Golgi dispersal during microtubule disruption: regeneration of Golgi stacks at peripheral endoplasmic reticulum exit sites

Golgi complex reorganization during muscle differentiation: visualization in living cells and mechanism

During skeletal muscle differentiation, the Golgi complex (GC) undergoes a dramatic reorganization. We have now visualized the differentiation and fusion of living myoblasts of the mouse muscle cell line C2, permanently expressing a mannosidase-green fluorescent protein (GFP) construct. These experiments reveal that the reorganization of the GC is progressive (1-2 h) and is completed before the cells start fusing. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), immunofluorescence, and immunogold electron microscopy demonstrate that the GC is fragmented into elements localized near the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites. FRAP analysis and the ER relocation of endogenous GC proteins by phospholipase A2 inhibitors demonstrate that Golgi-ER cycling of resident GC proteins takes place in both myoblasts and myotubes. All results support a model in which the GC reorganization in muscle reflects changes in the Golgi-ER cycling. The mechanism is similar to that leading to the dispersal of the GC caused, in all mammalian cells, by microtubule-disrupting drugs. We propose that the trigger for the dispersal results, in muscle, from combined changes in microtubule nucleation and ER exit site localization, which place the ER exit sites near microtubule minus ends. Thus, changes in GC organization that initially appear specific to muscle cells, in fact use pathways common to all mammalian cells.

A novel interaction of the Golgi complex with the vimentin intermediate filament cytoskeleton

The integration of the vimentin intermediate filament (IF) cytoskeleton and cellular organelles in vivo is an incompletely understood process, and the identities of proteins participating in such events are largely unknown. Here, we show that the Golgi complex interacts with the vimentin IF cytoskeleton, and that the Golgi protein formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase (FTCD) participates in this interaction. We show that the peripherally associated Golgi protein FTCD binds directly to vimentin subunits and to polymerized vimentin filaments in vivo and in vitro. Expression of FTCD in cultured cells results in the formation of extensive FTCD-containing fibers originating from the Golgi region, and is paralleled by a dramatic rearrangements of the vimentin IF cytoskeleton in a coordinate process in which vimentin filaments and FTCD integrate into chimeric fibers. Formation of the FTCD fibers is obligatorily coupled to vimentin assembly and does not occur in vim(-/-) cells. The FTCD-mediated regulation of vimentin IF is not a secondary effect of changes in the microtubule or the actin cytoskeletons, since those cytoskeletal systems appear unaffected by FTCD expression. The assembly of the FTCD/vimentin fibers causes a coordinate change in the structure of the Golgi complex and results in Golgi fragmentation into individual elements that are tethered to the FTCD/vimentin fibers. The observed interaction of Golgi elements with vimentin filaments and the ability of FTCD to specifically interacts with both Golgi membrane and vimentin filaments and promote their association suggest that FTCD might be a candidate protein integrating the Golgi compartment with the IF cytoskeleton.

Centrosome maturation

In the past, centrosome maturation has been described as the change in microtubule nucleation potential that occurs as cells pass through specific phases of the cell cycle. It is suggested that the idea of centrosome maturation be expanded to include gain of functions that are not necessarily related to microtubule nucleation. Some of these functions could be transient and dependent on the temporary association of molecules with the centrosome as cells progress through the cell cycle. Thus, the centrosome may best be viewed as a site for mediating macromolecular interactions, perhaps as a central processing station within the cell. The centromatrix, a relatively stable lattice of polymers within the centrosome's PCM, could serve as a scaffold for the transient binding of mediator molecules, as well as allow the dynamic exchange of centrosome constituents with a soluble cytoplasmic pool. New evidence adds support to the idea that centrioles are crucial for the maintenance of PCM structure. However, significant evidence indicates that aspects of centrosome structure and function can be maintained in the absence of centrioles. In the case of paternal centrosome maturation, sperm centrioles may not contain an associated centromatrix. It is proposed that regulation of paternal centrioles or centriole associated proteins could mediate centriole-dependent centromatrix assembly following fertilization. Thus, regulation of centromatrix-centriole interactions could be involved in maintaining the integrity of the centrosome's PCM and play an important role in centrosome disassembly during cell differentiation and morphogenesis.

Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum exit sites, and microtubules in skeletal muscle fibers are organized by patterned activity

The Golgi complex of skeletal muscle fibers is made of thousands of dispersed elements. The distributions of these elements and of the microtubules they associate with differ in fast compared with slow and in innervated compared with denervated fibers. To investigate the role of muscle impulse activity, we denervated fast extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and slow soleus (SOL) muscles of adult rats and stimulated them directly with patterns that resemble the impulse patterns of normal fast EDL (25 pulses at 150 Hz every 15 min) and slow SOL (200 pulses at 20 Hz every 30 sec) motor units. After 2 weeks of denervation plus stimulation, peripheral and central regions of muscle fibers were examined by immunofluorescence microscopy with regard to density and distribution of Golgi complex, microtubules, glucose transporter GLUT4, centrosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum exit sites. In extrajunctional regions, fast pattern stimulation preserved normal fast characteristics of all markers in EDL type IIB/IIX fibers, although inducing changes toward the fast phenotype in originally slow type I SOL fibers, such as a 1.5-fold decrease of the density of Golgi elements at the fiber surface. Slow pattern stimulation had converse effects such as a 2.2-fold increase of the density of Golgi elements at the EDL fiber surface. In junctional regions, where fast and slow fibers are similar, both stimulation patterns prevented a denervation-induced accumulation of GLUT4. The results indicate that patterns of muscle impulse activity, as normally imposed by motor neurons, play a major role in regulating the organization of Golgi complex and related proteins in the extrajunctional region of muscle fibers.

Immunolocalization of cytoplasmic dynein and dynactin subunits in cultured macrophages: enrichment on early endocytic organelles

Cytoplasmic dyneins and their cofactor, dynactin, work together to mediate the movement of numerous cargo organelles toward the minus-ends of microtubules. In many cases, there is compelling evidence that dynactin functions in part to attach dyneins to cargo organelles, but this may not always be the case. We have localized three dynactin subunits (Arp1, p62 and p150(Glued)) and two subunits of conventional cytoplasmic dynein (dynein intermediate chain and dynein heavy chain 1) in murine macrophages using immunogold labeling of thawed cryosections. Using stereological techniques, we have quantified the relative distributions of each of these subunits on specific membrane organelles to generate a comprehensive analysis of the distribution of these proteins in a single cell type. Our results show that each of the subunits tested exhibits the same distribution with respect to different membrane organelles, with highest levels present on early endosomes, and lower levels present on later endocytic organelles, the mitochondrial outer membrane, the plasma membrane and vesicles in the Golgi region. An additional pool of punctate dynactin labeling was detected in the cell periphery, in the absence of dynein labeling. Even when examined closely, membrane organelles could not be detected in association with these dynactin-positive sites; however, double labeling with anti-tubulin antibody revealed that at least some of these sites represent the ends of microtubules. The similarities among the labeling profiles with respect to membrane organelles suggest that dynein and dynactin bind to membrane organelles as an obligate unit. In contrast, our results show that dynactin can associate with microtubule ends in the absence of dynein, perhaps providing sites for subsequent organelle and dynein association to form a functional motility complex.

Role of microtubules in LPS-induced macrophage inflammatory protein-2 production from rat pneumocytes

We have recently demonstrated that primary cultured rat pneumocytes produce macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. In this study, we found that brefeldin A, by blocking anterograde transport from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi apparatus, decreased LPS-induced MIP-2 in the culture medium and increased its storage in cells. This suggests that MIP-2 is secreted via a pathway from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, a process commonly regulated by microtubules. We further found that LPS induced depolymerization of microtubules as early as 1 min after LPS stimulation, and it lasted at least for 4 h. Preventing depolymerization of microtubules with paclitaxel (Taxol; 10 nM to 10 microM) partially inhibited LPS-induced MIP-2 production, whereas the microtubule-depolymerizing agents colchicine (1-10 microM) and nocodazole (1-100 microM) increased LPS-induced MIP-2 protein production without affecting MIP-2 mRNA expression. These results suggest that in pneumocytes, LPS-induced microtubule depolymerization is involved in LPS-induced MIP-2 production and that secretion of MIP-2 from pneumocytes is via the ER-Golgi pathway.

Role for the microtubule cytoskeleton in GLUT4 vesicle trafficking and in the regulation of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake

Insulin stimulates glucose uptake into adipocytes by promoting the translocation of the glucose transporter isoform 4 (GLUT4) from intracellular vesicles to the plasma membrane. In 3T3-L1 adipocytes GLUT4 resides both in an endosomal pool, together with transferrin receptors, and in a unique pool termed 'GLUT4 storage vesicles' (GSVs), which excludes endosomal proteins. The trafficking of GLUT4 vesicles was studied in living 3T3-L1 adipocytes by time-lapse confocal microscopy of GLUT4 tagged with green fluorescent protein. GLUT4 vesicles exhibited two types of motion: rapid vibrations around a point and short (generally less than 10 microm) linear movements. The linear movements were completely blocked by incubation of the cells in the presence of microtubule-depolymerizing agents. This suggests that a subpopulation of GLUT4 vesicles can exhibit motor-driven movements along microtubules. Upon further examination, microtubule depolymerization inhibited insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane by approx. 40%, but had no effect on insulin-induced translocation of the transferrin receptor to the plasma membrane from endosomes. We propose that an intact microtubule cytoskeleton may be required for optimal trafficking of GLUT4 present in the GSV pool, but not that resident in the endosomal pool.

The effect of Golgi depletion on exocytic transport

Here we evaluate the idea that the Golgi is in dynamic equilibrium with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In cytoplasts that lack the Golgi apparatus, no regrowth of the Golgi is observed, nor is any transport from the ER to the cell surface detected. However, introduction of the smallest measurable amount of Golgi (equivalent to a few per cent per cell) yields significant exocytic transport. Our results indicate that the steady-state levels of Golgi in the ER are far smaller than the 30% that has been postulated, and that the Golgi may be an independent organelle and not simply an extension of the ER.

Matrix proteins can generate the higher order architecture of the Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus in animal cells comprises a reticulum of linked stacks in the pericentriolar and often in the juxtanuclear regions of the cell. The unique architecture of this organelle is thought to depend on the cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic matrix proteins--the best characterized being the golgin family of fibrous, coiled-coil proteins and the GRASP family of stacking proteins. Here we show that these matrix proteins can be separated from oligosaccharide-modifying enzymes in the Golgi stack without affecting their ability to form a ribbon-like reticulum in the correct location near to the nucleus. Our data suggest that the Golgi is a structural scaffold that can exist independently of, but is normally populated by, the enzyme-containing membranes that modify transiting cargo. This new concept of the Golgi further indicates that the Golgi may be an autonomous organelle rather than one that is in simple dynamic equilibrium with the endoplasmic reticulum.

Reconstitution of brefeldin A-induced golgi tubulation and fusion with the endoplasmic reticulum in semi-intact chinese hamster ovary cells

The fungal metabolite brefeldin A (BFA) induces the disassembly of the Golgi complex in mammalian cells. The drug seems to accentuate tubule formation and causes the subsequent fusion with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). To investigate the biochemical requirements and kinetics of BFA-induced Golgi disassembly, we have reconstituted the process of green fluorescent protein-tagged Golgi complex disassembly in streptolysin O-permeabilized semi-intact Chinese hamster ovary cells. For quantitative analysis of the morphological changes to the Golgi complex in semi-intact cells, we developed a novel morphometric analysis. Based on this analysis, we have dissected the BFA-induced Golgi disassembly process biochemically into two processes, Golgi tubule formation and fusion with the ER, and found that the formation is induced by only ATP and the residual factors in the cells and that the subsequent fusion is mediated in an N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor-dependent manner via Golgi tubules. Tubulation occurs by two pathways that depend on either microtubule integrity or exogenously added cytosol. In the presence of GTPgammaS, coat protein I inhibited the Golgi tubule fusion with the ER but showed no apparent effect on tubulation. Additionally, we analyzed the kinetics of tubulation and fusion independently in nocodazole-treated and -untreated semi-intact cells and found that tubulation is a rate-limiting step of the Golgi disassembly.

Breaking the COPI monopoly on Golgi recycling

The unexpected discovery of a transport pathway from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) independent of COPI coat proteins sheds light on how Golgi resident enzymes and protein toxins gain access to the ER from as far as the trans Golgi network. This new pathway provides an explanation for how membrane is recycled to allow for an apparent concentration of anterograde cargo at distinct stages of the secretory pathway. As signal-mediated COPI-dependent recycling also involves the concentration of resident proteins into retrograde COPI vesicles, the main bulk of lipids must be recycled, possibly through a COPI-independent pathway.

Dynamics of transitional endoplasmic reticulum sites in vertebrate cells

A typical vertebrate cell contains several hundred sites of transitional ER (tER). Presumably, tER sites generate elements of the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC), and ERGIC elements then generate Golgi cisternae. Therefore, characterizing the mechanisms that influence tER distribution may shed light on the dynamic behavior of the Golgi. We explored the properties of tER sites using Sec13 as a marker protein. Fluorescence microscopy confirmed that tER sites are long-lived ER subdomains. tER sites proliferate during interphase but lose Sec13 during mitosis. Unlike ERGIC elements, tER sites move very little. Nevertheless, when microtubules are depolymerized with nocodazole, tER sites redistribute rapidly to form clusters next to Golgi structures. Hence, tER sites have the unusual property of being immobile, yet dynamic. These findings can be explained by a model in which new tER sites are created by retrograde membrane traffic from the Golgi. We propose that the tER-Golgi system is organized by mutual feedback between these two compartments.

The manganese cation disrupts membrane dynamics along the secretory pathway

The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus play key roles in regulating the folding, assembly, and transport of newly synthesized proteins along the secretory pathway. We find that the divalent cation manganese disrupts the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The Golgi apparatus is fragmented into smaller dispersed structures upon manganese treatment. Golgi residents, such as TGN46, beta1,4-galactosyltransferase, giantin, and GM130, are still segregated and partitioned correctly into smaller stacked fragments in manganese-treated cells. The mesh-like ER network is substantially affected and peripheral ER elements are collapsed. These effects are consistent with manganese-mediated inhibition of motor proteins that link membrane organelles along the secretory pathway to the cytoskeleton. This divalent cation thus represents a new tool for studying protein secretion and membrane dynamics along the secretory pathway.

Organization of the Golgi apparatus

Investigators are revisiting basic concepts of the structure-function relationships of the Golgi apparatus. A key issue is the properties of the transport carriers that operate within the secretory pathway. Golgi morphology and dynamics differ between species but data from various model systems are pointing toward an integrated view of Golgi organization.

Potential role for protein kinases in regulation of bidirectional endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi transport revealed by protein kinase inhibitor H89

Recent evidence suggests a regulatory connection between cell volume, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) export, and stimulated Golgi-to-ER transport. To investigate the potential role of protein kinases we tested a panel of protein kinase inhibitors for their effect on these steps. One inhibitor, H89, an isoquinolinesulfonamide that is commonly used as a selective protein kinase A inhibitor, blocked both ER export and hypo-osmotic-, brefeldin A-, or nocodazole-induced Golgi-to-ER transport. In contrast, H89 did not block the constitutive ER Golgi-intermediate compartment (ERGIC)-to-ER and Golgi-to-ER traffic that underlies redistribution of ERGIC and Golgi proteins into the ER after ER export arrest. Surprisingly, other protein kinase A inhibitors, KT5720 and H8, as well as a set of protein kinase C inhibitors, had no effect on these transport processes. To test whether H89 might act at the level of either the coatomer protein (COP)I or the COPII coat protein complex we examined the localization of betaCOP and Sec13 in H89-treated cells. H89 treatment led to a rapid loss of Sec13-labeled ER export sites but betaCOP localization to the Golgi was unaffected. To further investigate the effect of H89 on COPII we developed a COPII recruitment assay with permeabilized cells and found that H89 potently inhibited binding of exogenous Sec13 to ER export sites. This block occurred in the presence of guanosine-5'-O-(3-thio)triphosphate, suggesting that Sec13 recruitment is inhibited at a step independent of the activation of the GTPase Sar1. These results identify a requirement for an H89-sensitive factor(s), potentially a novel protein kinase, in recruitment of COPII to ER export sites, as well as in stimulated but not constitutive Golgi-to-ER transport.

Microtubules regulate local Ca2+ spiking in secretory epithelial cells

The role of the cytoskeleton in regulating Ca(2+) release has been explored in epithelial cells. Trains of local Ca(2+) spikes were elicited in pancreatic acinar cells by infusion of inositol trisphosphate through a whole cell patch pipette, and the Ca(2+)-dependent Cl(-) current spikes were recorded. The spikes were only transiently inhibited by cytochalasin B, an agent that acts on microfilaments. In contrast, nocodazole (5-100 micrometer), an agent that disrupts the microtubular network, dose-dependently reduced spike frequency and decreased spike amplitude leading to total blockade of the response. Consistent with an effect of microtubular disruption, colchicine also inhibited spiking but neither Me(2)SO nor beta-lumicolchicine, an inactive analogue of colchicine, had any effect. The microtubule-stabilizing agent, taxol, also inhibited spiking. The nocodazole effects were not due to complete loss of function of the Ca(2+) signaling apparatus, because supramaximal carbachol concentrations were still able to mobilize a Ca(2+) response. Finally, as visualized by 2-photon excitation microscopy of ER-Tracker, nocodazole promoted a loss of the endoplasmic reticulum in the secretory pole region. We conclude that microtubules specifically maintain localized Ca(2+) spikes at least in part because of the local positioning of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Structural correlates of the transepithelial water transport

Transepithelial permeability is one of the fundamental problems in cell biology. Epithelial cell layers protect the organism from its environment and form a selective barrier to the exchange of molecules between the lumen of an organ and an underlying tissue. This chapter discusses some problems and analyzes the participation of intercellular junctions in the paracellular transport of water, migration of intramembrane particles in the apical membrane during its permeability changes for isotonic fluid in cells of leaky epithelia, insertion of water channels into the apical membrane and their cytoplasmic sources in cells of tight epithelia under ADH (antidiuretic hormone)-induced water flows, the osmoregulating function of giant vacuoles in the transcellular fluxes of hypotonic fluid across tight epithelia, and the role of actin filaments and microtubules in the transcellular transport of water across epithelia.

Enrichment of acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol O-acyltransferase near trans-golgi network and endocytic recycling compartment

Acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol O-acyltransferase (ACAT) is the enzyme responsible for cholesterol esterification in macrophages leading to foam cell formation. The determination of its localization is a critical step in understanding its regulation by cholesterol. Using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy, we previously showed that the enzyme colocalized with markers of the endoplasmic reticulum, but in addition, ACAT was found in an unidentified paranuclear site. In the present study, we further define the localization of paranuclear ACAT. First, we found that ACAT does not colocalize with sorting endosomes or late endosomes labeled with fluorescent alpha(2)-macroglobulin. The paranuclear ACAT is close to the endocytic recycling compartment labeled with fluorescent transferrin. We also show that the paranuclear structure containing ACAT is very close to TGN38, a membrane protein of the trans-Golgi network (TGN), but farther from Gos28, a marker of cis, medial, and trans Golgi. After treatment with nocodazole, the central localization of ACAT did not colocalize with markers of the TGN. These data indicate that a significant fraction of ACAT resides in membranes that may be a subcompartment of the endoplasmic reticulum in proximity to the TGN and the endocytic recycling compartment. Because the TGN and the endocytic recycling compartment are engaged in extensive membrane traffic with the plasma membrane, esterification of cholesterol in these membranes may play an important role in macrophage foam cell formation during atherogenesis.

Phospholipase A2 antagonists inhibit constitutive retrograde membrane traffic to the endoplasmic reticulum

Eukaryotic cells contain a variety of cytoplasmic Ca(2+)-dependent and Ca(2+)-independent phospholipase A2s (PLA2s; EC 2.3.1.2.3). However, the physiological roles for many of these ubiquitously-expressed enzymes is unclear or not known. Recently, pharmacological studies have suggested a role for Ca(2+)-independent PLA2 (iPLA2) enzymes in governing intracellular membrane trafficking events in general and regulating brefeldin A (BFA)-stimulated membrane tubulation and Golgi-to-endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retrograde membrane trafficking, in particular. Here, we extend these studies to show that membrane-permeant iPLA2 antagonists potently inhibit the normal, constitutive retrograde membrane trafficking from the trans-Golgi network (TGN), Golgi complex, and the ERGIC-53-positive ER-Golgi-intermediate compartment (ERGIC), which occurs in the absence of BFA. Taken together, these results suggest that iPLA2 enzymes play a general role in regulating, or directly mediating, multiple mammalian membrane trafficking events.

Intracellular transport, assembly, and degradation of wild-type and disease-linked mutant gap junction proteins

More than 130 different mutations in the gap junction integral plasma membrane protein connexin32 (Cx32) have been linked to the human peripheral neuropathy X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMTX). How these various mutants are processed by the cell and the mechanism(s) by which they cause CMTX are unknown. To address these issues, we have studied the intracellular transport, assembly, and degradation of three CMTX-linked Cx32 mutants stably expressed in PC12 cells. Each mutant had a distinct fate: E208K Cx32 appeared to be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), whereas both the E186K and R142W mutants were transported to perinuclear compartments from which they trafficked either to lysosomes (R142W Cx32) or back to the ER (E186K Cx32). Despite these differences, each mutant was soluble in nonionic detergent but unable to assemble into homomeric connexons. Degradation of both mutant and wild-type connexins was rapid (t(1/2) < 3 h) and took place at least in part in the ER by a process sensitive to proteasome inhibitors. The mutants studied are therefore unlikely to cause disease by accumulating in degradation-resistant aggregates but instead are efficiently cleared from the cell by quality control processes that prevent abnormal connexin molecules from traversing the secretory pathway.

Subcellular localization of presenilins: association with a unique membrane pool in cultured cells

We have investigated the subcellular distribution of presenilin-1 (PS1) and presenilin-2 (PS2) in a variety of mammalian cell lines. In Iodixanol-based density gradients, PS1 derivatives show a biphasic distribution, cofractionating with membranes containing ER-resident proteins and an additional population of membranes with low buoyant density that do not contain markers of the Golgi complex, ERGIC, COP II vesicles, ER exit compartment, COP II receptor, Golgi SNARE, trans-Golgi network, caveolar membranes, or endocytic vesicles. Confocal immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy studies fully supported the fractionation studies. These data suggest that PS1 fragments accumulate in a unique subcompartment(s) of the ER or ER to Golgi trafficking intermediates. Interestingly, the FAD-linked PS1 variants show a marked redistribution toward the heavier region of the gradient. Finally, and in contrast to PS1, PS2 fragments are detected preponderantly in more densely sedimenting membranes, suggesting that the subcellular compartments in which these molecules accumulate are distinct.

The Golgi apparatus segregates from the lysosomal/acrosomal vesicle during rhesus spermiogenesis: structural alterations

The acrosome is an acidic secretory vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes that are involved in the sperm's passage across the zona pellucida. Imaging of the acrosomal vesicle and the Golgi apparatus in live rhesus monkey spermatids was accomplished by using the vital fluorescent probe LysoTracker DND-26. Concurrently, the dynamics of living spermatid mitochondria was visualized using the specific probe MitoTracker CMTRos and LysoTracker DND-26 detected the acrosomal vesicle from its formation through spermatid differentiation. LysoTracker DND-26 also labeled the Golgi apparatus in spermatogenic cells. In spermatocytes the Golgi is spherical and, in round spermatids, it is localized over the acrosomal vesicle, as confirmed by using polyclonal antibodies against Golgin-95/GM130, Golgin-97, and Golgin-160. Using both live LysoTracker DND-26 imaging and Golgi antibodies, we found that the Golgi apparatus is cast off from the acrosomal vesicle and migrates toward the sperm tail in elongated spermatids. The Golgi is discarded in the cytoplasmic droplet and is undetectable in mature ejaculated spermatozoa. The combined utilization of three vital fluorescent probes (Hoechst 33342, LysoTracker DND-26, and MitoTracker CMTRos) permits the dynamic imaging of four organelles during primate spermiogenesis: the nucleus, the mitochondria, the acrosomal vesicle, and the Golgi apparatus.

Reconstitution of microtubule nucleation potential in centrosomes isolated from Spisula solidissima oocytes

Treatment of isolated Spisula solidissima centrosomes with KI removes (gamma)-tubulin, 25 nm rings, and their microtubule nucleation potential, revealing the presence of a filamentous lattice, the ‘centromatrix’. Treatment of this centromatrix with Spisula oocyte extract results in the binding of (gamma)-tubulin and 25 nm rings, and the recovery of microtubule nucleation potential. Fractionation of this extract resulted in the separation of elements that are required for the recovery of microtubule nucleation potential. We show that some, but not all, of the elements needed cosediment with microtubules. Further, extracts prepared from activated (meiotic) and non-activated (interphase) Spisula oocytes, CHO cells blocked in S phase, Drosophila embryos and Xenopus oocytes all support the recovery of microtubule nucleation potential by the Spisula centromatrix. These results demonstrate that components necessary for centrosome-dependent microtubule nucleation are functionally conserved and abundant in both interphase and meiotic/mitotic cytoplasm.

Dynamics of the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus during early sea urchin development

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi were labeled by green fluorescent protein chimeras and observed by time-lapse confocal microscopy during the rapid cell cycles of sea urchin embryos. The ER undergoes a cyclical microtubule-dependent accumulation at the mitotic poles and by photobleaching experiments remains continuous through the cell cycle. Finger-like indentations of the nuclear envelope near the mitotic poles appear 2-3 min before the permeability barrier of the nuclear envelope begins to change. This permeability change in turn is approximately 30 s before nuclear envelope breakdown. During interphase, there are many scattered, disconnected Golgi stacks throughout the cytoplasm, which appear as 1- to 2-microm fluorescent spots. The number of Golgi spots begins to decline soon after nuclear envelope breakdown, reaches a minimum soon after cytokinesis, and then rapidly increases. At higher magnification, smaller spots are seen, along with increased fluorescence in the ER. Quantitative measurements, along with nocodazole and photobleaching experiments, are consistent with a redistribution of some of the Golgi to the ER during mitosis. The scattered Golgi coalesce into a single large aggregate during the interphase after the ninth embryonic cleavage; this is likely to be preparatory for secretion of the hatching enzyme during the following cleavage cycle.

The role of microtubules in the regulation of proteoglycan synthesis in chondrocytes under hydrostatic pressure

Chondrocytes of the articular cartilage sense mechanical factors associated with joint loading, such as hydrostatic pressure, and maintain the homeostasis of the extracellular matrix by regulating the metabolism of proteoglycans (PGs) and collagens. Intermittent hydrostatic pressure stimulates, while continuous high hydrostatic pressure inhibits, the biosynthesis of PGs. High continuous hydrostatic pressure also changes the structure of cytoskeleton and Golgi complex in cultured chondrocytes. Using microtubule (MT)-affecting drugs nocodazole and taxol as tools we examined whether MTs are involved in the regulation of PG synthesis in pressurized primary chondrocyte monolayer cultures. Disruption of the microtubular array by nocodazole inhibited [(35)S]sulfate incorporation by 39-48%, while MT stabilization by taxol caused maximally a 17% inhibition. Continuous hydrostatic pressure further decreased the synthesis by 34-42% in nocodazole-treated cultures. This suggests that high pressure exerts its inhibitory effect through mechanisms independent of MTs. On the other hand, nocodazole and taxol both prevented the stimulation of PG synthesis by cyclic 0. 5 Hz, 5 MPa hydrostatic pressure. The drugs did not affect the structural and functional properties of the PGs, and none of the treatments significantly affected cell viability, as indicated by the high level of PG synthesis 24-48 h after the release of drugs and/or high hydrostatic pressure. Our data on two-dimensional chondrocyte cultures indicate that inhibition of PG synthesis by continuous high hydrostatic pressure does not interfere with the MT-dependent vesicle traffic, while the stimulation of synthesis by cyclic pressure does not occur if the dynamic nature of MTs is disturbed by nocodazole. Similar phenomena may operate in cartilage matrix embedded chondrocytes.

ERGIC-53 and traffic in the secretory pathway

The ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) marker ERGIC-53 is a mannose-specific membrane lectin operating as a cargo receptor for the transport of glycoproteins from the ER to the ERGIC. Lack of functional ERGIC-53 leads to a selective defect in secretion of glycoproteins in cultured cells and to hemophilia in humans. Beyond its interest as a transport receptor, ERGIC-53 is an attractive probe for studying numerous aspects of protein trafficking in the secretory pathway, including traffic routes, mechanisms of anterograde and retrograde traffic, retention of proteins in the ER, and the function of the ERGIC. Understanding these fundamental processes of cell biology will be crucial for the elucidation and treatment of many inherited and acquired diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer's disease and viral infections.

Dual palmitoylation of PSD-95 mediates its vesiculotubular sorting, postsynaptic targeting, and ion channel clustering

Postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95/SAP-90) is a palmitoylated peripheral membrane protein that scaffolds ion channels at excitatory synapses. To elucidate mechanisms for postsynaptic ion channel clustering, we analyzed the cellular trafficking of PSD-95. We find that PSD-95 transiently associates with a perinuclear membranous compartment and traffics with vesiculotubular structures, which migrate in a microtubule-dependent manner. Trafficking of PSD-95 with these vesiculotubular structures requires dual palmitoylation, which is specified by five consecutive hydrophobic residues at the NH(2) terminus. Mutations that disrupt dual palmitoylation of PSD-95 block both ion channel clustering by PSD-95 and its synaptic targeting. Replacing the palmitoylated NH(2) terminus of PSD-95 with alternative palmitoylation motifs at either the NH(2) or COOH termini restores ion channel clustering also induces postsynaptic targeting, respectively. In brain, we find that PSD-95 occurs not only at PSDs but also in association with intracellular smooth tubular structures in dendrites and spines. These data imply that PSD-95 is an itinerant vesicular protein; initial targeting of PSD-95 to an intracellular membrane compartment may participate in postsynaptic ion channel clustering by PSD-95.

The organization of the Golgi complex and microtubules in skeletal muscle is fiber type-dependent

Skeletal muscle has a nonconventional Golgi complex (GC), the organization of which has been a subject of controversy in the past. We have now examined the distribution of the GC by immunofluorescence and immunogold electron microscopy in whole fibers from different rat muscles, both innervated and experimentally denervated. The total number of GC elements, small polarized stacks of cisternae, is quite similar in all fibers, but their intracellular distribution is fiber type-dependent. Thus, in slow-twitch, type I fibers, approximately 75% of all GC elements are located within 1 micrometer from the plasma membrane, and each nucleus is surrounded by a belt of GC elements. In contrast, in the fast-twitch type IIB fibers, most GC elements are in the fiber core, and most nuclei only have GC elements at their poles. Intermediate, type IIA fibers also have an intermediate distribution of GC elements. Interestingly, the distribution of microtubules, with which GC elements colocalize, is fiber type-dependent as well. At the neuromuscular junction, the distribution of GC elements and microtubules is independent of fiber type, and junctional nuclei are surrounded by GC elements in all fibers. After denervation of the hindlimb muscles, GC elements as well as microtubules converge toward a common pattern, that of the slow-twitch fibers, in all fibers. Our data suggest that innervation regulates the distribution of microtubules, which in turn organize the Golgi complex according to muscle fiber type.

Secretory protein trafficking and organelle dynamics in living cells

Green fluorescent protein chimerae acting as reporters for protein localization and trafficking within the secretory membrane system of living cells have been used in a wide variety of applications, including time-lapse imaging, double-labeling, energy transfer, quantitation, and photobleaching experiments. Results from this work are clarifying the steps involved in the formation, translocation, and fusion of transport intermediates; the organization and biogenesis of organelles; and the mechanisms of protein retention, sorting, and recycling in the secretory pathway. In so doing, they are broadening our thinking about the temporal and spatial relationships among secretory organelles and the membrane trafficking pathways that operate between them.

Dynamic association of cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain 1a with the Golgi apparatus and intermediate compartment

Microtubule motors, such as the minus end-directed motor, cytoplasmic dynein, play an important role in maintaining the integrity, intracellular location, and function of the Golgi apparatus, as well as in the translocation of membrane between the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. We have immunolocalised conventional cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain to the Golgi apparatus in cultured vertebrate cells. In addition, we present evidence that cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain cycles constitutively between the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus: it colocalises partially with the intermediate compartment, it is found on nocodazole-induced peripheral Golgi elements and, most strikingly, on Brefeldin A-induced tubules that are moving towards microtubule plus ends. The direction of movement of membrane between the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus is therefore unlikely to be regulated by controlling motor-membrane interactions: rather, the motors probably remain bound throughout the whole cycle, with their activity being modulated instead. We also report that the overexpression of p50/dynamitin results in the loss of cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain from the membrane of peripheral Golgi elements. These results explain how dynamitin overexpression causes the inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi transport complex movement towards the centrosomal region, and support the general model that an intact dynactin complex is required for cytoplasmic dynein binding to all cargoes.

The organization of the Golgi complex and microtubules in skeletal muscle is fiber type-dependent

Skeletal muscle has a nonconventional Golgi complex (GC), the organization of which has been a subject of controversy in the past. We have now examined the distribution of the GC by immunofluorescence and immunogold electron microscopy in whole fibers from different rat muscles, both innervated and experimentally denervated. The total number of GC elements, small polarized stacks of cisternae, is quite similar in all fibers, but their intracellular distribution is fiber type-dependent. Thus, in slow-twitch, type I fibers, approximately 75% of all GC elements are located within 1 micrometer from the plasma membrane, and each nucleus is surrounded by a belt of GC elements. In contrast, in the fast-twitch type IIB fibers, most GC elements are in the fiber core, and most nuclei only have GC elements at their poles. Intermediate, type IIA fibers also have an intermediate distribution of GC elements. Interestingly, the distribution of microtubules, with which GC elements colocalize, is fiber type-dependent as well. At the neuromuscular junction, the distribution of GC elements and microtubules is independent of fiber type, and junctional nuclei are surrounded by GC elements in all fibers. After denervation of the hindlimb muscles, GC elements as well as microtubules converge toward a common pattern, that of the slow-twitch fibers, in all fibers. Our data suggest that innervation regulates the distribution of microtubules, which in turn organize the Golgi complex according to muscle fiber type.

Golgi membranes are absorbed into and reemerge from the ER during mitosis

Quantitative imaging and photobleaching were used to measure ER/Golgi recycling of GFP-tagged Golgi proteins in interphase cells and to monitor the dissolution and reformation of the Golgi during mitosis. In interphase, recycling occurred every 1.5 hr, and blocking ER egress trapped cycling Golgi enzymes in the ER with loss of Golgi structure. In mitosis, when ER export stops, Golgi proteins redistributed into the ER as shown by quantitative imaging in vivo and immuno-EM. Comparison of the mobilities of Golgi proteins and lipids ruled out the persistence of a separate mitotic Golgi vesicle population and supported the idea that all Golgi components are absorbed into the ER. Moreover, reassembly of the Golgi complex after mitosis failed to occur when ER export was blocked. These results demonstrate that in mitosis the Golgi disperses and reforms through the intermediary of the ER, exploiting constitutive recycling pathways. They thus define a novel paradigm for Golgi genesis and inheritance.

Phospholipase A(2) antagonists inhibit nocodazole-induced Golgi ministack formation: evidence of an ER intermediate and constitutive cycling

Evidence has been presented both for and against obligate retrograde movement of resident Golgi proteins through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) during nocodazole-induced Golgi ministack formation. Here, we studied the nocodazole-induced formation of ministacks using phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) antagonists, which have been shown previously to inhibit brefeldin A-stimulated Golgi-to-ER retrograde transport. Examination of clone 9 rat hepatocytes by immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy revealed that a subset of PLA(2) antagonists prevented nocodazole-induced ministack formation by inhibiting two different trafficking pathways for resident Golgi enzymes; at 25 microM, retrograde Golgi-to-ER transport was inhibited, whereas at 5 microM, Golgi-to-ER trafficking was permitted, but resident Golgi enzymes accumulated in the ER. Moreover, resident Golgi enzymes gradually redistributed from the juxtanuclear Golgi or Golgi ministacks to the ER in cells treated with these PLA(2) antagonists alone. Not only was ER-to-Golgi transport of resident Golgi enzymes inhibited in cells treated with these PLA(2) antagonists, but transport of the vesicular stomatitis virus G protein out of the ER was also prevented. These results support a model of obligate retrograde recycling of Golgi resident enzymes during nocodazole-induced ministack formation and provide additional evidence that resident Golgi enzymes slowly and constitutively cycle between the Golgi and ER.

Membrane flow through the Golgi apparatus: specific disassembly of the cis-Golgi network by ATP depletion

Incubation of NRK cells for 30 to 45 minutes with 50 mM 2-deoxy-D-glucose (DOG) in glucose and pyruvate-free medium results in depletion of the cellular ATP pool and in specific disassembly of the cis-Golgi network (CGN), with the stack of Golgi cisternae (SGC) and the trans-Golgi network (TGN) remaining intact and sensitive to BFA. The disassembly of the CGN is mediated by long tubular structures extending outwards from the Golgi complex and involves microtubules. Upon removal of DOG and addition of glucose and pyruvate to the culture medium, the morphology of the CGN is slowly reestablished. Reconstruction of the CGN involves COPI/COPII-positive vesicles that resume the transport of proteins and in particular of CGN membrane proteins out of the ER. Exit of CGN membrane proteins from the ER is insensitive to BFA. In cells pretreated with nocodazole, the CGN membrane proteins are transported to the vicinity of the SGC fragments dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. Ultrastructural studies of cells engaged in the reconstruction of the CGN revealed that the CGN cisterna emerge as tubular structures extending from 0.2-0.3 microm uncoated vesicles prior to their organization on the cis-side of the SGC.

Actin cytoskeleton in plants: from transport networks to signaling networks

The plant actin cytoskeleton is characterized by a high diversity in regard to gene families, isoforms, and degree of polymerization. In addition to the most abundant F-actin assemblies like filaments and their bundles, G-actin obviously assembles in the form of actin oligomers composed of a few actin molecules which can be extensively cross-linked into complex dynamic meshworks. The role of the actomyosin complex as a force generating system - based on principles operating as in muscle cells - is clearly established for long-range mass transport in large algal cells and specialized cell types of higher plants. Extended F-actin networks, mainly composed of F-actin bundles, are the structural basis for this cytoplasmic streaming of high velocities On the other hand, evidence is accumulating that delicate meshworks built of short F-actin oligomers are critical for events occurring at the plasma membrane, e.g., actin interventions into activities of ion channels and hormone carriers, signaling pathways based on phospholipids, and exo- and endocytotic processes. These unique F-actin arrays, constructed by polymerization-depolymerization processes propelled via synergistic actions of actin-binding proteins such as profilin and actin depolymerizing factor (ADF)/cofilin are supposed to be engaged in diverse aspects of plant morphogenesis. Finally, rapid rearrangements of F-actin meshworks interconnecting endocellular membranes turn out to be especially important for perception-signaling purposes of plant cells, e.g., in association with guard cell movements, mechano- and gravity-sensing, plant host-pathogen interactions, and wound-healing.

Characterization and dynamics of aggresome formation by a cytosolic GFP-chimera

Formation of a novel structure, the aggresome, has been proposed to represent a general cellular response to the presence of misfolded proteins (Johnston, J.A., C.L. Ward, and R.R. Kopito. 1998. J. Cell Biol. 143:1883-1898; Wigley, W.C., R.P. Fabunmi, M.G. Lee, C.R. Marino, S. Muallem, G.N. DeMartino, and P.J. Thomas. 1999. J. Cell Biol. 145:481-490). To test the generality of this finding and characterize aspects of aggresome composition and its formation, we investigated the effects of overexpressing a cytosolic protein chimera (GFP-250) in cells. Overexpression of GFP-250 caused formation of aggresomes and was paralleled by the redistribution of the intermediate filament protein vimentin as well as by the recruitment of the proteasome, and the Hsp70 and the chaperonin systems of chaperones. Interestingly, GFP-250 within the aggresome appeared not to be ubiquitinated. In vivo time-lapse analysis of aggresome dynamics showed that small aggregates form within the periphery of the cell and travel on microtubules to the MTOC region where they remain as distinct but closely apposed particulate structures. Overexpression of p50/dynamitin, which causes the dissociation of the dynactin complex, significantly inhibited the formation of aggresomes, suggesting that the minus-end-directed motor activities of cytoplasmic dynein are required for aggresome formation. Perinuclear aggresomes interfered with correct Golgi localization and disrupted the normal astral distribution of microtubules. However, ER-to-Golgi protein transport occurred normally in aggresome containing cells. Our results suggest that aggresomes can be formed by soluble, nonubiquitinated proteins as well as by integral transmembrane ubiquitinated ones, supporting the hypothesis that aggresome formation might be a general cellular response to the presence of misfolded proteins.

Assays using digital fluorescence: 1985-1998

Luminescence continues to provide comprehensive literature surveys which will be published in most issues. These are a continuation of the literature surveys begun in 1986 in the Journal of Bioluminescence and Chemiluminescence which, up until 1998, encompassed more than 6000 references cited by year or specialized topic. With this newly named journal these searches are expanding to reflect the journal's wider scope. In future we will cover all fundamental and applied aspects of biological and chemical luminescence and include not only bioluminescence and chemiluminescence but also fluorescence, time resolved fluorescence, electrochemiluminescence, phosphorescence, sonoluminescence, lyoluminescence and triboluminescence. The compilers would be pleased to receive any comments from the readership. Contact by e-mail: L.J. Kricka: larry_kricka@path1a.med.upenn.edu or P.E. Stanley: Stanley@LUMIWEB.COM Copyright 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Membrane motors

Research over the past 18 months has revealed that many membranous organelles move along both actin filaments and microtubules. It is highly likely that the activity of the microtubule motors, myosins and static linker proteins present on any organelle are co-ordinately regulated and that this control is linked to the processes of membrane traffic itself.

Membrane tubule-mediated reassembly and maintenance of the Golgi complex is disrupted by phospholipase A2 antagonists

Although membrane tubules can be found extending from, and associated with, the Golgi complex of eukaryotic cells, their physiological function has remained unclear. To gain insight into the biological significance of membrane tubules, we have developed methods for selectively preventing their formation. We show here that a broad range of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) antagonists not only arrest membrane tubule-mediated events that occur late in the assembly of the Golgi complex but also perturb its normal steady-state tubulovesicular architecture by inducing a reversible fragmentation into separate "mini-stacks." In addition, we show that these same compounds prevent the formation of membrane tubules from Golgi stacks in an in vitro reconstitution system. This in vitro assay was further used to demonstrate that the relevant PLA2 activity originates from the cytoplasm. Taken together, these results demonstrate that Golgi membrane tubules, sensitive to potent and selective PLA2 antagonists, mediate both late events in the reassembly of the Golgi complex and the dynamic maintenance of its steady-state architecture. In addition, they implicate a role for cytoplasmic PLA2 enzymes in mediating these membrane trafficking events.

Structural elements common to mitosis and apoptosis

Both mitotic and apoptotic cells display hypercondensation of the chromatin and loss of the nuclear envelope (Lazebnik et al., 1993). Herein, we describe a third similarity between the two processes. We have observed, initially in apoptotic cells of the PC-12 lineage clusters of 40-60 (approximately 50) nm vesicles adjoined by a minor contingent of tubule vesicular elements of 100-200 nm which are indistinguishable from their vesicular counterparts in mitotic PC-12 cells. The clusters of approximately 50 nm vesicles were subsequently observed in all studied rat tissue cells in apoptosis (plasma cells and macrophages, secretory epithelial cells from pancreatic acini, ventral lobe of prostate and mammary gland). Clusters of approximately 50 nm vesicles comparable to those of the PC-12 cells were found in HeLa cells treated with human alfa TNF, in WEHI-3 cells exposed to VM 26 (a teneposide) (Sesso et al., 1997) and in HL-60 cells treated with thapsigargin. PC-12 and HeLa cells affixed to coverslips were double labelled and examined with the fluorescence microscope to reveal simultaneously the disposition of the chromatin with Hoechst stain and the distribution of the fluorescence of Golgi or of Golgi-associated proteins. A common pattern of fluorescence was observed in a minor proportion of apoptotic cells using three different antibodies used. The label frequently appeared as finely dispersed granules in the cytoplasm. In some apoptotic cells, relatively coarse granules were observed. This pattern of label distribution is compatible with the disposition of vesicular clusters we have encountered in apoptotic PC-12 cells sectioned serially or semi serially. In such sections of both mitotic and apoptotic PC-12 cells, we noticed that the conglomerates of 50 nm vesicles were frequently associated with cisternae of the rough ER. Vesicles of similar size were also noted pinching off from the extremities of Golgi cisternae reduced in size. These cisternae diminish in length and width when they are in the process of disassembling at the very beginning of mitosis and in apoptosis.

Role of endoplasmic reticulum, endosomal-lysosomal compartments, and microtubules in amyloid precursor protein metabolism of human neurons

A wide interest in amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolism stems from the fact that increased amounts of amyloid beta peptide (Abeta), arising through proteolytic processing of APP, likely play a significant role in Alzheimer's disease. As Alzheimer's disease pathology is limited almost exclusively to the human species, we established human primary neuron cultures to address the possibility of distinctive APP processing in human CNS neurons. In the present study, we investigate the role of organelles and protein trafficking in APP metabolism. Using brefeldin A, we failed to detect APP processing into Abeta in the endoplasmic reticulum. Monensin and the lysomotropic agents, NH4Cl and chloroquine, revealed a bypass pH-dependent secretory pathway in a compartment between the endoplasmic reticulum and the medial Golgi, resulting in the secretion of full-length APP. Colchicine treatment resulting in the loss of neurites inhibited processing of APP through the secretory, but not the endosomal-lysosomal, pathway of APP metabolism. The serine protease inhibitor, leupeptin, indicates a role for lysosomes in APP, Abeta, and APP C-terminal fragment turnover. These results demonstrate that the regulation of APP metabolism in human neurons differs considerably from those reported in rodent CNS primary neuron cultures or continuously dividing cell types.

Golgi structure correlates with transitional endoplasmic reticulum organization in Pichia pastoris and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Golgi stacks are often located near sites of "transitional ER" (tER), where COPII transport vesicles are produced. This juxtaposition may indicate that Golgi cisternae form at tER sites. To explore this idea, we examined two budding yeasts: Pichia pastoris, which has coherent Golgi stacks, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which has a dispersed Golgi. tER structures in the two yeasts were visualized using fusions between green fluorescent protein and COPII coat proteins. We also determined the localization of Sec12p, an ER membrane protein that initiates the COPII vesicle assembly pathway. In P. pastoris, Golgi stacks are adjacent to discrete tER sites that contain COPII coat proteins as well as Sec12p. This arrangement of the tER-Golgi system is independent of microtubules. In S. cerevisiae, COPII vesicles appear to be present throughout the cytoplasm and Sec12p is distributed throughout the ER, indicating that COPII vesicles bud from the entire ER network. We propose that P. pastoris has discrete tER sites and therefore generates coherent Golgi stacks, whereas S. cerevisiae has a delocalized tER and therefore generates a dispersed Golgi. These findings open the way for a molecular genetic analysis of tER sites.

Intracellular trafficking pathways in the assembly of connexins into gap junctions

Trafficking pathways underlying the assembly of connexins into gap junctions were examined using living COS-7 cells expressing a range of connexin-aequorin (Cx-Aeq) chimeras. By measuring the chemiluminescence of the aequorin fusion partner, the translocation of oligomerized connexins from intracellular stores to the plasma membrane was shown to occur at different rates that depended on the connexin isoform. Treatment of COS-7 cells expressing Cx32-Aeq and Cx43-Aeq with brefeldin A inhibited the movement of these chimera to the plasma membrane by 84 +/- 4 and 88 +/- 4%, respectively. Nocodazole treatment of the cells expressing Cx32-Aeq and Cx43-Aeq produced 29 +/- 16 and 4 +/- 7% inhibition, respectively. In contrast, the transport of Cx26 to the plasma membrane, studied using a construct (Cx26/43T-Aeq) in which the short cytoplasmic carboxyl-terminal tail of Cx26 was replaced with the extended carboxyl terminus of Cx43, was inhibited 89 +/- 5% by nocodazole and was minimally affected by exposure of cells to brefeldin A (17 +/-11%). The transfer of Lucifer yellow across gap junctions between cells expressing wild-type Cx32, Cx43, and the corresponding Cx32-Aeq and Cx43-Aeq chimeras was reduced by nocodazole treatment and abolished by brefeldin A treatment. However, the extent of dye coupling between cells expressing wild-type Cx26 or the Cx26/43T-Aeq chimeras was not significantly affected by brefeldin A treatment, but after nocodazole treatment, transfer of dye to neighboring cells was greatly reduced. These contrasting effects of brefeldin A and nocodazole on the trafficking properties and intercellular dye transfer are interpreted to suggest that two pathways contribute to the routing of connexins to the gap junction.

Coalescence of Golgi fragments in microtubule-deprived living cells

The process of stack coalescence, an important mechanism of Golgi recovery from mitosis, was examined using novel experimental paradigms. In living cells with disrupted (by nocodazole) microtubules, galactosyl transferase-GFP-labelled Golgi fragments constantly appeared, grew, sometimes moved with a speed of 1-2 microns/min, coalesced or gradually diminished and disappeared. The rate of Golgi fragment turnover and coalescence was highly balanced to maintain a constant number of Golgi units per cell. Moreover some Golgi islands appear and some received new GalTase-GFP after photobleaching of cell cytoplasm. Short tubules extending from the rims of scattered Golgi fragments frequently formed bridges between ministacks, inducing their coalescence. The frequency of coalescence could also be inhibited by disruption of actin microfilaments. After the Golgi redistribution into endoplasmic reticulum induced by brefeldin A, either the growth of small Golgi fragments or their coalescence leads to compartmentalized stack formation without the participation of microtubules. These results demonstrate that this coalescence between isolated Golgi stacks is microtubule-independent and could thus be mediated by membranous tubules.

Transcription-dependent nuclear-cytoplasmic trafficking is required for the function of the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor protein

Mutation of the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor gene (vhl) causes the von Hippel-Lindau cancer syndrome as well as sporadic renal clear cell carcinoma. To pursue our study of the intracellular localization of VHL protein in relation to its function, we fused VHL to the green fluorescent protein (GFP) to produce the VHL-GFP fusion protein. Like VHL, VHL-GFP binds to elongins B and C and Cullin-2 and regulates target gene product levels, including levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and glucose transporter 1. VHL-GFP localizes predominantly to the cytoplasm, with some detectable nuclear signal. Inhibition of transcription by actinomycin D or 5,6-dichlorobenzimidazole riboside (DRB) causes VHL to be redistributed to the nucleus. A cellular fusion assay was used to demonstrate that inhibition of transcription induces a decrease in the nuclear export rate of VHL. The dependence of transcription for trafficking is lost with a deletion of exon 2, a region with a mutation causing a splice defect in the VHL gene in sporadic renal clear cell carcinoma. Addition of a strong nuclear export signal (NES) derived from the Rev protein results in complete nuclear exclusion and abrogates the redistribution of VHL-GFP-NES into the nucleus upon inhibition of transcription. Leptomycin B, which inhibits NES-mediated nuclear export, reverts the distribution of VHL-GFP-NES to that of VHL-GFP and restores sensitivity to actinomycin D and DRB. Uncoupling of VHL-GFP trafficking to transcription either by an exon 2 deletion or fusion to NES abolishes VHL function. We suggest that VHL function requires not only nuclear or cytoplasmic localization, but also exon 2-mediated transcription-dependent trafficking between these two cellular compartments.

Role of microtubules in the organization of the Golgi complex

The Golgi complex of mammalian cells is composed of cisternal stacks that function in processing and sorting of membrane and luminal proteins during transport from the site of synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum to lysosomes, secretory vacuoles, and the cell surface. Even though exceptions are found, the Golgi stacks are usually arranged as an interconnected network in the region around the centrosome, the major organizing center for cytoplasmic microtubules. A close relation thus exists between Golgi elements and microtubules (especially the stable subpopulation enriched in detyrosinated and acetylated tubulin). After drug-induced disruption of microtubules, the Golgi stacks are disconnected from each other, partly broken up, dispersed in the cytoplasm, and redistributed to endoplasmic reticulum exit sites. Despite this, intracellular protein traffic is only moderately disturbed. Following removal of the drugs, scattered Golgi elements move along reassembling microtubules back to the centrosomal region and reunite into a continuous system. The microtubule-dependent motor proteins cytoplasmic dynein and kinesin bind to Golgi membranes and have been implicated in vesicular transport to and from the Golgi complex. Microinjection of dynein heavy chain antibodies causes dispersal of the Golgi complex, and the Golgi complex of cells lacking cytoplasmic dynein is likewise spread throughout the cytoplasm. In a similar manner, kinesin antibodies have been found to inhibit Golgi-to-endoplasmic reticulum transport in brefeldin A-treated cells and scattering of Golgi elements along remaining microtubules in cells exposed to a low concentration of nocodazole. The molecular mechanisms in the interaction between microtubules and membranes are, however, incompletely understood. During mitosis, the Golgi complex is extensively reorganized in order to ensure an equal partitioning of this single-copy organelle between the daughter cells. Mitosis-promoting factor, a complex of cdc2 kinase and cyclin B, is a key regulator of this and other events in the induction of cell division. Cytoplasmic microtubules depolymerize in prophase and as a result thereof, the Golgi stacks become smaller, disengage from each other, and take up a perinuclear distribution. The mitotic spindle is thereafter put together, aligns the chromosomes in the metaphase plate, and eventually pulls the sister chromatids apart in anaphase. In parallel, the Golgi stacks are broken down into clusters of vesicles and tubules and movement of protein along the exocytic and endocytic pathways is inhibited. Using a cell-free system, it has been established that the fragmentation of the Golgi stacks is due to a continued budding of transport vesicles and a concomitant inhibition of the fusion of the vesicles with their target membranes. In telophase and after cytokinesis, a Golgi complex made up of interconnected cisternal stacks is recreated in each daughter cell and intracellular protein traffic is resumed. This restoration of a normal interphase morphology and function is dependent on reassembly of a radiating array of cytoplasmic microtubules along which vesicles can be carried and on reactivation of the machinery for membrane fusion.

New perspectives on mechanisms involved in generating epithelial cell polarity

Polarized epithelial cells form barriers that separate biological compartments and regulate homeostasis by controlling ion and solute transport between those compartments. Receptors, ion transporters and channels, signal transduction proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins are organized into functionally and structurally distinct domains of the cell surface, termed apical and basolateral, that face these different compartments. This review is about mechanisms involved in the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity. Previous reports and reviews have adopted a Golgi-centric view of how epithelial cell polarity is established, in which the sorting of apical and basolateral membrane proteins in the Golgi complex is a specialized process in polarized cells, and the generation of cell surface polarity is a direct consequence of this process. Here, we argue that events at the cell surface are fundamental to the generation of cell polarity. We propose that the establishment of structural asymmetry in the plasma membrane is the first, critical event, and subsequently, this asymmetry is reinforced and maintained by delivery of proteins that were constitutively sorted in the Golgi. We propose a hierarchy of stages for establishing cell polarity.

Low cytoplasmic pH causes fragmentation and dispersal of the Golgi apparatus in human hepatoma cells

The centrosomal localization of the Golgi apparatus in interphase cells is thought to be maintained by retrograde microtubule-based motility. It is well established that, when intracellular pH is lowered, lysosomes and endosomes, also showing pericentrosomal localization, translocate towards the plus ends of microtubules within 15 min. In this study, we found that prolonged incubation in low pH medium (pH 6.6) with 20 mM Na acetate induced the fragmentation and dispersal of the Golgi apparatus in the human hepatoma cell line PLC/PRF/5. The fraction of Golgi-dispersed cells increased in a time-dependent manner, and reached over 60% after the 16-h incubation. The cytoplasmic pH was dropped to approximately 7.10. Replacement with normal pH medium restored the structure and localization of the apparatus within 30 min. In the low pH condition, the microtubular network and endoplasmic reticulum appeared normal, and cytoplasmic dynein was still bound to the fragmented Golgi membranes. These findings suggest that low cytoplasmic pH suppresses the retrograde movement of the Golgi apparatus as well as that of lysosomes and endosomes.