2601
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Li G, Staveley-O'Carroll KF, Kimchi ET. Potential of Radiofrequency Ablation in Combination with Immunotherapy in the Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 6. [PMID: 28042519 DOI: 10.4172/2167-0870.1000257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is an important treatment option for patients with early hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). RFA offers a reliable, reproducible modality to effectively treat hepatic lesions with minimal collateral damage to the surrounding hepatic parenchyma. In addition to traditional open operative techniques, RFA can be performed percutaneously or laparoscopically to minimize the physiologic insult to the patient. Due to the concomitant hepatic damage and dysfunction that often is present in patients with HCC these factors make RFA a frequently utilized therapeutic option. However, RFA is most efficacious in treating smaller tumors (≤ 2 cm), particularly when an ablation margin of ≥ 4-5 mm can be obtained. RFA has diminishing utility in larger tumors, resulting in reduced three and five year overall survival rates when compared to surgical resection. Multimodal approaches to include RFA with other standard and investigational approaches have become a subject of recent interest. RFA capably produces cellular destruction causing liberation of a substantial amount of antigens, many of which are tumor-specific providing a favorable environment for immune recognition. We propose that utilizing an immunotherapeutic approach in conjunction with RFA is the next logical step in the treatment of HCC. In this review, we summarize how RFA modulates antitumor immunity and works in concert with immunotherapy in the treatment of HCC. The information provided is expected to help the future design of novel RFA-integrated immunotherapies which are able to generate durable and powerful antitumor immune response to achieve optimal tumor control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangfu Li
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA; Ellis Fischel Cancer Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Kevin F Staveley-O'Carroll
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA; Ellis Fischel Cancer Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
| | - Eric T Kimchi
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA; Ellis Fischel Cancer Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
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2602
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Philip PA. Targeting macrophages to treat pancreatic cancer. Lancet Oncol 2016; 17:552-3. [PMID: 27055730 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(16)00151-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip A Philip
- Department of Oncology, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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2603
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Polverino F, Laucho-Contreras M, Rojas Quintero J, Divo M, Pinto-Plata V, Sholl L, de-Torres JP, Celli BR, Owen CA. Increased expression of A Proliferation-inducing Ligand (APRIL) in lung leukocytes and alveolar epithelial cells in COPD patients with non small cell lung cancer: a possible link between COPD and lung cancer? Multidiscip Respir Med 2016; 11:17. [PMID: 27047662 PMCID: PMC4819280 DOI: 10.1186/s40248-016-0051-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is characterized by an excessive activation of the adaptive immune system and, in particular, uncontrolled expansion of the B-cell pool. One of the key promoters of B cell expansion is A PRoliferation-Inducing Ligand (APRIL). APRIL has been strongly linked to non small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) onset and progression previously. However, little is known about the expression of APRIL in the lungs of COPD patients. Methods Using immuno-fluorescence staining, the expression of APRIL was assessed in sections of lungs from 4 subjects with primary diagnosis of COPD (FEV1 33 ± 20 % predicted), 4 subjects with primary diagnosis of NSCLC, 4 subjects diagnosed with both COPD and NSCLC, smokers without COPD or NSCLC and 3 healthy never-smokers. The percentage of B cells, alveolar macrophages (AMs) and polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) in the lung and alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) that stained positively for APRIL was quantified using epi-fluorescence microscopy and image analysis software. Results The percentage of APRIL-expressing B cells, AMs, PMNs and alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) was higher in patients having both COPD and NSCLC than in patients with either COPD or NSCLC alone, SC or NSC (p < 0.03 for all comparisons). The percentage of APRIL-expressing AMs and AECs (but not in B cells) was higher in patients with NSCLC alone than in patients with COPD alone. The percentage of APRIL-expressing AECs (but not B cells or AMs) was higher in COPD patients than in SC and NSC (p < 0.05 for all comparisons). The percentage of APRIL-expressing B cells, AMs and AECs cells was similar in NSC and SC. Conclusion The percentage of APRIL-expressing B cells, AMs and AECs is higher in the lungs of patients with both COPD and NSCLC than in patients with COPD or NSCLC alone or control subjects. These findings suggest that APRIL may contribute to the pathogenesis of both COPD and NSCLC, and possibly to the development of NSCLC in patients with established COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Polverino
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Room 855B, Harvard Institutes of Medicine Building, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115 USA.,Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM USA.,University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Maria Laucho-Contreras
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Room 855B, Harvard Institutes of Medicine Building, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Joselyn Rojas Quintero
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Room 855B, Harvard Institutes of Medicine Building, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Miguel Divo
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Room 855B, Harvard Institutes of Medicine Building, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115 USA.,Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM USA
| | - Victor Pinto-Plata
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Room 855B, Harvard Institutes of Medicine Building, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115 USA.,Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM USA
| | - Lynette Sholl
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| | | | - Bartolome R Celli
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Room 855B, Harvard Institutes of Medicine Building, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115 USA.,Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM USA
| | - Caroline A Owen
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Room 855B, Harvard Institutes of Medicine Building, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115 USA.,Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM USA
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2604
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Natural killer cells enhance the immune surveillance of cancer. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL HUMAN GENETICS 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmhg.2015.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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2605
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Molecular mechanisms of curcumins suppressing effects on tumorigenesis, angiogenesis and metastasis, focusing on NF-κB pathway. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2016; 28:21-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2015] [Revised: 11/29/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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2606
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Abstract
Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is activated by binding to cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs), which results in potent cytokine production. CDNs are produced by certain intracellular bacteria and are generated by the cyclic GMP–AMP synthase (cGAS) following binding to cytosolic DNA species, such as viral DNA. STING-inducible innate immune molecules are essential for protection of the host against pathogens and are important for the stimulation of adaptive immunity. Self-DNA, for example from the nucleus or mitochondria, can leak into the cytosolic compartment and stimulate STING activity to cause autoinflammatory disease. Certain mutations in the gene encoding STING can cause the protein to become permanently active and similarly induce autoinflammatory responses. STING can be activated in phagocytes by DNA released from engulfed tumour cells and drive the production of cytokines necessary for generating robust antitumour T cell responses. DNA-damaging agents can cause the release of nuclear DNA into the cytosol that stimulates STING-dependent cytokine production and phagocyte infiltration. This may be essential for eliminating damaged cells and generating antitumour T cell responses, but chronic stimulation may also promote inflammation-aggravated cancer. STING agonists exert potent antitumour activity and may be effective, novel adjuvants in vaccine formulations. In contrast, inhibitors of STING signalling may be beneficial for the treatment of autoinflammatory disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Aicardi–Goutières syndrome (AGS) and STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI).
Activation of STING (stimulator of interferon genes) by cytosolic aberrant DNA species or cyclic dinucleotides triggers transcription of numerous innate immune genes. In this Review, the author summarizes recent insights into the regulation of STING signalling and its role in autoinflammatory disease and cancer. The rapid detection of microbial agents is essential for the effective initiation of host defence mechanisms against infection. Understanding how cells detect cytosolic DNA to trigger innate immune gene transcription has important implications — not only for comprehending the immune response to pathogens but also for elucidating the causes of autoinflammatory disease involving the sensing of self-DNA and the generation of effective antitumour adaptive immunity. The discovery of the STING (stimulator of interferon genes)-controlled innate immune pathway, which mediates cytosolic DNA-induced signalling events, has recently provided important insights into these processes, opening the way for the development of novel immunization regimes, as well as therapies to treat autoinflammatory disease and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glen N Barber
- Department of Cell Biology and Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33136, USA
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2607
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Luo C, Wei J, Han W. Spotlight on chimeric antigen receptor engineered T cell research and clinical trials in China. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2016; 59:349-59. [PMID: 27009301 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-016-5034-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
T cell mediated adoptive immune response has been characterized as the key to anti-tumor immunity. Scientists around the world including in China, have been trying to harness the power of T cells against tumors for decades. Recently, the biosynthetic chimeric antigen receptor engineered T cell (CAR-T) strategy was developed and exhibited encouraging clinical efficacy, especially in hematological malignancies. Chimeric antigen receptor research reports began in 2009 in China according to our PubMed search results. Clinical trials have been ongoing in China since 2013 according to the trial registrations on clinicaltrials. gov.. After years of assiduous efforts, research and clinical scientists in China have made their own achievements in the CAR-T therapy field. In this review, we aim to highlight CAR-T research and clinical trials in China, to provide an informative reference for colleagues in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Luo
- Institute of Basic Medicine/Bio-therapeutic Department, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Jianshu Wei
- Institute of Basic Medicine/Bio-therapeutic Department, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Weidong Han
- Institute of Basic Medicine/Bio-therapeutic Department, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China.
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2608
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Liu X, Ranganathan R, Jiang S, Fang C, Sun J, Kim S, Newick K, Lo A, June CH, Zhao Y, Moon EK. A Chimeric Switch-Receptor Targeting PD1 Augments the Efficacy of Second-Generation CAR T Cells in Advanced Solid Tumors. Cancer Res 2016; 76:1578-90. [PMID: 26979791 PMCID: PMC4800826 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-15-2524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 391] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified adoptive T-cell therapy has been successfully applied to the treatment of hematologic malignancies, but faces many challenges in solid tumors. One major obstacle is the immune-suppressive effects induced in both naturally occurring and genetically modified tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) by inhibitory receptors (IR), namely PD1. We hypothesized that interfering with PD1 signaling would augment CAR T-cell activity against solid tumors. To address this possibility, we introduced a genetically engineered switch receptor construct, comprising the truncated extracellular domain of PD1 and the transmembrane and cytoplasmic signaling domains of CD28, into CAR T cells. We tested the effect of this supplement, "PD1CD28," on human CAR T cells targeting aggressive models of human solid tumors expressing relevant tumor antigens. Treatment of mice bearing large, established solid tumors with PD1CD28 CAR T cells led to significant regression in tumor volume due to enhanced CAR TIL infiltrate, decreased susceptibility to tumor-induced hypofunction, and attenuation of IR expression compared with treatments with CAR T cells alone or PD1 antibodies. Taken together, our findings suggest that the application of PD1CD28 to boost CAR T-cell activity is efficacious against solid tumors via a variety of mechanisms, prompting clinical investigation of this potentially promising treatment modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Liu
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Raghuveer Ranganathan
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Shuguang Jiang
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Chongyun Fang
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Jing Sun
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Soyeon Kim
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Kheng Newick
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Albert Lo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Carl H. June
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Yangbing Zhao
- Abramson Cancer Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Edmund K. Moon
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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2609
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Tang H, Wang Y, Chlewicki LK, Zhang Y, Guo J, Liang W, Wang J, Wang X, Fu YX. Facilitating T Cell Infiltration in Tumor Microenvironment Overcomes Resistance to PD-L1 Blockade. Cancer Cell 2016; 29:285-296. [PMID: 26977880 PMCID: PMC4794755 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Immune checkpoint blockade therapies fail to induce responses in the majority of cancer patients, so how to increase the objective response rate becomes an urgent challenge. Here, we demonstrate that sufficient T cell infiltration in tumor tissues is a prerequisite for response to PD-L1 blockade. Targeting tumors with tumor necrosis factor superfamily member LIGHT activates lymphotoxin β-receptor signaling, leading to the production of chemokines that recruit massive numbers of T cells. Furthermore, targeting non-T cell-inflamed tumor tissues by antibody-guided LIGHT creates a T cell-inflamed microenvironment and overcomes tumor resistance to checkpoint blockade. Our data indicate that targeting LIGHT might be a potent strategy to increase the responses to checkpoint blockades and other immunotherapies in non-T cell-inflamed tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haidong Tang
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Department of Pathology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Department of Pathology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA
| | - Lukasz K Chlewicki
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Jingya Guo
- Chinese Academy of Science Key Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, IBP-UTSW Joint Immunotherapy Group, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Wei Liang
- Chinese Academy of Science Key Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, IBP-UTSW Joint Immunotherapy Group, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jieyi Wang
- Oncology Biologics, AbbVie Biotherapeutics Research (ABR), 1500 Seaport Boulevard, Redwood City, CA 94063, USA
| | | | - Yang-Xin Fu
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA; Chinese Academy of Science Key Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, IBP-UTSW Joint Immunotherapy Group, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
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2610
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Marques O, Porto G, Rêma A, Faria F, Cruz Paula A, Gomez-Lazaro M, Silva P, Martins da Silva B, Lopes C. Local iron homeostasis in the breast ductal carcinoma microenvironment. BMC Cancer 2016; 16:187. [PMID: 26944411 PMCID: PMC4779214 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-016-2228-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While the deregulation of iron homeostasis in breast epithelial cells is acknowledged, iron-related alterations in stromal inflammatory cells from the tumor microenvironment have not been explored. METHODS Immunohistochemistry for hepcidin, ferroportin 1 (FPN1), transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1) and ferritin (FT) was performed in primary breast tissues and axillary lymph nodes in order to dissect the iron-profiles of epithelial cells, lymphocytes and macrophages. Furthermore, breast carcinoma core biopsies frozen in optimum cutting temperature (OCT) compound were subjected to imaging flow cytometry to confirm FPN1 expression in the cell types previously evaluated and determine its cellular localization. RESULTS We confirm previous results by showing that breast cancer epithelial cells present an 'iron-utilization phenotype' with an increased expression of hepcidin and TFR1, and decreased expression of FT. On the other hand, lymphocytes and macrophages infiltrating primary tumors and from metastized lymph nodes display an 'iron-donor' phenotype, with increased expression of FPN1 and FT, concomitant with an activation profile reflected by a higher expression of TFR1 and hepcidin. A higher percentage of breast carcinomas, compared to control mastectomy samples, present iron accumulation in stromal inflammatory cells, suggesting that these cells may constitute an effective tissue iron reservoir. Additionally, not only the deregulated expression of iron-related proteins in epithelial cells, but also on lymphocytes and macrophages, are associated with clinicopathological markers of breast cancer poor prognosis, such as negative hormone receptor status and tumor size. CONCLUSIONS The present results reinforce the importance of analyzing the tumor microenvironment in breast cancer, extending the contribution of immune cells to local iron homeostasis in the tumor microenvironment context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriana Marques
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics - Autoimmunity and Neurosciences, Unit for Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research (UMIB), Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228,Edif 2 Piso 4, P-4050313, Porto, Portugal. .,Pathology and Molecular Immunology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. .,Basic and Clinical Research on Iron Biology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. .,Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Graça Porto
- Pathology and Molecular Immunology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. .,Hematology Service, Hospital de Santo António, Centro Hospitalar do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Alexandra Rêma
- Pathology and Molecular Immunology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Fátima Faria
- Pathology and Molecular Immunology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Arnaud Cruz Paula
- Pathology and Molecular Immunology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. .,Department of Pathology, Portuguese Oncology Institute (IPO), Porto, Portugal.
| | - Maria Gomez-Lazaro
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. .,Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Biomédica (INEB), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Paula Silva
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. .,Faculty of Medicine of University of Porto (FMUP), Porto, Portugal. .,Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Berta Martins da Silva
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics - Autoimmunity and Neurosciences, Unit for Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research (UMIB), Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228,Edif 2 Piso 4, P-4050313, Porto, Portugal. .,Pathology and Molecular Immunology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Carlos Lopes
- Pathology and Molecular Immunology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. .,Department of Pathology, Portuguese Oncology Institute (IPO), Porto, Portugal.
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2611
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Zou W, Wolchok JD, Chen L. PD-L1 (B7-H1) and PD-1 pathway blockade for cancer therapy: Mechanisms, response biomarkers, and combinations. Sci Transl Med 2016; 8:328rv4. [PMID: 26936508 PMCID: PMC4859220 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aad7118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1746] [Impact Index Per Article: 218.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
PD-L1 and PD-1 (PD) pathway blockade is a highly promising therapy and has elicited durable antitumor responses and long-term remissions in a subset of patients with a broad spectrum of cancers. How to improve, widen, and predict the clinical response to anti-PD therapy is a central theme in the field of cancer immunology and immunotherapy. Oncologic, immunologic, genetic, and biological studies focused on the human cancer microenvironment have yielded substantial insight into this issue. Here, we focus on tumor microenvironment and evaluate several potential therapeutic response markers including the PD-L1 and PD-1 expression pattern, genetic mutations within cancer cells and neoantigens, cancer epigenetics and effector T cell landscape, and microbiota. We further clarify the mechanisms of action of these markers and their roles in shaping, being shaped, and/or predicting therapeutic responses. We also discuss a variety of combinations with PD pathway blockade and their scientific rationales for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiping Zou
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Jedd D Wolchok
- Department of Medicine and the Ludwig Center, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - Lieping Chen
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven CT 06519, USA.
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2612
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Antonia S, Goldberg SB, Balmanoukian A, Chaft JE, Sanborn RE, Gupta A, Narwal R, Steele K, Gu Y, Karakunnel JJ, Rizvi NA. Safety and antitumour activity of durvalumab plus tremelimumab in non-small cell lung cancer: a multicentre, phase 1b study. Lancet Oncol 2016; 17:299-308. [DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(15)00544-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 463] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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2613
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Xiao X, Lao XM, Chen MM, Liu RX, Wei Y, Ouyang FZ, Chen DP, Zhao XY, Zhao Q, Li XF, Liu CL, Zheng L, Kuang DM. PD-1hi Identifies a Novel Regulatory B-cell Population in Human Hepatoma That Promotes Disease Progression. Cancer Discov 2016; 6:546-59. [PMID: 26928313 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.cd-15-1408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED B cells often constitute abundant cellular components in human tumors. Regulatory B cells that are functionally defined by their ability to produce IL10 downregulate inflammation and control T-cell immunity. Here, we identified a protumorigenic subset of B cells that constitutively expressed higher levels of programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) and constituted ∼10% of all B cells in advanced-stage hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). These PD-1(hi) B cells exhibited a unique CD5(hi)CD24(-/+)CD27(hi/+)CD38(dim) phenotype different from the phenotype of conventional CD24(hi)CD38(hi) peripheral regulatory B cells. TLR4-mediated BCL6 upregulation was crucial for PD-1(hi) B-cell induction by HCC environmental factors, and that effect was abolished by IL4-elicited STAT6 phosphorylation. Importantly, upon encountering PD-L1(+) cells or undergoing PD-1 triggering, PD-1(hi) B cells acquired regulatory functions that suppressed tumor-specific T-cell immunity and promoted cancer growth via IL10 signals. Our findings provide significant new insights for human cancer immunosuppression and anticancer therapies regarding PD-1/PD-L1. SIGNIFICANCE We identify a novel protumorigenic PD-1(hi) B-cell subset in human HCC that exhibits a phenotype distinct from that of peripheral regulatory B cells. TLR4-mediated BCL6 upregulation is critical for induction of PD-1(hi) B cells, which operate via IL10-dependent pathways upon interacting with PD-L1 to cause T-cell dysfunction and foster disease progression. Cancer Discov; 6(5); 546-59. ©2016 AACR.See related commentary by Ren et al., p. 477This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 461.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. State Key Laboratory of Oncology in Southern China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiang-Ming Lao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in Southern China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Min-Min Chen
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rui-Xian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuan Wei
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fang-Zhu Ouyang
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dong-Ping Chen
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiyi Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. Department of Infectious Diseases, Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xue-Feng Li
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chuan-Lu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Limin Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China. State Key Laboratory of Oncology in Southern China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dong-Ming Kuang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in Southern China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.
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2614
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Rivera GA, Saramipoor Behbahan I, Greenberg PL. Immune checkpoint pathways: perspectives on myeloid malignancies. Leuk Lymphoma 2016; 57:995-1001. [PMID: 26916355 DOI: 10.3109/10428194.2015.1107554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Immunologic tolerance to cancer has recently been shown to have major implications for the ability of tumors to survive despite a variety of therapeutic approaches. A critical mechanism underlying this microenvironment dysfunction relates to the ability of tumor cells to block immune check points through expression of specific proteins that interfere with immune cell effector function. Recent advances based on this model have led translational work showing therapeutic efficacy in a variety of solid and lymphoid tumors. Myeloid malignancies, in particular myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS), have significant immune dysregulation of variable degree based on their clinical stages which makes feasible extending such therapeutic approaches to this group of diseases. This review will discuss recent advances in the field of immune checkpoint biology including recent clinical trials with checkpoint inhibitors in patients with a variety of clinical conditions, with focus on such potential therapy in patients with myeloid malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel A Rivera
- a Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology , Stanford Cancer Institute , Stanford , CA , USA
| | | | - Peter L Greenberg
- a Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology , Stanford Cancer Institute , Stanford , CA , USA
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2615
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Ogony J, Choi HJ, Lui A, Cristofanilli M, Lewis-Wambi J. Interferon-induced transmembrane protein 1 (IFITM1) overexpression enhances the aggressive phenotype of SUM149 inflammatory breast cancer cells in a signal transducer and activator of transcription 2 (STAT2)-dependent manner. Breast Cancer Res 2016; 18:25. [PMID: 26897526 PMCID: PMC4761146 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-016-0683-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a very aggressive and lethal subtype of breast cancer that accounts for about 4 % of all breast cancers diagnosed in the United States. Despite the efforts of several investigators to identify the molecular factors driving the aggressive phenotype of IBC, a great deal is still unknown about the molecular underpinnings of the disease. In the present study, we investigated the role of interferon-induced transmembrane protein 1 (IFITM1), a well-known interferon-stimulated gene (ISG), in promoting the aggressiveness of SUM149 IBC cells. Methods Western blot and real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses were performed to assess the protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of IFITM1 and other ISGs in three IBC cell lines: SUM149, MDA-IBC-3, and SUM190. IFITM1 expression and cellular localization were assessed by using immunofluorescence, while the tumorigenic potential was assessed by performing cell migration, invasion, and colony formation assays. Small interfering RNA and short hairpin RNA knockdowns, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and luciferase assays were performed to determine the functional significance of IFITM1 and signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 and 2 (STAT1/2) in SUM149 cells. Results We found that IFITM1 was constitutively overexpressed at the mRNA and protein levels in triple-negative SUM149 IBC cells, but that it was not expressed in SUM190 and MDA-IBC-3 IBC cells, and that suppression of IFITM1 or blockade of the IFNα signaling pathway significantly reduced the aggressive phenotype of SUM149 cells. Additionally, we found that knockdown of STAT2 abolished IFITM1 expression and IFITM1 promoter activity in SUM149 cells and that loss of STAT2 significantly inhibited the ability of SUM149 cells to proliferate, migrate, invade, and form 2-D colonies. Notably, we found that STAT2-mediated activation of IFITM1 was particularly dependent on the chromatin remodeler brahma-related gene 1 (BRG1), which was significantly elevated in SUM149 cells compared with SUM190 and MDA-IBC-3 cells. Conclusions These findings indicate that overexpression of IFITM1 enhances the aggressive phenotype of triple-negative SUM149 IBC cells and that this effect is dependent on STAT2/BRG1 interaction. Further studies are necessary to explore the potential of IFITM1 as a novel therapeutic target and prognostic marker for some subtypes of IBCs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13058-016-0683-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Ogony
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | - Hye Joung Choi
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | - Asona Lui
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA. .,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | | | - Joan Lewis-Wambi
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
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2616
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Nakhlé J, Pierron V, Bauchet AL, Plas P, Thiongane A, Meyer-Losic F, Schmidlin F. Tasquinimod modulates tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells and improves the antitumor immune response to PD-L1 blockade in bladder cancer. Oncoimmunology 2016; 5:e1145333. [PMID: 27471612 PMCID: PMC4955379 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2016.1145333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Revised: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The infiltration of myeloid cells helps tumors to overcome immune surveillance and imparts resistance to cancer immunotherapy. Thus, strategies to modulate the effects of these immune cells may offer a potential therapeutic benefit. We report here that tasquinimod, a novel immunotherapy which targets S100A9 signaling, reduces the immunosuppressive properties of myeloid cells in preclinical models of bladder cancer (BCa). As single anticancer agent, tasquinimod treatment was effective in preventing early stage tumor growth, but did not achieve a clear antitumor effect in advanced tumors. Investigations of this response revealed that tasquinimod induces an increase in the expression of a negative regulator of T cell activation, Programmed-death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). This markedly weakens its antitumor immunity, yet provokes an "inflamed" milieu rendering tumors more prone to T cell-mediated immune attack by PD-L1 blockade. Interestingly, the combination of tasquinimod with an Anti-PD-L1 antibody enhanced the antitumor immune response in bladder tumors. This combination synergistically modulated tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells, thereby strongly affecting proliferation and activation of effector T cells. Together, our data provide insight into the rational combination of therapies that activate both innate and adaptive immune system, such as the association of S100A9-targeting agents with immune checkpoints inhibitors, to improve the response to cancer immunotherapeutic agents in BCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Nakhlé
- IPSEN Innovation, Global Drug Discovery department , Les Ulis, France
| | - Valérie Pierron
- IPSEN Innovation, Global Drug Discovery department , Les Ulis, France
| | | | - Pascale Plas
- IPSEN Innovation, Global Drug Discovery department , Les Ulis, France
| | - Amath Thiongane
- IPSEN Innovation, Global Drug Discovery department , Les Ulis, France
| | | | - Fabien Schmidlin
- IPSEN Innovation, Global Drug Discovery department , Les Ulis, France
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2617
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Pfirschke C, Engblom C, Rickelt S, Cortez-Retamozo V, Garris C, Pucci F, Yamazaki T, Poirier-Colame V, Newton A, Redouane Y, Lin YJ, Wojtkiewicz G, Iwamoto Y, Mino-Kenudson M, Huynh TG, Hynes RO, Freeman GJ, Kroemer G, Zitvogel L, Weissleder R, Pittet MJ. Immunogenic Chemotherapy Sensitizes Tumors to Checkpoint Blockade Therapy. Immunity 2016; 44:343-54. [PMID: 26872698 PMCID: PMC4758865 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2015.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 703] [Impact Index Per Article: 87.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 11/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Checkpoint blockade immunotherapies can be extraordinarily effective, but might benefit only the minority of patients whose tumors are pre-infiltrated by T cells. Here, using lung adenocarcinoma mouse models, including genetic models, we show that autochthonous tumors that lacked T cell infiltration and resisted current treatment options could be successfully sensitized to host antitumor T cell immunity when appropriately selected immunogenic drugs (e.g., oxaliplatin combined with cyclophosphamide for treatment against tumors expressing oncogenic Kras and lacking Trp53) were used. The antitumor response was triggered by direct drug actions on tumor cells, relied on innate immune sensing through toll-like receptor 4 signaling, and ultimately depended on CD8(+) T cell antitumor immunity. Furthermore, instigating tumor infiltration by T cells sensitized tumors to checkpoint inhibition and controlled cancer durably. These findings indicate that the proportion of cancers responding to checkpoint therapy can be feasibly and substantially expanded by combining checkpoint blockade with immunogenic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Pfirschke
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Camilla Engblom
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Graduate Program in Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Steffen Rickelt
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Virna Cortez-Retamozo
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Christopher Garris
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Graduate Program in Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ferdinando Pucci
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | | | | | - Andita Newton
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Younes Redouane
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Yi-Jang Lin
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Gregory Wojtkiewicz
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Yoshiko Iwamoto
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Mari Mino-Kenudson
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Tiffany G Huynh
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Richard O Hynes
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Gordon J Freeman
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, 94805 Villejuif, France
| | | | - Ralph Weissleder
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Mikael J Pittet
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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2618
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Khoo BL, Chaudhuri PK, Ramalingam N, Tan DSW, Lim CT, Warkiani ME. Single-cell profiling approaches to probing tumor heterogeneity. Int J Cancer 2016; 139:243-55. [PMID: 26789729 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Tumor heterogeneity is a major hindrance in cancer classification, diagnosis and treatment. Recent technological advances have begun to reveal the true extent of its heterogeneity. Single-cell analysis (SCA) is emerging as an important approach to detect variations in morphology, genetic or proteomic expression. In this review, we revisit the issue of inter- and intra-tumor heterogeneity, and list various modes of SCA techniques (cell-based, nucleic acid-based, protein-based, metabolite-based and lipid-based) presently used for cancer characterization. We further discuss the advantages of SCA over pooled cell analysis, as well as the limitations of conventional techniques. Emerging trends, such as high-throughput sequencing, are also mentioned as improved means for cancer profiling. Collectively, these applications have the potential for breakthroughs in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bee Luan Khoo
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore.,BioSystems and Micromechanics (BioSyM) IRG, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART) Centre, Singapore
| | | | | | - Daniel Shao Weng Tan
- Division of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Centre Singapore.,Cancer Stem Cell Biology, Genome Institute of Singapore
| | - Chwee Teck Lim
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore.,BioSystems and Micromechanics (BioSyM) IRG, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART) Centre, Singapore.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore
| | - Majid Ebrahimi Warkiani
- BioSystems and Micromechanics (BioSyM) IRG, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART) Centre, Singapore.,School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Australian Centre for NanoMedicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
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2619
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Katt ME, Placone AL, Wong AD, Xu ZS, Searson PC. In Vitro Tumor Models: Advantages, Disadvantages, Variables, and Selecting the Right Platform. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2016; 4:12. [PMID: 26904541 PMCID: PMC4751256 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2016.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 459] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro tumor models have provided important tools for cancer research and serve as low-cost screening platforms for drug therapies; however, cancer recurrence remains largely unchecked due to metastasis, which is the cause of the majority of cancer-related deaths. The need for an improved understanding of the progression and treatment of cancer has pushed for increased accuracy and physiological relevance of in vitro tumor models. As a result, in vitro tumor models have concurrently increased in complexity and their output parameters further diversified, since these models have progressed beyond simple proliferation, invasion, and cytotoxicity screens and have begun recapitulating critical steps in the metastatic cascade, such as intravasation, extravasation, angiogenesis, matrix remodeling, and tumor cell dormancy. Advances in tumor cell biology, 3D cell culture, tissue engineering, biomaterials, microfabrication, and microfluidics have enabled rapid development of new in vitro tumor models that often incorporate multiple cell types, extracellular matrix materials, and spatial and temporal introduction of soluble factors. Other innovations include the incorporation of perfusable microvessels to simulate the tumor vasculature and model intravasation and extravasation. The drive toward precision medicine has increased interest in adapting in vitro tumor models for patient-specific therapies, clinical management, and assessment of metastatic potential. Here, we review the wide range of current in vitro tumor models and summarize their advantages, disadvantages, and suitability in modeling specific aspects of the metastatic cascade and drug treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moriah E Katt
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology (INBT), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Amanda L Placone
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology (INBT), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Andrew D Wong
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology (INBT), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Zinnia S Xu
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology (INBT), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter C Searson
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology (INBT), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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2620
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Alfarouk KO. Tumor metabolism, cancer cell transporters, and microenvironmental resistance. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2016; 31:859-66. [PMID: 26864256 DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2016.1140753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells reprogram their metabolic machineries to enter into permanent glycolytic pathways. The full reason for such reprogramming takes place is unclear. However, this metabolic switch is not made in vain for the lactate that is generated and exported outside cells is reused by other cells. This results in the generation of a pH gradient between the low extracellular pH that is acidic (pHe) and the higher cytosolic alkaline or near neutral pH (pHi) environments that are tightly regulated by the overexpression of several pumps and ion channels (e.g. NHE-1, MCT-1, V-ATPase, CA9, and CA12). The generation of this unique pH gradient serves as a determining factor in defining "tumor fitness". Tumor fitness is the capacity of the tumor to invade and metastasize due to its ability to reduce the efficiency of the immune system and confer resistance to chemotherapy. In this article, we highlight the importance of tumor microenvironment in mediating the failure of chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalid O Alfarouk
- a Department of Pharmacology , Faculty of Pharmacy, AL-Neelain University , Khartoum , Sudan
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2621
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Biomarkers of residual disease after neoadjuvant therapy for breast cancer. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2016; 13:487-503. [DOI: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2016.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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2622
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Seledtsov VI, Goncharov AG, Seledtsova GV. Clinically feasible approaches to potentiating cancer cell-based immunotherapies. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2016; 11:851-69. [PMID: 25933181 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2015.1009814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system exerts both tumor-destructive and tumor-protective functions. Mature dendritic cells (DCs), classically activated macrophages (M1), granulocytes, B lymphocytes, aβ and ɣδ T lymphocytes, natural killer T (NKT) cells, and natural killer (NK) cells may be implicated in antitumor immunoprotection. Conversely, tolerogenic DCs, alternatively activated macrophages (M2), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and regulatory T (Tregs) and B cells (Bregs) are capable of suppressing antitumor immune responses. Anti-cancer vaccination is a useful strategy to elicit antitumor immune responses, while overcoming immunosuppressive mechanisms. Whole tumor cells or lysates derived thereof hold more promise as cancer vaccines than individual tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), because vaccinal cells can elicit immune responses to multiple TAAs. Cancer cell-based vaccines can be autologous, allogeneic or xenogeneic. Clinical use of xenogeneic vaccines is advantageous in that they can be most effective in breaking the preexisting immune tolerance to TAAs. To potentiate immunotherapy, vaccinations can be combined with other modalities that target different immune pathways. These modalities include 1) genetic or chemical modification of cell-based vaccines; 2) cross-priming TAAs to T cells by engaging dendritic cells; 3) T-cell adoptive therapy; 4) stimulation of cytotoxic inflammation by non-specific immunomodulators, toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists, cytokines, chemokines or hormones; 5) reduction of immunosuppression and/or stimulation of antitumor effector cells using antibodies, small molecules; and 6) various cytoreductive modalities. The authors envisage that combined immunotherapeutic strategies will allow for substantial improvements in clinical outcomes in the near future.
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Key Words
- ADCC, antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity
- APC, antigen-presenting cell
- Ab, antibodies
- BCG, Bacillus Calmette-Guérin
- Breg, regulatory B cell
- CAR, chimeric antigen receptor
- COX, cyclooxygenase
- CTA, cancer/testis antigen
- CTL, cytotoxic T lymphocyte
- CTLA-4, cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4
- DC, dendritic cell
- DTH, delayed-type hypersensitivity
- GITR, glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor
- GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor
- HIFU, high-intensity focused ultrasound
- IDO, indoleamine-2, 3-dioxygenase
- IFN, interferon
- IL, interleukin
- LAK, lymphokine-activated killer
- M, macrophage
- M1, classically activated macrophage
- M2, alternatively activated macrophage, MDSC, myeloid-derived suppressor cell
- MHC, major histocompatibility complex
- NK, natural killer (cell)
- PD-1, programmed death-1
- PGE2, prostaglandin E2
- RFA, radiofrequency ablation
- RNS, reactive nitrogen species
- ROS
- TAA, tumor-associated antigen
- TGF, transforming growth factor
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- Th, T-helper cell
- Treg, regulatory T cell
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
- antitumor immunoprotection
- cancer cell-based vaccines
- combined immunotherapy
- immunosuppression
- reactive oxygen species
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Affiliation(s)
- V I Seledtsov
- a lmmanuel Kant Baltic Federal University ; Kaliningrad , Russia
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2623
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Wang YJ, Huang Y, Anreddy N, Zhang GN, Zhang YK, Xie M, Lin D, Yang DH, Zhang M, Chen ZS. Tea nanoparticle, a safe and biocompatible nanocarrier, greatly potentiates the anticancer activity of doxorubicin. Oncotarget 2016; 7:5877-91. [PMID: 26716507 PMCID: PMC4868728 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
An infusion-dialysis based procedure has been developed as an approach to isolate organic nanoparticles from green tea. Tea nanoparticle (TNP) can effectively load doxorubicin (DOX) via electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. We established an ABCB1 overexpressing tumor xenograft mouse model to investigate whether TNP can effectively deliver DOX into tumors and bypass the efflux function of the ABCB1 transporter, thereby increasing the intratumoral accumulation of DOX and potentiating the anticancer activity of DOX. MTT assays suggested that DOX-TNP showed higher cytotoxicity toward CCD-18Co, SW620 and SW620/Ad300 cells than DOX. Animal study revealed that DOX-TNP resulted in greater inhibitory effects on the growth of SW620 and SW620/Ad300 tumors than DOX. In pharmacokinetics study, DOX-TNP greatly increased the SW620 and SW620/Ad300 intratumoral concentrations of DOX. But DOX-TNP had no effect on the plasma concentrations of DOX. Furthermore, TNP is a safe nanocarrier with excellent biocompatibility and minimal toxicity. Ex vivo IHC analysis of SW620 and SW620/Ad300 tumor sections revealed evidence of prominent antitumor activity of DOX-TNP. In conclusion, our findings suggested that natural nanomaterials could be useful in combating multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells and potentiating the anticancer activity of chemotherapeutic agents in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Jun Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Yujian Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Nagaraju Anreddy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Guan-Nan Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Yun-Kai Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Meina Xie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Derrick Lin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Dong-Hua Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Mingjun Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Zhe-Sheng Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
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2624
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Antonioli L, Yegutkin GG, Pacher P, Blandizzi C, Haskó G. Anti-CD73 in cancer immunotherapy: awakening new opportunities. Trends Cancer 2016; 2:95-109. [PMID: 27014745 PMCID: PMC4800751 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, cancer immunotherapy made significant advances due to a better understanding of the principles underlying tumor biology and immunology. In this context, CD73 is a key molecule, since via degradation of adenosine monophosphate into adenosine, endorses the generation of an immunosuppressed and pro-angiogenic niche within the tumor microenvironment that promotes the onset and progression of cancer. Targeting CD73 results in favorable antitumor effects in pre-clinical models and combined treatments of CD73 blockade with other immune-modulating agents (i.e. anti-CTLA-4 mAb or anti-PD1 mAb) is particularly attractive. Although there is still a long way to go, anti-CD73 therapy, through the development of CD73 monoclonal antibodies, can potentially constitute a new biologic therapy for cancer patients. In this review, we discuss the link between CD73 and the onset, development and spread of tumors, highlighting the potential value of this molecule as a target and as a novel biomarker in the context of personalized cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Antonioli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; Department of Surgery and Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Gennady G Yegutkin
- Medicity Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Turku, Finland
| | - Pál Pacher
- Section on Oxidative Stress Tissue Injury, Laboratories of Physiological Studies, National Institutes of Health/NIAAA, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Corrado Blandizzi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - György Haskó
- Department of Surgery and Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
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2625
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Koeck S, Zwierzina M, Huber JM, Bitsche M, Lorenz E, Gamerith G, Dudas J, Kelm JM, Zwierzina H, Amann A. Infiltration of lymphocyte subpopulations into cancer microtissues as a tool for the exploration of immunomodulatory agents and biomarkers. Immunobiology 2016; 221:604-17. [PMID: 26876590 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2015.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The interaction between the immune system and malignant diseases is a proven key target for cancer therapy. We describe an innovative 3D cell culture system comprising both immune and cancer cells to evaluate their interaction and immune cell infiltration to provide an innovative in vitro screening of immunomodulatory agents and biomarkers. METHODS 3D tumor microtissues were cultivated using a hanging drops system. Human non-small-cell lung cancer cell lines were incubated for 7 days to form microtissues. On day 5, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were added with or without interleukin-2 (IL-2) for 24 or 48h. Viability of cancer cells and the infiltrating PBMC subpopulations were investigated by flow cytometry. Aggregation of tumor cells and PBMC and the infiltration of the PBMC into the tumor microtissues were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Quantification of infiltration was measured by applying the TissueFAXS system. RESULTS Immunohistochemistry revealed PBMC infiltration in all cell lines which increased under IL-2 stimulation. Analysis of infiltrating populations showed both lymphocyte subpopulations and monocytes within the tumor microtissues. In all three co-cultures, CD3+CD8+ and CD3+CD8+CD45R0+CD28+ lymphocytes were increased with IL-2, whereas CD3+CD8+CD45R0-CD28+ PBMCs were decreased with and without IL-2 stimulation. CONCLUSION In summary, we present a novel cell culture system to study the interaction between cancer cells and immune cells in 3-dimensional microtissues. In addition, we report for the first time an in vitro infiltration assay based on 3D microtissues. This model has the potential to provide a tool for ex-vivo drug testing and biomarker screening of immunomodulatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Koeck
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria; Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria.
| | - Marit Zwierzina
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | - Julia M Huber
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria; Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | - Mario Bitsche
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | - Edith Lorenz
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria; Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | - Gabriele Gamerith
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria; Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | - Jozsef Dudas
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | - Jens M Kelm
- InSphero AG, Schlieren, Canton of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Heinz Zwierzina
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria; Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
| | - Arno Amann
- Department of Internal Medicine V, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria; Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
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2626
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Combining antibody–drug conjugates and immune-mediated cancer therapy: What to expect? Biochem Pharmacol 2016; 102:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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2627
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Song M, Nishihara R, Wang M, Chan AT, Qian ZR, Inamura K, Zhang X, Ng K, Kim SA, Mima K, Sukawa Y, Nosho K, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci EL, Wu K, Ogino S. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and colorectal cancer risk according to tumour immunity status. Gut 2016; 65:296-304. [PMID: 25591978 PMCID: PMC4503524 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2014-308852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Evidence suggests protective effects of vitamin D and antitumour immunity on colorectal cancer risk. Immune cells in tumour microenvironment can convert 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] to bioactive 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, which influences neoplastic and immune cells as an autocrine and paracrine factor. Thus, we hypothesised that the inverse association between vitamin D and colorectal cancer risk might be stronger for cancers with high-level immune response than those with low-level immune response. DESIGN We designed a nested case-control study (318 rectal and colon carcinoma cases and 624 matched controls) within the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study using molecular pathological epidemiology database. Multivariable conditional logistic regression was used to assess the association of plasma 25(OH)D with tumour subtypes according to the degree of lymphocytic reaction, tumour-infiltrating T cells (CD3+, CD8+, CD45RO+ (PTPRC) and FOXP3+ cells), microsatellite instability or CpG island methylator phenotype. RESULTS The association of plasma 25(OH)D with colorectal carcinoma differed by the degree of intratumoural periglandular reaction (p for heterogeneity=0.001); high 25(OH)D was associated with lower risk of tumour with high-level reaction (comparing the highest versus lowest tertile: OR 0.10; 95% CI 0.03 to 0.35; p for trend<0.001), but not risk of tumour with lower-level reaction (p for trend>0.50). A statistically non-significant difference was observed for the associations of 25(OH)D with tumour subtypes according to CD3+ T cell density (p for heterogeneity=0.03; adjusted statistical significance level of α=0.006). CONCLUSIONS High plasma 25(OH)D level is associated with lower risk of colorectal cancer with intense immune reaction, supporting a role of vitamin D in cancer immunoprevention through tumour-host interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyang Song
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Reiko Nishihara
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Molin Wang
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Andrew T. Chan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Zhi Rong Qian
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kentaro Inamura
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Xuehong Zhang
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kimmie Ng
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Sun A Kim
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kosuke Mima
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yasutaka Sukawa
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Katsuhiko Nosho
- Department of Gastroenterology, Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Charles S. Fuchs
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Edward L. Giovannucci
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kana Wu
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Shuji Ogino
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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2628
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Lu Y, Miao L, Wang Y, Xu Z, Zhao Y, Shen Y, Xiang G, Huang L. Curcumin Micelles Remodel Tumor Microenvironment and Enhance Vaccine Activity in an Advanced Melanoma Model. Mol Ther 2016; 24:364-374. [PMID: 26334519 PMCID: PMC4817807 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2015.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, we have reported a lipid-based Trp2 peptide vaccine for immunotherapy against melanoma. The suppressive immune microenvironment in the tumor is a major hurdle for an effective vaccine therapy. We hypothesized that curcumin (CUR) would remodel the tumor microenvironment to improve the vaccine activity. Curcumin-polyethylene glycol conjugate (CUR-PEG), an amphiphilic CUR-based micelle, was delivered intravenously (i.v.) to the tumor. Indeed, in the B16F10 tumor-bearing mice, the combination of CUR-PEG and vaccine treatment resulted in a synergistic antitumor effect (P < 0.001) compared to individual treatments. In the immune organs, the combination therapy significantly boosted in vivo cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response (41.0 ± 5.0% specific killing) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production (sevenfold increase). In the tumor microenvironment, the combination therapy led to significantly downregulated levels of immunosuppressive factors, such as decreased numbers of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and regulatory T cells (Treg) cells and declined levels of interleukin-6 and chemokine ligand 2-in correlation with increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α and IFN-γ as well as an elevation in the CD8(+) T-cell population. The results indicated a distinct M2 to M1 phenotype switch in the treated tumors. Combining CUR-PEG and vaccine also dramatically downregulated the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway (76% reduction). Thus, we conclude that CUR-PEG is an effective agent to improve immunotherapy for advanced melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Lu
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA; School of Pharmacy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Lei Miao
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Yuhua Wang
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Zhenghong Xu
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Yi Zhao
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Youqing Shen
- Center for Bioengineering, State Key Laboratory for Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guangya Xiang
- School of Pharmacy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Leaf Huang
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
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2629
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Di Caro G, Castino GF, Bergomas F, Cortese N, Chiriva-Internati M, Grizzi F, Mantovani A, Marchesi F. Tertiary lymphoid tissue in the tumor microenvironment: from its occurrence to immunotherapeutic implications. Int Rev Immunol 2016; 34:123-33. [PMID: 25901857 DOI: 10.3109/08830185.2015.1018416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Recruitment of immune and inflammatory cells in the microenvironment of solid tumors is highly heterogeneous and follows patterns, varying according to the organ of origin and stage of disease, with critical roles in the process of cancer onset and progression. While adaptive cells are endowed with anti-tumor activities, inflammatory components of the immune infiltrate orchestrate an immunosuppressive microenvironment that reveals ambivalent functions of the immune contexture in the tumor milieu. The balance between opposing pro-tumoral and anti-tumoral immune pathways, which occur concomitantly in the tumor microenvironment, and the regulatory networks of these phenomena have been the target of several immunotherapeutic strategies. While the scarcity of adaptive immune effectors in tumors correlates with dismal prognosis, the pathways of activation of tumor-specific lymphocytes are yet to be fully elucidated. Recently, the occurrence of tertiary lymphoid tissue was revealed to be critical in mediating the dynamics of T cell recruitment and local activation of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. Thus, tertiary lymphoid tissue assessment and targeting emerge as a promising approach for the design of novel prognostic immune signatures and immunotherapeutic strategies. The immunological behavior of tertiary lymphoid tissue, its occurrence in the tumor immune microenvironment and its clinical relevance are discussed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Di Caro
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Rozzano, Milan , Italy
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2630
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Ock CY, Keam B, Kim S, Lee JS, Kim M, Kim TM, Jeon YK, Kim DW, Chung DH, Heo DS. Pan-Cancer Immunogenomic Perspective on the Tumor Microenvironment Based on PD-L1 and CD8 T-Cell Infiltration. Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22:2261-70. [PMID: 26819449 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-15-2834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE There is currently no reliable biomarker to predict who would benefit from anti-PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. We comprehensively analyzed the immunogenomic properties in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) according to the classification of tumor into four groups based on PD-L1 status and tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte recruitment (TIL), a combination that has been suggested to be a theoretically reliable biomarker of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The RNA expression levels of PD-L1 and CD8A in the samples in the pan-cancer database of TCGA (N = 9,677) were analyzed. Based on their median values, the samples were classified into four tumor microenvironment immune types (TMIT). The mutational profiles, PD-L1 amplification, and viral association of the samples were compared according to the four TMITs. RESULTS The proportions of TMIT I, defined by high PD-L1 and CD8A expression, were high in lung adenocarcinoma (67.1%) and kidney clear cell carcinoma (64.8%) among solid cancers. The number of somatic mutations and the proportion of microsatellite instable-high tumor in TMIT I were significantly higher than those in other TMITs, respectively (P < 0.001). PD-L1 amplification and oncogenic virus infection were significantly associated with TMIT I, respectively (P < 0.001). A multivariate analysis confirmed that the number of somatic mutations, PD-L1 amplification, and Epstein-Barr virus/human papillomavirus infection were independently associated with TMIT I. CONCLUSIONS TMIT I is associated with a high mutational burden, PD-L1 amplification, and oncogenic viral infection. This integrative analysis highlights the importance of the assessment of both PD-L1 expression and TIL recruitment to predict responders to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Clin Cancer Res; 22(9); 2261-70. ©2016 AACRSee related commentary by Schalper et al., p. 2102.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan-Young Ock
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Bhumsuk Keam
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea. Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.
| | - Sehui Kim
- Department of Pathology, Seoul National University Hospital Seoul, Korea
| | - Ju-Seog Lee
- Department of Systems Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Miso Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Tae Min Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea. Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yoon Kyung Jeon
- Department of Pathology, Seoul National University Hospital Seoul, Korea
| | - Dong-Wan Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea. Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Doo Hyun Chung
- Department of Pathology, Seoul National University Hospital Seoul, Korea
| | - Dae Seog Heo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea. Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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2631
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Fairchild PJ, Leishman A, Sachamitr P, Telfer C, Hackett S, Davies TJ. Dendritic cells and pluripotency: unlikely allies in the pursuit of immunotherapy. Regen Med 2016; 10:275-86. [PMID: 25933237 DOI: 10.2217/rme.15.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
As the fulcrum on which the balance between the opposing forces of tolerance and immunity has been shown to pivot, dendritic cells (DC) hold significant promise for immune intervention in a variety of disease states. Here we discuss how the directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells may address many of the current obstacles to the use of monocyte-derived DC in immunotherapy, providing a novel source of previously inaccessible DC subsets and opportunities for their scale-up, quality control and genetic modification. Indeed, given that it is the immunological legacy DC leave behind that is of therapeutic value, rather than their persistence per se, we propose that immunotherapy should serve as an early target for the clinical application of pluripotent stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Fairchild
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
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2632
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Ortiz A, Fuchs SY. Anti-metastatic functions of type 1 interferons: Foundation for the adjuvant therapy of cancer. Cytokine 2016; 89:4-11. [PMID: 26822709 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The anti-tumorigenic effects that type 1 interferons (IFN1) elicited in the in vitro studies prompted consideration of IFN1 as a potent candidate for clinical treatment. Though not all patients responded to IFN1, clinical trials have shown that patients with high risk melanoma, a highly refractory solid malignancy, benefit greatly from intermediate IFN1 treatment in regards to relapse-free and distant-metastasis-free survival. The mechanisms by which IFN1 treatment at early stages of disease suppress tumor recurrence or metastatic incidence are not fully understood. Intracellular IFN1 signaling is known to affect cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. Moreover, recent studies have revealed specific IFN1-regulated genes that may contribute to IFN1-mediated suppression of cancer progression and metastasis. In concert, expression of these different IFN1 stimulated genes may impede numerous mechanisms that mediate metastatic process. Though, IFN1 treatment is still utilized as part of standard care for metastatic melanoma (alone or in combination with other therapies), cancers find the ways to develop insensitivity to IFN1 treatment allowing for unconstrained disease progression. To determine how and when IFN1 treatment would be most efficacious during disease progression, we must understand how IFN1 signaling affects different metastasis steps. Here, we specifically focus on the anti-metastatic role of endogenous IFN1 and parameters that may help to use pharmaceutical IFN1 in the adjuvant treatment to prevent cancer recurrence and metastatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Ortiz
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Serge Y Fuchs
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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2633
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Xiao H, Jiao J, Wang L, O'Brien S, Newick K, Wang LCS, Falkensammer E, Liu Y, Han R, Kapoor V, Hansen FK, Kurz T, Hancock WW, Beier UH. HDAC5 controls the functions of Foxp3(+) T-regulatory and CD8(+) T cells. Int J Cancer 2016; 138:2477-86. [PMID: 26704363 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Histone/protein deacetylases (HDACs) are frequently upregulated in human malignancies and have therefore become therapeutic targets in cancer therapy. However, inhibiting certain HDAC isoforms can have protolerogenic effects on the immune system, which could make it easier for tumor cells to evade the host immune system. Therefore, a better understanding of how each HDAC isoform affects immune biology is needed to develop targeted cancer therapy. Here, we studied the immune phenotype of HDAC5(-/-) mice on a C57BL/6 background. While HDAC5(-/-) mice replicate at expected Mendelian ratios and do not develop overt autoimmune disease, their T-regulatory (Treg) cells show reduced suppressive function in vitro and in vivo. Likewise, CD4(+) T-cells lacking HDAC5 convert poorly to Tregs under appropriately polarizing conditions. To test if this attenuated Treg formation and suppressive function translated into improved anticancer immunity, we inoculated HDAC5(-/-) mice and littermate controls with a lung adenocarcinoma cell line. Cumulatively, lack of HDAC5 did not lead to better anticancer immunity. We found that CD8(+) T cells missing HDAC5 had a reduced ability to produce the cytokine, IFN-γ, in vitro and in vivo, which may offset the benefit of weakened Treg function and formation. Taken together, targeting HDAC5 weakens suppressive function and de-novo induction of Tregs, but also reduces the ability of CD8(+) T cells to produce IFN-γ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Xiao
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Jing Jiao
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Liqing Wang
- Division of Transplant Immunology and Biesecker Center for Pediatric Liver Disease, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Shaun O'Brien
- Pulmonary, Allergy & Critical Care Division, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Kheng Newick
- Pulmonary, Allergy & Critical Care Division, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Liang-Chuan S Wang
- Pulmonary, Allergy & Critical Care Division, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Eva Falkensammer
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Yujie Liu
- Division of Transplant Immunology and Biesecker Center for Pediatric Liver Disease, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Rongxiang Han
- Division of Transplant Immunology and Biesecker Center for Pediatric Liver Disease, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Veena Kapoor
- Pulmonary, Allergy & Critical Care Division, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Finn K Hansen
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich Heine Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Thomas Kurz
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Heinrich Heine Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Wayne W Hancock
- Division of Transplant Immunology and Biesecker Center for Pediatric Liver Disease, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Ulf H Beier
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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2634
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Assaf C, Hwang ST. Mac attack: macrophages as key drivers of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma pathogenesis. Exp Dermatol 2016; 25:105-6. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.12894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chalid Assaf
- Department of Dermatology, Venerology and Allergy; Skin Cancer Center Charité; Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin; Berlin Germany
- Department of Dermatology; HELIOS Klinikum Krefeld; Krefeld Germany
| | - Sam T. Hwang
- Department of Dermatology; University of California Davis; Sacramento CA USA
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2635
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Antitumor Activity of cGAMP via Stimulation of cGAS-cGAMP-STING-IRF3 Mediated Innate Immune Response. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19049. [PMID: 26754564 PMCID: PMC4709567 DOI: 10.1038/srep19049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is one of the key strategies for cancer treatment. The cGAS-cGAMP-STING-IRF3 pathway of cytosolic DNA sensing plays a pivotal role in antiviral defense. We report that the STING activator cGAMP possesses significant antitumor activity in mice by triggering the STING-dependent pathway directly. cGAMP enhances innate immune responses by inducing production of cytokines such as interferon-β, interferon-γ, and stimulating dendritic cells activation, which induces the cross-priming of CD8+ T cells. The antitumor mechanism of cGAMP was verified by STING and IRF3, which were up-regulated upon cGAMP treatment. STING-deficiency dramatically reduced the antitumor effect of cGAMP. Furthermore, cGAMP improved the antitumor activity of 5-FU, and clearly reduced the toxicity of 5-FU. These results demonstrated that cGAMP is a novel antitumor agent and has potential applications in cancer immunotherapy.
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2636
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Abstract
Elucidating the function of tumor-infiltrating regulatory T (Treg) cells has been difficult. In this issue of Immunity, Joshi et al. (2015) demonstrate that Treg cells associated with murine lung cancers are found within tertiary lymphoid structures and actively restrain effector T cells at the tumor site.
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2637
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Roychoudhuri R, Eil RL, Clever D, Klebanoff CA, Sukumar M, Grant FM, Yu Z, Mehta G, Liu H, Jin P, Ji Y, Palmer DC, Pan JH, Chichura A, Crompton JG, Patel SJ, Stroncek D, Wang E, Marincola FM, Okkenhaug K, Gattinoni L, Restifo NP. The transcription factor BACH2 promotes tumor immunosuppression. J Clin Invest 2016; 126:599-604. [PMID: 26731475 DOI: 10.1172/jci82884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system has a powerful ability to recognize and kill cancer cells, but its function is often suppressed within tumors, preventing clearance of disease. Functionally diverse innate and adaptive cellular lineages either drive or constrain immune reactions within tumors. The transcription factor (TF) BACH2 regulates the differentiation of multiple innate and adaptive cellular lineages, but its role in controlling tumor immunity has not been elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that BACH2 is required to establish immunosuppression within tumors. Tumor growth was markedly impaired in Bach2-deficient mice and coincided with intratumoral activation of both innate and adaptive immunity. However, augmented tumor clearance in the absence of Bach2 was dependent upon the adaptive immune system. Analysis of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from Bach2-deficient mice revealed high frequencies of rapidly proliferating effector CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that expressed the inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ. Effector T cell activation coincided with a reduction in the frequency of intratumoral Foxp3+ Tregs. Mechanistically, BACH2 promoted tumor immunosuppression through Treg-mediated inhibition of intratumoral CD8+ T cells and IFN-γ. These findings demonstrate that BACH2 is a key component of the molecular program of tumor immunosuppression and identify therapeutic targets for the reversal of immunosuppression in cancer.
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2638
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Makkouk A, Chester C, Kohrt HE. Rationale for anti-CD137 cancer immunotherapy. Eur J Cancer 2016; 54:112-119. [PMID: 26751393 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2015.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The consideration of the complex interplay between the tumour microenvironment (TME) and the immune response is the key for designing effective immunotherapies. Therapeutic strategies that harness co-stimulatory receptors have recently gained momentum in the clinic. One such strategy with promising clinical applications is the targeting of CD137, a member of the tumour necrosis factor receptor superfamily. Its expression on both innate and adaptive immune cells, coupled with its unique ability to potentiate antitumour responses through modulating the TME and to ameliorate autoimmune responses, has established it as an appealing target. In this review, we will discuss the various CD137-targeted immunotherapeutics that have reached clinical development, with a focus on recent advances and novel modalities such as CD137 chimeric antigen receptors and CD137 bispecific antibodies. We will also highlight the effect of CD137 targeting on the TME and discuss the importance of probing TME changes for predicting and testing the efficacy of CD137-mediated immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amani Makkouk
- Department of Medicine, Division of Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
| | - Cariad Chester
- Department of Medicine, Division of Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA; Institute for Immunity, Transplantation and Infection, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305 USA
| | - Holbrook E Kohrt
- Department of Medicine, Division of Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA.
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2639
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Cimino-Mathews A, Thompson E, Taube JM, Ye X, Lu Y, Meeker A, Xu H, Sharma R, Lecksell K, Cornish TC, Cuka N, Argani P, Emens LA. PD-L1 (B7-H1) expression and the immune tumor microenvironment in primary and metastatic breast carcinomas. Hum Pathol 2016; 47:52-63. [PMID: 26527522 PMCID: PMC4778421 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression by tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and tumor cells in breast cancer has been reported, but the relationships between PD-L1 expression by TIL, carcinoma cells, and other immunologic features of the breast tumor microenvironment remain unclear. We therefore evaluated the interrelationships between tumor cell surface and TIL PD-L1 expression, lymphocyte subpopulations, and patterns of immune cell infiltration in cohorts of treatment-naive, primary breast cancers (PBCs) (n = 45) and matched PBC and metastatic breast cancers (MBC) (n = 26). Seventy-eight percent of untreated PBCs contained PD-L1(+) TILs, but only 21% had PD-L1(+) carcinoma cells. Carcinoma PD-L1 expression localized to the tumor invasive front and was associated with high tumor grade (P = .04). Eighty-nine percent of PD-L1(+) carcinomas contained brisk TIL infiltrates, compared to only 24% of PD-L1(-) carcinomas; this included CD3(+) (P = .02), CD4(+) (P = .04), CD8(+) (P = .002), and FoxP3(+) T cells (P = .02). PD-L1(+) PBCs were more likely to contain PD-L1(+) TIL than PD-L1(-) PBCs (P = .04). Peripheral lymphoid aggregates were present in 100% of PD-L1(+) compared to 41% of PD-L1(-) PBC (P < .001). No patient with PD-L1(+) PBC developed distant recurrence, compared to 15% of patients with PD-L1(-) PBC. For the matched PBC and MBC cohort, 2 patients (8%) had PD-L1(+) tumors, with 1 case concordant and 1 case discordant for carcinoma PD-L1 expression in the PBC and MBC. Our data support PD-L1 expression by tumor cells as a biomarker of active breast tumor immunity and programmed death 1 blockade as a therapeutic strategy for breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Cimino-Mathews
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287; Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287.
| | - Elizabeth Thompson
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Janis M Taube
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287; Department of Dermatology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Xiaobu Ye
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Yao Lu
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Alan Meeker
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Haiying Xu
- Department of Dermatology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Rajni Sharma
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Kristen Lecksell
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Toby C Cornish
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Nathan Cuka
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Pedram Argani
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287; Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Leisha A Emens
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287.
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2640
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Alhakamy NA, Ishiguro S, Uppalapati D, Berkland CJ, Tamura M. AT2R Gene Delivered by Condensed Polylysine Complexes Attenuates Lewis Lung Carcinoma after Intravenous Injection or Intratracheal Spray. Mol Cancer Ther 2016; 15:209-18. [PMID: 26637367 PMCID: PMC4707093 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-15-0448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Transfection efficiency and toxicity concerns remain a challenge for gene therapy. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) have been broadly investigated to improve the transfection of genetic material (e.g., pDNA and siRNA). Here, a synthetic CPP (polylysine, K9 peptide) was complexed with angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R) plasmid DNA (pAT2R) and complexes were condensed using calcium chloride. The resulting complexes were small (∼150 nm) and showed high levels of gene expression in vitro and in vivo. This simple nonviral formulation approach showed negligible cytotoxicity in four different human cell lines (cervix, breast, kidney, and lung cell lines) and one mouse cell line (a lung cancer cell line). In addition, this K9-pDNA-Ca(2+) complex demonstrated cancer-targeted gene delivery when administered via intravenous injection or intratracheal spray. The transfection efficiency was evaluated in Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cell lines cultured in vitro and in orthotopic cancer grafts in syngeneic mice. Immunohistochemical analysis confirmed that the complex effectively delivered pAT2R to the cancer cells, where it was expressed mainly in cancer cells along with bronchial epithelial cells. A single administration of these complexes markedly attenuated lung cancer growth, offering preclinical proof-of-concept for a novel nonviral gene delivery method exhibiting effective lung tumor gene therapy via either intravenous or intratracheal administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabil A Alhakamy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Susumu Ishiguro
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Deepthi Uppalapati
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - Cory J Berkland
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
| | - Masaaki Tamura
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.
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2641
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2642
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2643
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Abstract
Obesity is associated with metabolic disturbances that cause tissue stress and dysfunction. Obese individuals are at a greater risk for chronic disease and often present with clinical parameters of metabolic syndrome (MetS), insulin resistance, and systemic markers of chronic low-grade inflammation. It has been well established that cells of the immune system play an important role in the pathogenesis of obesity- and MetS-related chronic diseases, as evidenced by leukocyte activation and dysfunction in metabolic tissues such as adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, and the vasculature. However, recent findings have highlighted the substantial impact that obesity and MetS parameters have on immunity and pathogen defense, including the disruption of lymphoid tissue integrity; alterations in leukocyte development, phenotypes, and activity; and the coordination of innate and adaptive immune responses. These changes are associated with an overall negative impact on chronic disease progression, immunity from infection, and vaccine efficacy. This review presents an overview of the impact that obesity and MetS parameters have on immune system function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kelsey E Murphy
- Department of Biology, Fairfield University, Fairfield, CT; and
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2644
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Yang W, Yu H, Li G, Wang B, Wang Y, Liu L. Regulation of breast cancer cell behaviours by the physical microenvironment constructed via projection microstereolithography. Biomater Sci 2016; 4:863-70. [DOI: 10.1039/c6bm00103c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A considerable number of studies have examined how intrinsic factors regulate breast cancer cell behaviours; however, physical microenvironmental cues may also modulate cellular morphology, proliferation, and migration and mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenguang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics
- Shenyang Institute of Automation
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shenyang
- P. R. China
| | - Haibo Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics
- Shenyang Institute of Automation
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shenyang
- P. R. China
| | - Gongxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics
- Shenyang Institute of Automation
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shenyang
- P. R. China
| | - Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics
- Shenyang Institute of Automation
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shenyang
- P. R. China
| | - Yuechao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics
- Shenyang Institute of Automation
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shenyang
- P. R. China
| | - Lianqing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics
- Shenyang Institute of Automation
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shenyang
- P. R. China
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2645
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Kuruganti S, Miersch S, Deshpande A, Speir JA, Harris BD, Schriewer JM, Buller RML, Sidhu SS, Walter MR. Cytokine Activation by Antibody Fragments Targeted to Cytokine-Receptor Signaling Complexes. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:447-61. [PMID: 26546677 PMCID: PMC4697184 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.665943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Exogenous cytokine therapy can induce systemic toxicity, which might be prevented by activating endogenously produced cytokines in local cell niches. Here we developed antibody-based activators of cytokine signaling (AcCS), which recognize cytokines only when they are bound to their cell surface receptors. AcCS were developed for type I interferons (IFNs), which induce cellular activities by binding to cell surface receptors IFNAR1 and IFNAR2. As a potential alternative to exogenous IFN therapy, AcCS were shown to potentiate the biological activities of natural IFNs by ∼100-fold. Biochemical and structural characterization demonstrates that the AcCS stabilize the IFN-IFNAR2 binary complex by recognizing an IFN-induced conformational change in IFNAR2. Using IFN mutants that disrupt IFNAR1 binding, AcCS were able to enhance IFN antiviral potency without activating antiproliferative responses. This suggests AcCS can be used to manipulate cytokine signaling for basic science and possibly for therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srilalitha Kuruganti
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Shane Miersch
- Banting and Best Department of Medical Science, Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada
| | - Ashlesha Deshpande
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Jeffrey A Speir
- National Resource for Automated Molecular Microscopy, Department of Integrative Structural and, Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, and
| | - Bethany D Harris
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Jill M Schriewer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University Health Sciences Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63104
| | - R Mark L Buller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University Health Sciences Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63104
| | - Sachdev S Sidhu
- Banting and Best Department of Medical Science, Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada
| | - Mark R Walter
- From the Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294,
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2646
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Pike KA, Hui C, Krawczyk CM. Detecting Secreted Analytes from Immune Cells: An Overview of Technologies. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1458:111-124. [PMID: 27581018 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3801-8_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is largely shaped by secreted factors and infiltrating immune cells and the nature of this environment can profoundly influence tumor growth and progression. As such, there is an increasing need to identify and quantify secreted factors by tumor cells, tumor-associated cells, and infiltrating immune cells. To meet this need, the dynamic range of immunoassays such as ELISAs and ELISpots have been improved and the scope of reagents commercially available has been expanded. In addition, new bead-based and membrane-based screening arrays have been developed to allow for the simultaneous detection of multiple analytes in one sample. Similarly, the optimization of intracellular staining for flow cytometry now allows for the quantitation of multiple cytokines from either a purified cell population or a complex mixed cell suspension. Herein, we review the rapidly evolving technologies that are currently available to detect secreted analytes. Emphasis is placed on discussing the advantages and disadvantages of these assays and their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Pike
- Goodman Cancer Research Centre, McGill University, 1160 Pine Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3
| | - Caitlyn Hui
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Physiology, Goodman Cancer Research Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Physiology, Goodman Cancer Research Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Connie M Krawczyk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Physiology, Goodman Cancer Research Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
- Department of Physiology, Goodman Cancer Research Center, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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2647
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Abstract
Obesity is associated with metabolic disturbances that cause tissue stress and dysfunction. Obese individuals are at a greater risk for chronic disease and often present with clinical parameters of metabolic syndrome (MetS), insulin resistance, and systemic markers of chronic low-grade inflammation. It has been well established that cells of the immune system play an important role in the pathogenesis of obesity- and MetS-related chronic diseases, as evidenced by leukocyte activation and dysfunction in metabolic tissues such as adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, and the vasculature. However, recent findings have highlighted the substantial impact that obesity and MetS parameters have on immunity and pathogen defense, including the disruption of lymphoid tissue integrity; alterations in leukocyte development, phenotypes, and activity; and the coordination of innate and adaptive immune responses. These changes are associated with an overall negative impact on chronic disease progression, immunity from infection, and vaccine efficacy. This review presents an overview of the impact that obesity and MetS parameters have on immune system function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kelsey E Murphy
- Department of Biology, Fairfield University, Fairfield, CT; and
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2648
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Nabholtz J, Chalabi N, Radosevic-Robin N, Dauplat M, Mouret-Reynier M, Van Praagh I, Servent V, Jacquin JP, Benmammar K, Kullab S, Bahadoor M, Kwiatkowski F, Cayre A, Abrial C, Durando X, Bignon Y, Chollet P, Penault-Llorca F. Multicentric neoadjuvant pilot Phase II study of cetuximab combined with docetaxel in operable triple negative breast cancer. Int J Cancer 2015; 138:2274-80. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 11/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J.M. Nabholtz
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Clinical and Translational Research Division; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- CIC 501, UMR 766; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Medical Oncology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - N. Chalabi
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Clinical and Translational Research Division; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- CIC 501, UMR 766; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - N. Radosevic-Robin
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Department of Biopathology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - M.M. Dauplat
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Department of Biopathology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - M.A. Mouret-Reynier
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Medical Oncology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - I. Van Praagh
- Medical Oncology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - V. Servent
- Oscar Lambret Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Lille France
| | - JP Jacquin
- Lucien Neuwirth Institute; Saint-Etienne France
| | - K.E. Benmammar
- Medical Oncology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - S. Kullab
- Medical Oncology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - M.R.K. Bahadoor
- Medical Oncology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Oncauvergne Regional Oncology Network, Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - F. Kwiatkowski
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Clinical and Translational Research Division; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- LMB GenAuvergne Oncogenetics Department; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - A. Cayre
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Department of Biopathology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - C. Abrial
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Clinical and Translational Research Division; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- CIC 501, UMR 766; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - X. Durando
- Clinical and Translational Research Division; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- CIC 501, UMR 766; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Medical Oncology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- EA 3846, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - Y.J. Bignon
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- LMB GenAuvergne Oncogenetics Department; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - P. Chollet
- Clinical and Translational Research Division; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Inserm UMR 990; Clermont-Ferrand France
- University of Auvergne Clermont-Ferrand; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - F. Penault-Llorca
- ERTICA EA 4677, University of Auvergne; Clermont-Ferrand France
- Department of Biopathology; Jean Perrin Comprehensive Cancer Centre; Clermont-Ferrand France
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2649
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Taking up Cancer Immunotherapy Challenges: Bispecific Antibodies, the Path Forward? Antibodies (Basel) 2015; 5:antib5010001. [PMID: 31557983 PMCID: PMC6698871 DOI: 10.3390/antib5010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Revised: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As evidenced by the recent approvals of Removab (EU, Trion Pharma) in 2009 and of Blincyto (US, Amgen) in 2014, the high potential of bispecific antibodies in the field of immuno-oncology is eliciting a renewed interest from pharmaceutical companies. Supported by rapid advances in antibody engineering and the development of several technological platforms such as Triomab or bispecific T cell engagers (BiTEs), the “bispecifics” market has increased significantly over the past decade and may occupy a pivotal space in the future. Over 30 bispecific molecules are currently in different stages of clinical trials and more than 70 in preclinical phase. This review focuses on the clinical potential of bispecific antibodies as immune effector cell engagers in the onco-immunotherapy field. We summarize current strategies targeting various immune cells and their clinical interests. Furthermore, perspectives of bispecific antibodies in future clinical developments are addressed.
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2650
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Zou Q, Jin J, Xiao Y, Zhou X, Hu H, Cheng X, Kazimi N, Ullrich SE, Sun SC. T Cell Intrinsic USP15 Deficiency Promotes Excessive IFN-γ Production and an Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment in MCA-Induced Fibrosarcoma. Cell Rep 2015; 13:2470-2479. [PMID: 26686633 PMCID: PMC4691552 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.11.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
USP15 is a deubiquitinase that negatively regulates activation of naive CD4(+) T cells and generation of IFN-γ-producing T helper 1 (Th1) cells. USP15 deficiency in mice promotes antitumor T cell responses in a transplantable cancer model; however, it has remained unclear how deregulated T cell activation impacts primary tumor development during the prolonged interplay between tumors and the immune system. Here, we find that the USP15-deficient mice are hypersensitive to methylcholantrene (MCA)-induced fibrosarcomas. Excessive IFN-γ production in USP15-deficient mice promotes expression of the immunosuppressive molecule PD-L1 and the chemokine CXCL12, causing accumulation of T-bet(+) regulatory T cells and CD11b(+)Gr-1(+) myeloid-derived suppressor cells at tumor site. Mixed bone marrow adoptive transfer studies further reveals a T cell-intrinsic role for USP15 in regulating IFN-γ production and tumor development. These findings suggest that T cell intrinsic USP15 deficiency causes excessive production of IFN-γ, which promotes an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment during MCA-induced primary tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Zou
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 280 South Chongqing Road, Shanghai 200025, China; Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jin Jin
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yichuan Xiao
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xiaofei Zhou
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hongbo Hu
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA; State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Si-Chuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xuhong Cheng
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Nasser Kazimi
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Stephen E Ullrich
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA; The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Shao-Cong Sun
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin Street, Box 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA; The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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