelligence and verbal WM, and between verbal WM and intelligence. No significant associations emerged between the PES in EF and intelligence or WM. These results suggest that in the kindergarten age, inhibition rather than monitoring and cognitive control might be the underlying component that explains the associations between EF, WM, and intelligence.

Effects of Early Nutrition Factors on Baseline Neurodevelopment during the First 6 Months of Life: An EEG Study

Throughout infancy, the brain undergoes rapid changes in structure and function that are sensitive to environmental influences, such as diet. Breastfed (BF) infants score higher on cognitive tests throughout infancy and into adolescence than formula fed (FF) infants, and these differences in neurocognitive development are reflected in higher concentrations of white and grey matter as measured by MRI. To further explore the effect diet has on cognitive development, electroencephalography (EEG) is used as a direct measure of neuronal activity and to assess specific frequency bands associated with cognitive processes. Task-free baseline EEGs were collected from infants fed with human milk (BF), dairy-based formula (MF), or soy-based formula (SF) at 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 months of age to explore differences in frequency bands in both sensor and source space. Significant global differences in sensor space were seen in beta and gamma bands between BF and SF groups at ages 2 and 6 months, and these differences were further observed through volumetric modeling in source space. We conclude that BF infants exhibit earlier brain maturation reflected in greater power spectral density in these frequency bands.

Longitudinal invariance of psychotic experiences in children and adolescents: What do the data tell us?

BACKGROUND

Psychotic experiences are common in adults, adolescents, and children. While usually self-limited, they can indicate psychosis proneness when persistent. The Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE) measures lifetime psychotic experiences in three dimensions. The 20-item subscale addressing positive symptoms (CAPE-positive) is the most widely used. No study investigated its measurement invariance across timepoints during childhood and adolescence. This step is required to conduct reliable comparisons in longitudinal studies with different age groups.

METHODS

We used data from the Brazilian High-Risk Cohort, which enrolled 2511 individuals aged 6-12 years from public schools for the baseline evaluation. A 3-year follow-up assessment evaluated 1880 participants. Subjects were rated with the CAPE-positive and we performed, at each wave, a Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis testing Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis models identified in a previous systematic review, to assess longitudinal invariance.

RESULTS

A three-factor solution was the best fitting model, comprising Persecutory Ideation, Bizarre Experiences and Perceptual Abnormalities. The longitudinal invariance analysis of the best-fit model was unsatisfactory, achieving only the metric level of invariance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the CAPE-positive scale has good model fit indices for each evaluated time point individually (children and adolescents), but it is not invariant over time. Identifying which factors affect CAPE latent structure at different time points can improve our understanding of psychosis proneness and how to measure it.

Individual Variability in Performance Reflects Selectivity of the Multiple Demand Network among Children and Adults

Executive function (EF) is essential for humans to effectively engage in cognitively demanding tasks. In adults, EF is subserved by frontoparietal regions in the multiple demand (MD) network, which respond to various cognitively demanding tasks. However, children initially show poor EF and prolonged development. Do children recruit the same network as adults? Is it functionally and connectionally distinct from adjacent language cortex, as in adults? And is this activation or connectivity dependent on age or ability? We examine task-dependent (spatial working memory and passive language tasks) and resting state functional data in 44 adults (18-38 years, 68% female) and 37 children (4-12 years, 35% female). Subject-specific functional ROIs (ss-fROIs) show bilateral MD network activation in children. In both children and adults, these MD ss-fROIs are not recruited for linguistic processing and are connectionally distinct from language ss-fROIs. While MD activation was lower in children than in adults (even in motion- and performance-matched groups), both showed increasing MD activation with better performance, especially in right hemisphere ss-fROIs. We observe this relationship even when controlling for age, cross-sectionally and in a small longitudinal sample of children. These data suggest that the MD network is selective to cognitive demand in children, is distinct from adjacent language cortex, and increases in selectivity as performance improves. These findings show that neural structures subserving domain-general EF emerge early and are sensitive to ability even in children. This research advances understanding of how high-level human cognition emerges and could inform interventions targeting cognitive control.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This study provides evidence that young children already show differentiated brain network organization between regions that process cognitive demand and language. These data support the hypothesis that children recruit a similar network as adults to process cognitive demand; and despite immature characteristics, children's selectivity looks more adult-like as their executive function ability increases. Mapping early stages of network organization furthers our understanding of the functional architecture underlying domain-general executive function. Determining typical variability underlying cognitive processing across developmental periods helps establish a threshold for executive dysfunction. Early markers of dysfunction are necessary for effective early identification, prevention, and intervention efforts for individuals struggling with deficits in processing cognitive demand.

Executive Functions and Language Skills in Preschool Children: The Unique Contribution of Verbal Working Memory and Cognitive Flexibility

The development of language skills requires a range of linguistic abilities and cognitive processes, such as executive functions (EFs, i.e., a set of skills involved in goal-directed activities which are crucial for regulating thoughts and actions). Despite progress in understanding the link between language and EFs, the need for more research on the extent and directionality of this link is undeniable. This study examined whether specific components of EFs account for a significant amount of variance in language abilities above and beyond gender, age, and nonverbal intelligence. The sample comprised 79 typically developing children attending the last year of preschool (Mage = 64.5 months, SD = 3.47). EFs were assessed through tasks that explored three predictor variables: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. The language outcomes included receptive and expressive language. After controlling for age, gender, and nonverbal intelligence, findings showed that working memory and cognitive flexibility, respectively, explained an additional 16% and 19% of the variance. Inhibition skills did not increase the amount of explained variance in language outcomes. These results highlight the potential added importance of assessing working memory and cognitive flexibility in the prediction of language skills in preschool children.

Associations among teacher-child interaction, children's executive function and children's comprehensible vocabulary

Objective

To understand the working mechanism and the relationships among the quality of teacher-child interaction (TCI), children's comprehensible vocabulary (CV) and executive function (EF).

Methods

Using stratified sampling, 900 children (boys 50.2%) and 60 preschool teachers were recruited from 4 places in China for testing, and five measurement tools, including the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-R), the Stroop test, a card sorting task, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), were used.

Results

For every additional unit of TCI, EF increases by 0.55 units; For every additional unit of EF, CV increases by 0.55 units; For every additional unit of CV, EF increases by 0.55 units; For every additional unit of CV, TCI increases by 0.38 units; For every additional unit of TCI, CV increases by 0.38 units. In the Model of TCI-EF-CV, the estimated value of TCI and the total effect of comprehensible vocabulary is 0.18; Z = 9.84, which is significantly greater than 1.96 at the bias-corrected 95% confidence interval and at the percentile 95% confidence interval (0.15, 0.23), both of which do not contain 0. The direct effect of TCI and CV is significant and indirect effects account for 39%. In the Model of TCI-CV-EF, the total effect of TCI on executive function is 0.09 (Z = 6.14), the direct effect is not significant with bias-corrected 95% confidence interval and 95% confidence interval (-0.01, 0.03), both of which include 0.

Conclusion

There are two-way effects among children's EF and CV, TCI and CV. EF plays a mediating role in the influence of TCI on CV. TCI positively predicts children's EF, but this mainly depends on CV. Therefore, TCI plays a positive role in the development of children's CV and EF.