301
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Scolnick EM. The Path to New Therapies for Schizophrenia and Bipolar Illness. FASEB J 2017; 31:1254-1259. [PMID: 28360375 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201700028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia and bipolar illness are two of the most serious forms of mental illness. Until relatively recently, almost nothing was known about the molecular pathogenesis of either illness. The single largest risk factor that predisposes people to schizophrenia or bipolar illness is genetic risk. Heritability is high, and the incidence is significantly higher in identical twins than in nonidentical twins. Despite decades of work aimed at identifying the genes involved in these two illnesses, virtually no progress had been made until the past decade. With the knowledge and technologies that have been gained from the Human Genome Project, it has been possible to begin to understand the underlying genetics and to use the new information to begin the effort to discover new and better medicines to treat these illnesses. This article will describe the past decade of work toward this goal and articulate both the promise that now exists and what is still needed to bring dramatic and tangible change to patients.-Scolnick, E. M. The path to new therapies for schizophrenia and bipolar illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M Scolnick
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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302
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Javidfar B, Park R, Kassim BS, Bicks LK, Akbarian S. The epigenomics of schizophrenia, in the mouse. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2017; 174:631-640. [PMID: 28699694 PMCID: PMC5573750 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2017] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Large-scale consortia including the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, the Common Minds Consortium, BrainSeq and PsychENCODE, and many other studies taken together provide increasingly detailed insights into the genetic and epigenetic risk architectures of schizophrenia (SCZ) and offer vast amounts of molecular information, but with largely unexplored therapeutic potential. Here we discuss how epigenomic studies in human brain could guide animal work to test the impact of disease-associated alterations in chromatin structure and function on cognition and behavior. For example, transcription factors such as MYOCYTE-SPECIFIC ENHANCER FACTOR 2C (MEF2C), or multiple regulators of the open chromatin mark, methyl-histone H3-lysine 4, are associated with the genetic risk architectures of common psychiatric disease and alterations in chromatin structure and function in diseased brain tissue. Importantly, these molecules also affect cognition and behavior in genetically engineered mice, including virus-mediated expression changes in prefrontal cortex (PFC) and other key nodes in the circuitry underlying psychosis. Therefore, preclinical and small laboratory animal work could target genomic sequences affected by chromatin alterations in SCZ. To this end, in vivo editing of enhancer and other regulatory non-coding DNA by RNA-guided nucleases including CRISPR-Cas, and designer transcription factors, could be expected to deliver pipelines for novel therapeutic approaches aimed at improving cognitive dysfunction and other core symptoms of SCZ.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lucy K. Bicks
- Department of Psychiatry; Friedman Brain Institute; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai; New York New York
| | - Schahram Akbarian
- Department of Psychiatry; Friedman Brain Institute; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai; New York New York
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303
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This is an era where we have significantly advanced the understanding of the genetic architecture of schizophrenia. In this review, we consider how this knowledge may translate into advances that will improve patient care. RECENT FINDINGS Large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified more than a hundred loci each making a small contribution to illness risk. Meta-analysis of copy number variants (CNVs) in the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) dataset has confirmed that some variants have a moderate or large impact on risk, although these are rare in the population. Genome sequencing advances allow a much more comprehensive evaluation of genomic variation. We describe the key findings from whole exome studies to date. These studies are happening against a backdrop of growing understanding of the regulation and expression of genes and better functional tools to investigate molecular mechanisms in model systems. We provide an overview of how recent approaches in schizophrenia genetics are converging and consider how they could impact on diagnostics, the development of personalized medicine, and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Foley
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aiden Corvin
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Shigeki Nakagome
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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304
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O'Tuathaigh CMP, Moran PM, Zhen XC, Waddington JL. Translating advances in the molecular basis of schizophrenia into novel cognitive treatment strategies. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:3173-3190. [PMID: 28667666 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence and severity of cognitive symptoms, including working memory, executive dysfunction and attentional impairment, contributes materially to functional impairment in schizophrenia. Cognitive symptoms have proved to be resistant to both first- and second-generation antipsychotic drugs. Efforts to develop a consensus set of cognitive domains that are both disrupted in schizophrenia and are amenable to cross-species validation (e.g. the National Institute of Mental Health Cognitive Neuroscience Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia and Research Domain Criteria initiatives) are an important step towards standardization of outcome measures that can be used in preclinical testing of new drugs. While causative genetic mutations have not been identified, new technologies have identified novel genes as well as hitherto candidate genes previously implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and/or mechanisms of antipsychotic efficacy. This review comprises a selective summary of these developments, particularly phenotypic data arising from preclinical genetic models for cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia, with the aim of indicating potential new directions for pro-cognitive therapeutics. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on Pharmacology of Cognition: a Panacea for Neuropsychiatric Disease? To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.19/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colm M P O'Tuathaigh
- School of Medicine, University College Cork, Brookfield Health Sciences Complex, Cork, Ireland
| | - Paula M Moran
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Xuechu C Zhen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research & Therapy for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - John L Waddington
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research & Therapy for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Molecular and Cellular Therapeutics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 2, Ireland
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305
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Singh T, Walters JTR, Johnstone M, Curtis D, Suvisaari J, Torniainen M, Rees E, Iyegbe C, Blackwood D, McIntosh AM, Kirov G, Geschwind D, Murray RM, Di Forti M, Bramon E, Gandal M, Hultman CM, Sklar P, Palotie A, Sullivan PF, O'Donovan MC, Owen MJ, Barrett JC. The contribution of rare variants to risk of schizophrenia in individuals with and without intellectual disability. Nat Genet 2017; 49:1167-1173. [PMID: 28650482 PMCID: PMC5533219 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
By performing a meta-analysis of rare coding variants in whole-exome sequences from 4,133 schizophrenia cases and 9,274 controls, de novo mutations in 1,077 family trios, and copy number variants from 6,882 cases and 11,255 controls, we show that individuals with schizophrenia carry a significant burden of rare, damaging variants in 3,488 genes previously identified as having a near-complete depletion of loss-of-function variants. In patients with schizophrenia who also have intellectual disability, this burden is concentrated in risk genes associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. After excluding known risk genes for neurodevelopmental disorders, a significant rare variant burden persists in other genes intolerant of loss-of-function variants; although this effect is notably stronger in patients with both schizophrenia and intellectual disability, it is also seen in patients with schizophrenia who do not have intellectual disability. Together, our results show that rare, damaging variants contribute to the risk of schizophrenia both with and without intellectual disability and support an overlap of genetic risk between schizophrenia and other neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarjinder Singh
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1HH, Cambridge, UK
| | - James T. R. Walters
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Mandy Johnstone
- Division of Psychiatry, The University of Edinburgh, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, Edinburgh EH10 5HF, UK
| | - David Curtis
- University College London (UCL) Genetics Institute, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Centre for Psychiatry, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, UK
| | - Jaana Suvisaari
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki FI-00271, Finland
| | - Minna Torniainen
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki FI-00271, Finland
| | - Elliott Rees
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Conrad Iyegbe
- Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Douglas Blackwood
- Division of Psychiatry, The University of Edinburgh, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, Edinburgh EH10 5HF, UK
| | - Andrew M. McIntosh
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, The University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
| | - Georg Kirov
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Daniel Geschwind
- UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Robin M. Murray
- Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Marta Di Forti
- Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Elvira Bramon
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, Charles Bell House, Riding House Street, London W1W 7EJ, UK
| | - Michael Gandal
- UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Christina M. Hultman
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pamela Sklar
- Division of Psychiatric Genomics, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | | | | | - Aarno Palotie
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014 Finland
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics and Genetic Analysis Platform, The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge MA 02132, USA
| | - Patrick F. Sullivan
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
- Departments of Genetics and Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7264, USA
| | - Michael C. O'Donovan
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Michael J. Owen
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Jeffrey C. Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1HH, Cambridge, UK
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306
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Hoya S, Watanabe Y, Hishimoto A, Nunokawa A, Inoue E, Igeta H, Otsuka I, Shibuya M, Egawa J, Sora I, Someya T. Rare FBXO18 variations and risk of schizophrenia: Whole-exome sequencing in two parent-affected offspring trios followed by resequencing and case-control studies. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2017; 71:562-568. [PMID: 28317220 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIM Rare variations are suggested to play a role in the genetic etiology of schizophrenia; to further investigate their role, we performed a three-stage study in a Japanese population. METHODS In the first stage, we performed whole-exome sequencing (WES) of two parent-affected offspring trios. In the second stage, we resequenced the FBXO18 coding region in 96 patients. In the third stage, we tested rare non-synonymous FBXO18 variations for association with schizophrenia in two independent populations comprising a total of 1376 patients and 1496 controls. RESULTS A rare frameshift variation (L116fsX) in the FBXO18 gene was recurrently identified by WES in both trios. Resequencing FBXO18 coding regions, we detected three rare non-synonymous variations (V15L, L116fsX, and V1006I). However, there were no significant associations between these rare FBXO18 variations and schizophrenia in the case-control study. CONCLUSION Our present study does not provide evidence for the contribution of rare non-synonymous FBXO18 variations to the genetic etiology of schizophrenia in the Japanese population. However, to draw a definitive conclusion, further studies should be performed using sufficiently large sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Hoya
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Yuichiro Watanabe
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry, Uonuma Institute of Community Medicine, Niigata University Medical and Dental Hospital, Minamiuonuma, Japan
| | - Akitoyo Hishimoto
- Department of Psychiatry, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan
| | - Ayako Nunokawa
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan.,Oojima Hospital, Sanjo, Japan
| | - Emiko Inoue
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Igeta
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Ikuo Otsuka
- Department of Psychiatry, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan
| | - Masako Shibuya
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan.,Division of Medical Education, Comprehensive Medical Education Center, School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Jun Egawa
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
| | - Ichiro Sora
- Department of Psychiatry, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Someya
- Department of Psychiatry, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
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307
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Synaptic GAP and GEF Complexes Cluster Proteins Essential for GTP Signaling. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5272. [PMID: 28706196 PMCID: PMC5509740 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05588-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) and guanine exchange factors (GEFs) play essential roles in regulating the activity of small GTPases. Several GAPs and GEFs have been shown to be present at the postsynaptic density (PSD) within excitatory glutamatergic neurons and regulate the activity of glutamate receptors. However, it is not known how synaptic GAP and GEF proteins are organized within the PSD signaling machinery, if they have overlapping interaction networks, or if they associate with proteins implicated in contributing to psychiatric disease. Here, we determine the interactomes of three interacting GAP/GEF proteins at the PSD, including the RasGAP Syngap1, the ArfGAP Agap2, and the RhoGEF Kalirin, which includes a total of 280 interactions. We describe the functional properties of each interactome and show that these GAP/GEF proteins are highly associated with and cluster other proteins directly involved in GTPase signaling mechanisms. We also utilize Agap2 as an example of GAP/GEFs localized within multiple neuronal compartments and determine an additional 110 interactions involving Agap2 outside of the PSD. Functional analysis of PSD and non-PSD interactomes illustrates both common and unique functions of Agap2 determined by its subcellular location. Furthermore, we also show that these GAPs/GEFs associate with several proteins involved in psychiatric disease.
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308
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Hodgson K, McGuffin P, Lewis CM. Advancing psychiatric genetics through dissecting heterogeneity. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:R160-R165. [DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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309
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Spatiotemporal profile of postsynaptic interactomes integrates components of complex brain disorders. Nat Neurosci 2017; 20:1150-1161. [PMID: 28671696 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The postsynaptic density (PSD) contains a collection of scaffold proteins used for assembling synaptic signaling complexes. However, it is not known how the core-scaffold machinery associates in protein-interaction networks or how proteins encoded by genes involved in complex brain disorders are distributed through spatiotemporal protein complexes. Here using immunopurification, proteomics and bioinformatics, we isolated 2,876 proteins across 41 in vivo interactomes and determined their protein domain composition, correlation to gene expression levels and developmental integration to the PSD. We defined clusters for enrichment of schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, developmental delay and intellectual disability risk factors at embryonic day 14 and adult PSD in mice. Mutations in highly connected nodes alter protein-protein interactions modulating macromolecular complexes enriched in disease risk candidates. These results were integrated into a software platform, Synaptic Protein/Pathways Resource (SyPPRes), enabling the prioritization of disease risk factors and their placement within synaptic protein interaction networks.
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310
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Steinberg S, Gudmundsdottir S, Sveinbjornsson G, Suvisaari J, Paunio T, Torniainen-Holm M, Frigge ML, Jonsdottir GA, Huttenlocher J, Arnarsdottir S, Ingimarsson O, Haraldsson M, Tyrfingsson T, Thorgeirsson TE, Kong A, Norddahl GL, Gudbjartsson DF, Sigurdsson E, Stefansson H, Stefansson K. Truncating mutations in RBM12 are associated with psychosis. Nat Genet 2017. [PMID: 28628109 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Thus far, a handful of highly penetrant mutations conferring risk of psychosis have been discovered. Here we used whole-genome sequencing and long-range phasing to investigate an Icelandic kindred containing ten individuals with psychosis (schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder or psychotic bipolar disorder). We found that all affected individuals carry RBM12 (RNA-binding-motif protein 12) c.2377G>T (P = 2.2 × 10-4), a nonsense mutation that results in the production of a truncated protein lacking a predicted RNA-recognition motif. We replicated the association in a Finnish family in which a second RBM12 truncating mutation (c.2532delT) segregates with psychosis (P = 0.020). c.2377G>T is not fully penetrant for psychosis; however, we found that carriers unaffected by psychosis resemble patients with schizophrenia in their non-psychotic psychiatric disorder and neuropsychological test profile (P = 0.0043) as well as in their life outcomes (including an increased chance of receiving disability benefits, P = 0.011). As RBM12 has not previously been linked to psychosis, this work provides new insight into psychiatric disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jaana Suvisaari
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tiina Paunio
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Minna Torniainen-Holm
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland.,Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Johanna Huttenlocher
- deCODE Genetics/Amgen, Reykjavik, Iceland.,Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sunna Arnarsdottir
- deCODE Genetics/Amgen, Reykjavik, Iceland.,Department of Psychiatry, Landspitali, National University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Oddur Ingimarsson
- Department of Psychiatry, Landspitali, National University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Magnus Haraldsson
- Department of Psychiatry, Landspitali, National University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Engilbert Sigurdsson
- Department of Psychiatry, Landspitali, National University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | | | - Kari Stefansson
- deCODE Genetics/Amgen, Reykjavik, Iceland.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
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311
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Matsumoto M, Walton NM, Yamada H, Kondo Y, Marek GJ, Tajinda K. The impact of genetics on future drug discovery in schizophrenia. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2017; 12:673-686. [PMID: 28521526 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2017.1324419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Failures of investigational new drugs (INDs) for schizophrenia have left huge unmet medical needs for patients. Given the recent lackluster results, it is imperative that new drug discovery approaches (and resultant drug candidates) target pathophysiological alterations that are shared in specific, stratified patient populations that are selected based on pre-identified biological signatures. One path to implementing this paradigm is achievable by leveraging recent advances in genetic information and technologies. Genome-wide exome sequencing and meta-analysis of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based association studies have already revealed rare deleterious variants and SNPs in patient populations. Areas covered: Herein, the authors review the impact that genetics have on the future of schizophrenia drug discovery. The high polygenicity of schizophrenia strongly indicates that this disease is biologically heterogeneous so the identification of unique subgroups (by patient stratification) is becoming increasingly necessary for future investigational new drugs. Expert opinion: The authors propose a pathophysiology-based stratification of genetically-defined subgroups that share deficits in particular biological pathways. Existing tools, including lower-cost genomic sequencing and advanced gene-editing technology render this strategy ever more feasible. Genetically complex psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia may also benefit from synergistic research with simpler monogenic disorders that share perturbations in similar biological pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuyuki Matsumoto
- a Unit 2, Candidate Discovery Science Labs., Drug Discovery Research , Astellas Pharma Inc. , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Noah M Walton
- b La Jolla Laboratory , Astellas Research Institute of America LLC , San Diego , CA , USA
| | - Hiroshi Yamada
- b La Jolla Laboratory , Astellas Research Institute of America LLC , San Diego , CA , USA
| | - Yuji Kondo
- a Unit 2, Candidate Discovery Science Labs., Drug Discovery Research , Astellas Pharma Inc. , Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Gerard J Marek
- c Development Medical Sciences, Astellas Pharma Global Development , Northbrook , IL , USA
| | - Katsunori Tajinda
- b La Jolla Laboratory , Astellas Research Institute of America LLC , San Diego , CA , USA
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312
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Smith M. DNA Sequence Analysis in Clinical Medicine, Proceeding Cautiously. Front Mol Biosci 2017; 4:24. [PMID: 28516087 PMCID: PMC5413496 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2017.00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Delineation of underlying genomic and genetic factors in a specific disease may be valuable in establishing a definitive diagnosis and may guide patient management and counseling. In addition, genetic information may be useful in identification of at risk family members. Gene mapping and initial genome sequencing data enabled the development of microarrays to analyze genomic variants. The goal of this review is to consider different generations of sequencing techniques and their application to exome sequencing and whole genome sequencing and their clinical applications. In recent decades, exome sequencing has primarily been used in patient studies. Discussed in some detail, are important measures that have been developed to standardize variant calling and to assess pathogenicity of variants. Examples of cases where exome sequencing has facilitated diagnosis and led to improved medical management are presented. Whole genome sequencing and its clinical relevance are presented particularly in the context of analysis of nucleotide and structural genomic variants in large population studies and in certain patient cohorts. Applications involving analysis of cell free DNA in maternal blood for prenatal diagnosis of specific autosomal trisomies are reviewed. Applications of DNA sequencing to diagnosis and therapeutics of cancer are presented. Also discussed are important recent diagnostic applications of DNA sequencing in cancer, including analysis of tumor derived cell free DNA and exosomes that are present in body fluids. Insights gained into underlying pathogenetic mechanisms of certain complex common diseases, including schizophrenia, macular degeneration, neurodegenerative disease are presented. The relevance of different types of variants, rare, uncommon, and common to disease pathogenesis, and the continuum of causality, are addressed. Pharmogenetic variants detected by DNA sequence analysis are gaining in importance and are particularly relevant to personalized and precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moyra Smith
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine, Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of CaliforniaIrvine, CA, USA
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313
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Minică CC, Genovese G, Hultman CM, Pool R, Vink JM, Neale MC, Dolan CV, Neale BM. The Weighting is the Hardest Part: On the Behavior of the Likelihood Ratio Test and the Score Test Under a Data-Driven Weighting Scheme in Sequenced Samples. Twin Res Hum Genet 2017; 20:108-118. [PMID: 28238293 PMCID: PMC5357183 DOI: 10.1017/thg.2017.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Sequence-based association studies are at a critical inflexion point with the increasing availability of exome-sequencing data. A popular test of association is the sequence kernel association test (SKAT). Weights are embedded within SKAT to reflect the hypothesized contribution of the variants to the trait variance. Because the true weights are generally unknown, and so are subject to misspecification, we examined the efficiency of a data-driven weighting scheme. We propose the use of a set of theoretically defensible weighting schemes, of which, we assume, the one that gives the largest test statistic is likely to capture best the allele frequency-functional effect relationship. We show that the use of alternative weights obviates the need to impose arbitrary frequency thresholds. As both the score test and the likelihood ratio test (LRT) may be used in this context, and may differ in power, we characterize the behavior of both tests. The two tests have equal power, if the weights in the set included weights resembling the correct ones. However, if the weights are badly specified, the LRT shows superior power (due to its robustness to misspecification). With this data-driven weighting procedure the LRT detected significant signal in genes located in regions already confirmed as associated with schizophrenia - the PRRC2A (p = 1.020e-06) and the VARS2 (p = 2.383e-06) - in the Swedish schizophrenia case-control cohort of 11,040 individuals with exome-sequencing data. The score test is currently preferred for its computational efficiency and power. Indeed, assuming correct specification, in some circumstances, the score test is the most powerful test. However, LRT has the advantageous properties of being generally more robust and more powerful under weight misspecification. This is an important result given that, arguably, misspecified models are likely to be the rule rather than the exception in weighting-based approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camelia C. Minică
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
1081 BT, The Netherlands
- The EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research,
Amsterdam 1081 BT, The Netherlands
| | - Giulio Genovese
- The Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- The Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142,
USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02115,
USA
| | - Christina M. Hultman
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska
Institute, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - René Pool
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
1081 BT, The Netherlands
- The EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research,
Amsterdam 1081 BT, The Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline M. Vink
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The
Netherlands
| | - Michael C. Neale
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
1081 BT, The Netherlands
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA
| | - Conor V. Dolan
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
1081 BT, The Netherlands
- The EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research,
Amsterdam 1081 BT, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin M. Neale
- The Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- The Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142,
USA
- The Analytical and Translational Genetics Unit, Department of
Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
02114, USA
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314
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Luo Y, de Lange KM, Jostins L, Moutsianas L, Randall J, Kennedy NA, Lamb CA, McCarthy S, Ahmad T, Edwards C, Serra EG, Hart A, Hawkey C, Mansfield JC, Mowat C, Newman WG, Nichols S, Pollard M, Satsangi J, Simmons A, Tremelling M, Uhlig H, Wilson DC, Lee JC, Prescott NJ, Lees CW, Mathew CG, Parkes M, Barrett JC, Anderson CA. Exploring the genetic architecture of inflammatory bowel disease by whole-genome sequencing identifies association at ADCY7. Nat Genet 2017; 49:186-192. [PMID: 28067910 PMCID: PMC5289625 DOI: 10.1038/ng.3761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
To further resolve the genetic architecture of the inflammatory bowel diseases ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, we sequenced the whole genomes of 4,280 patients at low coverage and compared them to 3,652 previously sequenced population controls across 73.5 million variants. We then imputed from these sequences into new and existing genome-wide association study cohorts and tested for association at ∼12 million variants in a total of 16,432 cases and 18,843 controls. We discovered a 0.6% frequency missense variant in ADCY7 that doubles the risk of ulcerative colitis. Despite good statistical power, we did not identify any other new low-frequency risk variants and found that such variants explained little heritability. We detected a burden of very rare, damaging missense variants in known Crohn's disease risk genes, suggesting that more comprehensive sequencing studies will continue to improve understanding of the biology of complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Luo
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
- Division of Genetics and Rheumatology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Luke Jostins
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Headington, UK
- Christ Church, University of Oxford, St Aldates, UK
| | - Loukas Moutsianas
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Joshua Randall
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Nicholas A. Kennedy
- Precision Medicine Exeter, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
- IBD Pharmacogenetics, Royal Devon and Exeter Foundation Trust, Exeter, UK
| | | | - Shane McCarthy
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Tariq Ahmad
- Precision Medicine Exeter, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
- IBD Pharmacogenetics, Royal Devon and Exeter Foundation Trust, Exeter, UK
| | - Cathryn Edwards
- Department of Gastroenterology, Torbay Hospital, Torbay, Devon, UK
| | | | - Ailsa Hart
- Department of Medicine, St Mark's Hospital, Harrow, Middlesex, UK
| | - Chris Hawkey
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, Queens Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - John C. Mansfield
- Institute of Human Genetics, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Craig Mowat
- Department of Medicine, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee, UK
| | - William G. Newman
- Genetic Medicine, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK
- The Manchester Centre for Genomic Medicine, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Sam Nichols
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Martin Pollard
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Jack Satsangi
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Wester General Hospital University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Alison Simmons
- Translational Gastroenterology Unit, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
- Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Mark Tremelling
- Gastroenterology & General Medicine, Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, Norwich, UK
| | - Holm Uhlig
- Translational Gastroenterology Unit and the Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - David C. Wilson
- Paediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Edinburgh, UK
- Child Life and Health, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | - James C. Lee
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Group, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Natalie J. Prescott
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Life Science and Medicine, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, UK
| | - Charlie W. Lees
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Wester General Hospital University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Christopher G. Mathew
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Life Science and Medicine, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, UK
- Sydney Brenner Institute for Molecular Bioscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa
| | - Miles Parkes
- Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Group, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jeffrey C. Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Carl A. Anderson
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
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315
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Abstract
Schizophrenia is a highly heritable psychiatric condition that displays a complex phenotype. A multitude of genetic susceptibility loci have now been identified, but these fail to explain the high heritability estimates of schizophrenia. In addition, epidemiologically relevant environmental risk factors for schizophrenia may lead to permanent changes in brain function. In conjunction with genetic liability, these environmental risk factors-likely through epigenetic mechanisms-may give rise to schizophrenia, a clinical syndrome characterized by florid psychotic symptoms and moderate to severe cognitive impairment. These pathophysiological features point to the involvement of epigenetic processes. Recently, a wave of studies examining aberrant DNA modifications in schizophrenia was published. This chapter aims to comprehensively review the current findings, from both candidate gene studies and genome-wide approaches, on DNA methylation changes in schizophrenia.
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316
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Ganna A, Genovese G, Howrigan DP, Byrnes A, Kurki M, Zekavat SM, Whelan CW, Kals M, Nivard MG, Bloemendal A, Bloom JM, Goldstein JI, Poterba T, Seed C, Handsaker RE, Natarajan P, Mägi R, Gage D, Robinson EB, Metspalu A, Salomaa V, Suvisaari J, Purcell SM, Sklar P, Kathiresan S, Daly MJ, McCarroll SA, Sullivan PF, Palotie A, Esko T, Hultman C, Neale BM. Ultra-rare disruptive and damaging mutations influence educational attainment in the general population. Nat Neurosci 2016; 19:1563-1565. [PMID: 27694993 PMCID: PMC5127781 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Disruptive, damaging ultra-rare variants in highly constrained genes are enriched in individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders. In the general population, this class of variants was associated with a decrease in years of education (YOE). This effect was stronger among highly brain-expressed genes and explained more YOE variance than pathogenic copy number variation but less than common variants. Disruptive, damaging ultra-rare variants in highly constrained genes influence the determinants of YOE in the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Ganna
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - Giulio Genovese
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Daniel P. Howrigan
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Andrea Byrnes
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Mitja Kurki
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, FIMM, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Seyedeh M. Zekavat
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Center for Human Genetic Research and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Christopher W. Whelan
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Mart Kals
- Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu 51010, Estonia
- Institute of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Tartu, Tartu 50409, Estonia
| | - Michel G. Nivard
- Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Alex Bloemendal
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Jonathan M. Bloom
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Jacqueline I. Goldstein
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Timothy Poterba
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Cotton Seed
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Robert E. Handsaker
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Pradeep Natarajan
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Center for Human Genetic Research and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Reedik Mägi
- Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu 51010, Estonia
| | - Diane Gage
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Elise B. Robinson
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Andres Metspalu
- Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu 51010, Estonia
| | - Veikko Salomaa
- Department of Health, THL-National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki FI-00271, Finland
| | - Jaana Suvisaari
- Department of Health, THL-National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki FI-00271, Finland
| | - Shaun M. Purcell
- Division of Psychiatric Genomics, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
- Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Pamela Sklar
- Division of Psychiatric Genomics, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
- Institute for Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Sekar Kathiresan
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Center for Human Genetic Research and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Mark J. Daly
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Steven A. McCarroll
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Patrick F. Sullivan
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
- Departments of Genetics and Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7264, USA
| | - Aarno Palotie
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, FIMM, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Tõnu Esko
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Estonian Genome Center, University of Tartu, Tartu 51010, Estonia
| | - Christina Hultman
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 171 77, Sweden
| | - Benjamin M. Neale
- Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 02114, MA, USA
- Program in Medical and Population Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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