Controlled deposition of a high-performance small-molecule organic single-crystal transistor array by direct ink-jet printing

Nanoimprint crystalithography for organic semiconductors

Organic semiconductor crystals (OSCs) offer mechanical flexibility, high carrier mobility, and tunable electronic structures, making them promising for optoelectronic and photonic applications. However, traditional lithographic techniques damage OSCs due to high-energy beams or solvents, leading to high defect densities, poor uniformity, and significant device-to-device variation. Existing methods also struggle to eliminate residual layers while forming independent, complex two-dimensional patterns. A chemical-free nanoimprint crystallography (NICL) method is introduced to overcome these challenges by balancing residual-layer-free nanoimprinting with the fabrication of independent, complex 2D patterns. In situ control of crystallization kinetics via temperature gradient adjustment yields OSC nanostructures with low defect densities and good uniformity. Patterning of various OSCs over a range of feature sizes is demonstrated. The patterned OSCs exhibit good lasing performance and low device-to-device variation (as low as 2%), indicating that NICL is a promising approach for fabricating high-performance, uniform OSC-based devices.

Comparative Evaluation of Pyrrole Fused Donor Moieties: 1H-Indole and Pyrrolo[2,3-b] Pyridine in Benzothiadiazole-Based D-A-D Type Conjugated Small Molecules for Organic Field-Effect Transistors

Pyrrolic units have been utilized as building blocks for organic semiconducting small molecules and polymers in the recent past. Even though pyrrole-based materials have shown promising semiconducting properties, they have been challenging due to their lower stability under ambient conditions. In this study, we synthesized two pyrrole-fused moieties: 1H-indole (IN) and pyrrolo[2,3-b] pyridine (PPy), which were then explored for their potential as effective donor moieties in organic semiconducting materials. Each donor block was employed to synthesize two donor-acceptor-donor-type small molecules. Thiophene-flanked benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole was used as an acceptor to generate diethyl 6,6'-(benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole-4,7-diylbis(thiophene-5,2-diyl))bis(1-dodecyl-1H-indole-2-carboxylate (IN-BT2T-IN) and diethyl 6,6'-(benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole-4,7-diylbis(thiophene-5,2-diyl))bis(1-dodecyl-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridine-2-carboxylate (PPy-BT2T-PPy) donor-acceptor-donor molecules. These novel donor-acceptor-donor molecules were tested for their hole-transport properties by fabricating and testing organic field-effect transistors (OFETs). Both molecules exhibited moderate hole-transporting properties with maximum hole mobilities of 0.00483 and 0.00381 cm2 V-1 s-1 for IN-BT2T-IN and PPy-BT2T-PPy, measured under annealing conditions. The enhanced hole mobilities measured in the annealed OFET devices were attributed to thermally induced crystallinity, as demonstrated by atomic force microscopy and grazing incidence X-ray diffraction measurements.

Molecular Electronics: From Nanostructure Assembly to Device Integration

Integrated electronics and optoelectronics based on organic semiconductors have attracted considerable interest in displays, photovoltaics, and biosensing owing to their designable electronic properties, solution processability, and flexibility. Miniaturization and integration of devices are growing trends in molecular electronics and optoelectronics for practical applications, which requires large-scale and versatile assembly strategies for patterning organic micro/nano-structures with simultaneously long-range order, pure orientation, and high resolution. Although various integration methods have been developed in past decades, molecular electronics still needs a versatile platform to avoid defects and disorders due to weak intermolecular interactions in organic materials. In this perspective, a roadmap of organic integration technologies in recent three decades is provided to review the history of molecular electronics. First, we highlight the importance of long-range-ordered molecular packing for achieving exotic electronic and photophysical properties. Second, we classify the strategies for large-scale integration of molecular electronics through the control of nucleation and crystallographic orientation, and evaluate them based on factors of resolution, crystallinity, orientation, scalability, and versatility. Third, we discuss the multifunctional devices and integrated circuits based on organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) and photodetectors. Finally, we explore future research directions and outlines the need for further development of molecular electronics, including assembly of doped organic semiconductors and heterostructures, biological interfaces in molecular electronics and integrated organic logics based on complementary FETs.

Organic Semiconductor Single Crystal Arrays: Preparation and Applications

The study of organic semiconductor single crystal (OSSC) arrays has recently attracted considerable interest given their potential applications in flexible displays, smart wearable devices, biochemical sensors, etc. Patterning of OSSCs is the prerequisite for the realization of organic integrated circuits. Patterned OSSCs can not only decrease the crosstalk between adjacent organic field-effect transistors (OFETs), but also can be conveniently integrated with other device elements which facilitate circuits application. Tremendous efforts have been devoted in the controllable preparation of OSSC arrays, and great progress has been achieved. In this review, the general strategies for patterning OSSCs are summarized, along with the discussion of the advantages and limitations of different patterning methods. Given the identical thickness of monolayer molecular crystals (MMCs) which is beneficial to achieve super uniformity of OSSC arrays and devices, patterning of MMCs is also emphasized. Then, OFET performance is summarized with comparison of the mobility and coefficient of variation based on the OSSC arrays prepared by different methods. Furthermore, advances of OSSC array-based circuits and flexible devices of different functions are highlighted. Finally, the challenges that need to be tackled in the future are presented.

Capillary-Confinement Crystallization for Monolayer Molecular Crystal Arrays

Organic single-crystalline semiconductors are highly desired for the fabrication of integrated electronic circuits, yet their uniform growth and efficient patterning is a huge challenge. Here, a general solution procedure named the "soft-template-assisted-assembly method" is developed to prepare centimeter-scale monolayer molecular crystal (MMC) arrays with precise regulation over their size and location via a capillary-confinement crystallization process. It is remarkable that the field-effect mobility of the array is highly uniform, with variation less than 4.4%, which demonstrates the most uniform organic single-crystal arrays ever reported so far. Simulations based on fluid dynamics are carried out to understand the function mechanism of this method. Thanks to the ultrasmooth crystalline orientation surface of MMCs, high-quality p-n heterojunction arrays can be prepared by weak epitaxy growth of n-type material atop the MMC. The p-n heterojunction field-effect transistors show ambipolar characteristics and the corresponding inverters constructed by these heterojunctions exhibit a competitive gain of 155. This work provides a general strategy to realize the preparation and application of logic complementary circuits based on patterned organic single crystals.

The contact angle of an evaporating droplet of a binary solution on a super wetting surface

We study the dynamics of the contact angle of a droplet of a binary solution evaporating on a super wetting surface. Recent experiments have shown that although the equilibrium contact angle of such a droplet is zero, the contact angle can show complex time dependence before reaching the equilibrium value. We analyse such phenomena by extending our previous theory for the dynamics of an evaporating single component droplet to a double component droplet. We show that the time dependence of the contact angle can be quite complex. Typically, it first decreases slightly, and then increases and finally decreases again. Under certain conditions, we find that the contact angle remains constant over a certain period of time during evaporation. We study how the plateau or peak contact angle depends on the initial composition and the humidity. This theory explains the experimental results reported previously.

Molecular Semiconductors for Logic Operations: Dead-End or Bright Future?

The field of organic electronics has been prolific in the last couple of years, leading to the design and synthesis of several molecular semiconductors presenting a mobility in excess of 10 cm² V^-1 s^-1 . However, it is also started to recently falter, as a result of doubtful mobility extractions and reduced industrial interest. This critical review addresses the community of chemists and materials scientists to share with it a critical analysis of the best performing molecular semiconductors and of the inherent charge transport physics that takes place in them. The goal is to inspire chemists and materials scientists and to give them hope that the field of molecular semiconductors for logic operations is not engaged into a dead end. To the contrary, it offers plenty of research opportunities in materials chemistry.

Insights into the Control of Optoelectronic Properties in Mixed-Stacking Charge-Transfer Complexes

Although cocrystallization has provided a promising platform to develop new organic optoelectronic materials, it is still a big challenge to purposely design and achieve specific optoelectronic properties. Herein, a series of mixed-stacking cocrystals (TMFA, TMCA, and TMTQ) were designed and synthesized, and the regulatory effects of the acceptors on the co-assembly behavior, charge-transfer nature, energy-level structures, and optoelectronic characteristics were systematically investigated. The results demonstrate that it is feasible to achieve effective charge-transport tuning and photoresponse switching by carefully regulating the intermolecular charge transfer and energy orbitals. The inherent mechanisms underlying the change in these optoelectronic behaviors were analyzed in depth and elucidated to provide clear guidelines for future development of new optoelectronic materials. In addition, due to the excellent photoresponsive characteristics of TMCA, TMCA-based phototransistors were investigated with varying light wavelength and optical power, and TMCA shows the best performance among all reported cocrystals under UV illumination.

Micro-to-nanometer patterning of solution-based materials for electronics and optoelectronics

Technologies for micro-to-nanometer patterns of solution-based materials (SBMs) contribute to a wide range of practical applications in the fields of electronics and optoelectronics. Here, state-of-the-art micro-to-nanometer scale patterning technologies of SBMs are disseminated. The utilisation of patterning for a wide-range of SBMs leads to a high level of control over conventional solution-based film fabrication processes that are not easily accessible for the control and fabrication of ordered micro-to-nanometer patterns. In this review, various patterning procedures of SBMs, including modified photolithography, direct-contact patterning, and inkjet printing, are briefly introduced with several strategies for reducing their pattern size to enhance the electronic and optoelectronic properties of SBMs explained. We then conclude with comments on future research directions in the field.

Drying Droplets with Soluble Surfactants

We propose a theory for the drying of liquid droplets of surfactant solutions. We show that the added surfactant hinders droplet receding and facilitates droplet spreading, causing a complex behavior of the contact line of an evaporating droplet: the contact line first recedes, then advances, and finally recedes again. We also show that the surfactant can change the deposition pattern from mountain-like to volcano-like and then to coffee-ring-like. Specially, when the contact line motion undergoes a clear receding-advancing transition, a two-ring pattern is formed. The mechanism of the two-ring formation is different from the stick-slip mechanism proposed previously and may be tested experimentally.

The Emergence of Organic Single-Crystal Electronics

Organic semiconducting single crystals are perfect for both fundamental and application-oriented research due to the advantages of free grain boundaries, few defects, and minimal traps and impurities, as well as their low-temperature processability, high flexibility, and low cost. Carrier mobilities of greater than 10 cm²  V^-1  s^-1 in some organic single crystals indicate a promising application in electronic devices. The progress made, including the molecular structures and fabrication technologies of organic single crystals, is introduced and organic single-crystal electronic devices, including field-effect transistors, phototransistors, p-n heterojunctions, and circuits, are summarized. Organic two-dimensional single crystals, cocrystals, and large single crystals, together with some potential applications, are introduced. A state-of-the-art overview of organic single-crystal electronics, with their challenges and prospects, is also provided.

Coalescence, Spreading, and Rebound of Two Water Droplets with Different Temperatures on a Superhydrophobic Surface

This paper studied the coalescence, spreading, and rebound of two droplets with different temperatures on a superhydrophobic surface. When the temperature of the impacting droplet was the same as that of the stationary droplet, there was a large deformation of both droplets before the coalescence and the energy dissipation was also large. The coalescence happened at the time close to the maximum spreading. When the temperature of the impacting droplet increased, the deformation of both droplets became smaller before the coalescence and the coalescence happened at or even before the droplets started to spread. The energy dissipation and loss in the later situation is less than those in the previous case. The rebounding characteristics of the merged droplets were also found to be dependent on the temperature. There is an optimum temperature at which the merged droplets can rebound for more times due to the balance of energy loss and also the interaction of the merged droplets with the underlying superhydrophobic substrate. These findings may help further the fundamental understanding of droplet collision on a superhydrophobic surfaces and also offer an alternative strategy to remove droplets from the underlying surfaces for different industrial applications, including condensation heat transfer in steam power plants and phase-change-based thermal management systems.

Field-Effect Transistors Based on 2D Organic Semiconductors Developed by a Hybrid Deposition Method

Solution-processed 2D organic semiconductors (OSCs) have drawn considerable attention because of their novel applications from flexible optoelectronics to biosensors. However, obtaining well-oriented sheets of 2D organic materials with low defect density still poses a challenge. Here, a highly crystallized 2,9-didecyldinaphtho[2,3-b:2',3'-f]thieno[3,2-b]thiophene (C10-DNTT) monolayer crystal with large-area uniformity is obtained by an ultraslow shearing (USS) method and its growth pattern shows a kinetic Wulff's construction supported by theoretical calculations of surface energies. The resulting seamless and highly crystalline monolayers are then used as templates for thermally depositing another C10-DNTT ultrathin top-up film. The organic thin films deposited by this hybrid approach show an interesting coherence structure with a copied molecular orientation of the templating crystal. The organic field-effect transistors developed by these hybrid C10-DNTT films exhibit improved carrier mobility of 14.7 cm2 V-1 s-1 as compared with 7.3 cm2 V-1 s-1 achieved by pure thermal evaporation (100% improvement) and 2.8 cm2 V-1 s-1 achieved by solution sheared monolayer C10-DNTT. This work establishes a simple yet effective approach for fabricating high-performance and low-cost electronics on a large scale.

Feasibility Study of Single-Crystal Si Island Manufacturing by Microscale Printing of Nanoparticles and Laser Crystallization

Nonvacuum printing of single crystals would be ideal for high-performance functional device (such as electronics) fabrication yet challenging for most materials, especially for inorganic semiconductors. Currently, the printed films are dominant in amorphous, polycrystalline, or nanoparticle films. In this article, manufacturing of single-crystal silicon micro/nano-islands is attempted. Different from traditional vapor deposition for silicon thin-film preparation, silicon nanoparticle ink was aerosol-printed followed by confined laser melting and crystallization, allowing potential fabrication of single-crystal silicon micro/nano-islands. It is also shown that as-fabricated Si islands can be transfer-printed onto polymer substrates for potential application of flexible electronics. The additive nature of this technique suggests a scalable and economical approach for high-crystallinity semiconductor printing.

Nano-confined crystallization of organic ultrathin nanostructure arrays with programmable geometries

Fabricating ultrathin organic semiconductor nanostructures attracts wide attention towards integrated electronic and optoelectronic applications. However, the fabrication of ultrathin organic nanostructures with precise alignment, tunable morphology and high crystallinity for device integration remains challenging. Herein, an assembly technique for fabricating ultrathin organic single-crystal arrays with different sizes and shapes is achieved by confining the crystallization process in a sub-hundred nanometer space. The confined crystallization is realized by controlling the deformation of the elastic topographical templates with tunable applied pressures, which produces organic nanostructures with ordered crystallographic orientation and controllable thickness from less than 10 nm to ca. 1 μm. The generality is verified for patterning various typical solution-processable materials with long-range order and pure orientation, including organic small molecules, polymers, metal-halide perovskites and nanoparticles. It is anticipated that this technique with controlling the crystallization kinetics by the governable confined space could facilitate the electronic integration of organic semiconductors.

Fabrication of ultrathin organic semiconductor nanostructures with precise alignment, tuneable morphology and high crystallinity remains challenging. Here the authors use an assembly technique with dewetting process controllability for patterning organic single-crystal arrays in a sub-hundred nanometer space.

Precise Patterning of Organic Semiconductor Crystals for Integrated Device Applications

Development of high-performance organic electronic and optoelectronic devices relies on high-quality semiconducting crystals that have outstanding charge transport properties and long exciton diffusion length and lifetime. To achieve integrated device applications, it is a prerequisite to precisely locate the organic semiconductor crystals (OSCCs) to form a specifically patterned structure. Well-patterned OSCCs can not only reduce leakage current and cross-talk between neighboring devices, but also facilely integrate with other device elements and their corresponding interconnects. In this Review, general strategies for the patterning of OSCCs are summarized, and the advantages and limitations of different patterning methods are discussed. Discussion is focused on an advanced strategy for the high-resolution and wafer-scale patterning of OSCC by a surface microstructure-assisted patterning method. Furthermore, the recent progress on OSCC pattern-based integrated circuities is highlighted. Finally, the research challenges and directions of this young field are also presented.

Organic crystalline materials in flexible electronics

Flexible electronics have attracted considerable attention recently given their potential to revolutionize human lives. High-performance organic crystalline materials (OCMs) are considered strong candidates for next-generation flexible electronics such as displays, image sensors, and artificial skin. They not only have great advantages in terms of flexibility, molecular diversity, low-cost, solution processability, and inherent compatibility with flexible substrates, but also show less grain boundaries with minimal defects, ensuring excellent and uniform electronic characteristics. Meanwhile, OCMs also serve as a powerful tool to probe the intrinsic electronic and mechanical properties of organics and reveal the flexible device physics for further guidance for flexible materials and device design. While the past decades have witnessed huge advances in OCM-based flexible electronics, this review is intended to provide a timely overview of this fascinating field. First, the crystal packing, charge transport, and assembly protocols of OCMs are introduced. State-of-the-art construction strategies for aligned/patterned OCM on/into flexible substrates are then discussed in detail. Following this, advanced OCM-based flexible devices and their potential applications are highlighted. Finally, future directions and opportunities for this field are proposed, in the hope of providing guidance for future research.

Bio-Inspired Micropatterned Platforms Recapitulate 3D Physiological Morphologies of Bone and Dentinal Cells

Cells exhibit distinct 3D morphologies in vivo, and recapitulation of physiological cell morphologies in vitro is pivotal not only to elucidate many fundamental biological questions, but also to develop new approaches for tissue regeneration and drug screening. However, conventional cell culture methods in either a 2D petri dish or a 3D scaffold often lead to the loss of the physiological morphologies for many cells, such as bone cells (osteocytes) and dentinal cells (odontoblasts). Herein, a unique approach in developing a 3D extracellular matrix (ECM)-like micropatterned synthetic matrix as a physiologically relevant 3D platform is reported to recapitulate the morphologies of osteocytes and odontoblasts in vitro. The bio-inspired micropatterned matrix precisely mimics the hierarchic 3D nanofibrous tubular/canaliculi architecture as well as the compositions of the ECM of mineralized tissues, and is capable of controlling one single cell in a microisland of the matrix. Using this bio-inspired 3D platform, individual bone and dental stem cells are successfully manipulated to recapitulate the physiological morphologies of osteocytes and odontoblasts in vitro, respectively. This work provides an excellent platform for an in-depth understanding of cell-matrix interactions in 3D environments, paving the way for designing next-generation biomaterials for tissue regeneration.

Thieno[3,2- b]pyrrole-benzothiadiazole Banana-Shaped Small Molecules for Organic Field-Effect Transistors

We report two banana-shaped organic semiconducting small molecules containing the relatively unexplored thieno[3,2- b]pyrrole with thiophene and furan flanked benzothiadiazole. Theoretical insights gained by DFT calculations, supported by single crystal structures show that furan flanked benzothiadiazole-thieno[3,2- b]pyrrole small molecule has a higher curvature compared to the thiophene flanked small molecule due to the shorter carbon-oxygen bond in furan. Despite similar optical and electrochemical properties, thiophene flanked small molecule shows average hole mobility up to 8 × 10^-2 cm² V^-1 s^-1, however furan flanked small molecule performs poorly in thin film transistor devices (μ_h ≈ 5 × 10^-6 cm² V^-1 s^-1). The drastic difference in hole mobilities was due to the annealing-induced crystallinity which was demonstrated by the out-of-plane grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and surface morphology studies by tapping mode atomic force microscopy analysis.

High-Mobility, Ultrathin Organic Semiconducting Films Realized by Surface-Mediated Crystallization

The functionality of common organic semiconductor materials is determined by their chemical structure and crystal modification. While the former can be fine-tuned via synthesis, a priori control over the crystal structure has remained elusive. We show that the surface tension is the main driver for the plate-like crystallization of a novel small organic molecule n-type semiconductor at the liquid-air interface. This interface provides an ideal environment for the growth of millimeter-sized semiconductor platelets that are only few nanometers thick and thus highly attractive for application in transistors. On the basis of the novel high-performance perylene diimide, we show in as-grown, only 3 nm thin crystals electron mobilities of above 4 cm²/(V s) and excellent bias stress stability. We suggest that the established systematics on solvent parameters can provide the basis of a general framework for a more deterministic crystallization of other small molecules.

Crystal structural analysis of methyl-substituted pyrazines with anilic acids: a combined diffraction, inelastic neutron scattering,1H-NMR study and theoretical approach

The molecular complexes of the pyrazine derivatives with anilic acids were analyzed in terms of the structure of molecules, the vibrational spectra, INS,¹HNMR and theoretical approach.

2D Organic Materials for Optoelectronic Applications

The remarkable merits of 2D materials with atomically thin structures and optoelectronic attributes have inspired great interest in integrating 2D materials into electronics and optoelectronics. Moreover, as an emerging field in the 2D-materials family, assembly of organic nanostructures into 2D forms offers the advantages of molecular diversity, intrinsic flexibility, ease of processing, light weight, and so on, providing an exciting prospect for optoelectronic applications. Herein, the applications of organic 2D materials for optoelectronic devices are a main focus. Material examples include 2D, organic, crystalline, small molecules, polymers, self-assembly monolayers, and covalent organic frameworks. The protocols for 2D-organic-crystal-fabrication and -patterning techniques are briefly discussed, then applications in optoelectronic devices are introduced in detail. Overall, an introduction to what is known and suggestions for the potential of many exciting developments are presented.

Organic semiconductor crystals

A comprehensive overview of organic semiconductor crystals is provided, including the physicochemical features, the control of crystallization and the device physics.

Direct Imaging of Superwetting Behavior on Solid-Liquid-Vapor Triphase Interfaces

A solid-liquid-vapor interface dominated by a three-phase contact line usually serves as an active area for interfacial reactions and provides a vital clue to surface behavior. Recently, direct imaging of the triphase interface of superwetting interfaces on the microscale/nanoscale has attracted broad scientific attention for both theoretical research and practical applications, and has gradually become an efficient and intuitive approach to explore the wetting behaviors of various multiphase interfaces. Here, recent progress on characterizing the solid-liquid-vapor triphase interface on the microscale/nanoscale with diverse types of imaging apparatus is summarized. Moreover, the accurate, visible, and quantitative information that can be obtained shows the real interfacial morphology of the wetting behaviors of multiphase interfaces. On the basis of fundamental research, technical innovations in imaging and complicated multiphase interfaces of the superwetting surface are also briefly presented.

Fully inkjet-printed two-dimensional material field-effect heterojunctions for wearable and textile electronics

Fully printed wearable electronics based on two-dimensional (2D) material heterojunction structures also known as heterostructures, such as field-effect transistors, require robust and reproducible printed multi-layer stacks consisting of active channel, dielectric and conductive contact layers. Solution processing of graphite and other layered materials provides low-cost inks enabling printed electronic devices, for example by inkjet printing. However, the limited quality of the 2D-material inks, the complexity of the layered arrangement, and the lack of a dielectric 2D-material ink able to operate at room temperature, under strain and after several washing cycles has impeded the fabrication of electronic devices on textile with fully printed 2D heterostructures. Here we demonstrate fully inkjet-printed 2D-material active heterostructures with graphene and hexagonal-boron nitride (h-BN) inks, and use them to fabricate all inkjet-printed flexible and washable field-effect transistors on textile, reaching a field-effect mobility of ~91 cm2 V-1 s-1, at low voltage (<5 V). This enables fully inkjet-printed electronic circuits, such as reprogrammable volatile memory cells, complementary inverters and OR logic gates.

Fully Packaged Carbon Nanotube Supercapacitors by Direct Ink Writing on Flexible Substrates

The ability to print fully packaged integrated energy storage components (e.g., supercapacitors) is of critical importance for practical applications of printed electronics. Due to the limited variety of printable materials, most studies on printed supercapacitors focus on printing the electrode materials but rarely the full-packaged cell. This work presents for the first time the printing of a fully packaged single-wall carbon nanotube-based supercapacitor with direct ink writing (DIW) technology. Enabled by the developed ink formula, DIW setup, and cell architecture, the whole printing process is mask free, transfer free, and alignment free with precise and repeatable control on the spatial distribution of all constituent materials. Studies on cell design show that a wider electrode pattern and narrower gap distance between electrodes lead to higher specific capacitance. The as-printed fully packaged supercapacitors have energy and power performances that are among the best in recently reported planar carbon-based supercapacitors that are only partially printed or nonprinted.

Spatially Uniform Thin-Film Formation of Polymeric Organic Semiconductors on Lyophobic Gate Insulator Surfaces by Self-Assisted Flow-Coating

Surface hydrophobization by self-assembled monolayer formation is a powerful technique for improving the performance of organic field-effect transistors (OFETs). However, organic thin-film formation on such a surface by solution processing often fails due to the repellent property of the surface against common organic solvents. Here, a scalable unidirectional coating technique that can solve this problem, named self-assisted flow-coating, is reported. Producing a specially designed lyophobic-lyophilic pattern on the lyophobic surface enables organic thin-film formation in the lyophobic surface areas by flow-coating. To demonstrate the usefulness of this technique, OFET arrays with an active layer of poly(2,5-bis(3-hexadecylthiophene-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene) are fabricated. The ideal transfer curves without hysteresis behavior are obtained for all OFETs. The average field-effect hole mobility in the saturation regime is 0.273 and 0.221 cm²·V^-1·s^-1 for the OFETs with the channels parallel and perpendicular to the flow-coating direction, respectively, and the device-to-device variation is less than 3% for each OFET set. Very small device-to-device variation is also obtained for the on-state current, threshold voltage, and subthreshold swing. These results indicate that the self-assisted flow-coating is a promising coating technique to form spatially uniform thin films of polymeric organic semiconductors on lyophobic gate insulator surfaces.

Heterogeneous Monolithic Integration of Single-Crystal Organic Materials

Manufacturing high-performance organic electronic circuits requires the effective heterogeneous integration of different nanoscale organic materials with uniform morphology and high crystallinity in a desired arrangement. In particular, the development of high-performance organic electronic and optoelectronic devices relies on high-quality single crystals that show optimal intrinsic charge-transport properties and electrical performance. Moreover, the heterogeneous integration of organic materials on a single substrate in a monolithic way is highly demanded for the production of fundamental organic electronic components as well as complex integrated circuits. Many of the various methods that have been designed to pattern multiple heterogeneous organic materials on a substrate and the heterogeneous integration of organic single crystals with their crystal growth are described here. Critical issues that have been encountered in the development of high-performance organic integrated electronics are also addressed.

Low electrical resistivity of a graphene–AgNHPs based ink with a new processing method

AgNHPs was purified with membrane separation-centrifugation cleaning and syntheses the GE–AgNHPs with the low resistivity (2.5 × 10⁻⁶ Ω cm) at low temperatures.

Spray printing of organic semiconducting single crystals

Single-crystal semiconductors have been at the forefront of scientific interest for more than 70 years, serving as the backbone of electronic devices. Inorganic single crystals are typically grown from a melt using time-consuming and energy-intensive processes. Organic semiconductor single crystals, however, can be grown using solution-based methods at room temperature in air, opening up the possibility of large-scale production of inexpensive electronics targeting applications ranging from field-effect transistors and light-emitting diodes to medical X-ray detectors. Here we demonstrate a low-cost, scalable spray-printing process to fabricate high-quality organic single crystals, based on various semiconducting small molecules on virtually any substrate by combining the advantages of antisolvent crystallization and solution shearing. The crystals' size, shape and orientation are controlled by the sheer force generated by the spray droplets' impact onto the antisolvent's surface. This method demonstrates the feasibility of a spray-on single-crystal organic electronics.

Additive manufacturing of micrometric crystallization vessels and single crystals

We present an all-additive manufacturing method that is performed at mild conditions, for the formation of organic single crystals at specific locations, without any photolithography prefabrication process. The method is composed of two steps; inkjet printing of a confinement frame, composed of a water soluble electrolyte. Then, an organic semiconductor solution is printed within the confinement to form a nucleus at a specific location, followed by additional printing, which led to the growth of a single crystal. The specific geometry of the confinement enables control of the specific locations of the single crystals, while separating the nucleation and crystal growth processes. By this method, we printed single crystals of perylene, which are suitable for the formation of OFETs. Moreover, since this method is based on a simple and controllable wet deposition process, it enables formation of arrays of single crystals at specific locations, which is a prerequisite for mass production of active organic elements on flexible substrates.

Graphene-Ag nanohexagonal platelets-based ink with high electrical properties at low sintering temperatures

Printed-electronics inks belong to a class of novel functional conductive inks that can be used to form high-precision conducting lines or circuits on various flexible substrates. Previous studies have reported conductive inks produced by the reduction and membrane separation method for use in flexible devices. However, it remains a challenge to synthesize conductive inks with high electrical properties at low sintering temperatures, which restricts their range of applications. Herein, we prepare inkjet-printed patterns of conductive inks consisting of Ag nanohexagonal platelets (AgNHPs) as the main component and containing graphene (GE) in different contents. It is found that GE improves the electrical conductivity of the patterns when sintering is done at relatively low temperatures. For instance, when the GE content is 0.15 mg ml(-1), the resistivity is the lowest. When sintering is done at 150 °C, the resistivity (2.7 × 10(-6) Ω · cm) of the GE-AgNHPs conductive ink (GE: 0.15 mg ml(-1)) is 14% of that of the AgNHPs conductive ink; on the other hand, after sintering at 50 °C, this ratio is 2%. It is also found that, with the increase in GE content, the resistivity of the GE-AgNHPs conductive ink increases. This study on GE-AgNHPs conductive inks sintered at low temperatures should further the development of flexible touch screens.

Dense Assembly of Soluble Acene Crystal Ribbons and Its Application to Organic Transistors

The preparation of uniform large-area highly crystalline organic semiconductor single crystals remains a challenge in the field of organic field-effect transistors (OFETs). Crystal densities in the channel regions of OFETs have not yet reached sufficiently high values to provide efficient charge transport, and improving channel crystal densities remains an important research area. Herein we fabricated densely well-aligned single crystal arrays of the 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TIPS_PEN) semiconductor using a straightforward scooping-up (SU) methodology to quickly produce a large-area self-assembled semiconductor crystal layer. The resulting crystalline TIPS_PEN strip arrays obtained using the SU method revealed a packing density that was 2.76 times the value obtained from the dip-coated channel, and the mean interspatial distance between the crystal strips decreased from 21.5 to 7.8 μm. The higher crystal packing density provided efficient charge transport in the FET devices and directly yielded field-effect mobilities as high as 2.16 cm(2)/(V s). These field-effect mobilities were more than three times the values obtained from the OFETs prepared using dip-coated channels. Furthermore, the contact resistance between the source/drain electrodes and the TIPS_PEN crystals decreased by a factor of 2. These contributions represent a significant step forward in improving semiconductor crystal alignment for the fabrication of large-area high-performance organic electronics.

2D-Crystal-Based Functional Inks

The possibility to produce and process graphene, related 2D crystals, and heterostructures in the liquid phase makes them promising materials for an ever-growing class of applications as composite materials, sensors, in flexible optoelectronics, and energy storage and conversion. In particular, the ability to formulate functional inks with on-demand rheological and morphological properties, i.e., lateral size and thickness of the dispersed 2D crystals, is a step forward toward the development of industrial-scale, reliable, inexpensive printing/coating processes, a boost for the full exploitation of such nanomaterials. Here, the exfoliation strategies of graphite and other layered crystals are reviewed, along with the advances in the sorting of lateral size and thickness of the exfoliated sheets together with the formulation of functional inks and the current development of printing/coating processes of interest for the realization of 2D-crystal-based devices.

A Dewetting-Induced Assembly Strategy for Precisely Patterning Organic Single Crystals in OFETs

Simple methods for patterning single crystals are critical to fully realize their applications in electronics. However, traditional vapor and solution methods are deficient in terms of crystals with random spatial and quality distributions. In this work, we report a dewetting-induced assembly strategy for obtaining large-scale and highly oriented organic crystal arrays. We also demonstrate that organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) fabricated from patterned n-alkyl-substituted tetrachloroperylene diimide (R-4ClPDI) single crystals can reach a maximum mobility of 0.65 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) for C8-4ClPDI in ambient conditions. This technique constitutes a facile method for fabricating OFETs with high performances for large-scale electronics applications.

Sliding three-phase contact line of printed droplets for single-crystal arrays

Controlling the behaviours of printed droplets is an essential requirement for inkjet printing of delicate three-dimensional (3D) structures or high-resolution patterns. In this work, molecular deposition and crystallization are regulated by manipulating the three-phase contact line (TCL) behaviour of the printed droplets. The results show that oriented single-crystal arrays are fabricated based on the continuously sliding TCL. Owing to the sliding of the TCL on the substrate, the outward capillary flow within the evaporating droplet is suppressed and the molecules are brought to the centre of the droplet, resulting in the formation of a single crystal. This work provides a facile strategy for controlling the structures of printed units by manipulating the TCL of printed droplets, which is significant for realizing high-resolution patterns and delicate 3D structures.

Solution-Processed Vertically Stacked Complementary Organic Circuits with Inkjet-Printed Routing

The fabrication and measurements of solution-processed vertically stacked complementary organic field-effect transistors (FETs) with a high static noise margin (SNM) are reported. In the device structure, a bottom-gate p-type organic FET (PFET) is vertically integrated on a top-gate n-type organic FET (NFET) with the gate shared in-between. A new strategy has been proposed to maximize the SNM by matching the driving strengths of the PFET and the NFET by independently adjusting the dielectric capacitance of each type of transistor. Using ideally balanced inverters with the transistor-on-transistor structure, the first examples of universal logic gates by inkjet-printed routing are demonstrated. It is believed that this work can be extended to large-scale complementary integrated circuits with a high transistor density, simpler routing path, and high yield.

Alignment and Patterning of Ordered Small-Molecule Organic Semiconductor Micro-/Nanocrystals for Device Applications

Large-area alignment and patterning of small-molecule organic semiconductor micro-/nanocrystals (SMOSNs) at desired locations is a prerequisite for their practical device applications. Recent strategies for alignment and patterning of ordered SMOSNs and their corresponding device applications are highlighted.

3D Dewetting for Crystal Patterning: Toward Regular Single-Crystalline Belt Arrays and Their Functionality

Arrays of unidirectional dewetting behaviors can be generated by using 3D-wettability-difference micropillars, yielding highly ordered organic single-crystalline belt arrays. These patterned organic belts show an improved mobility record and can be used as flexible pressure sensors with high sensitivity.

Toward Low-Voltage and Bendable X-Ray Direct Detectors Based on Organic Semiconducting Single Crystals

Organic materials have been mainly proposed as ionizing radiation detectors in the indirect conversion approach. The first thin and bendable X-ray direct detectors are realized (directly converting X-photons into an electric signal) based on organic semiconducting single crystals that possess enhanced sensitivity, low operating voltage (≈5 V), and a minimum detectable dose rate of 50 μGy s(-1) .

Low-Temperature Solution-Processed Gate Dielectrics for High-Performance Organic Thin Film Transistors

A low-temperature solution-processed high-k gate dielectric layer for use in a high-performance solution-processed semiconducting polymer organic thin-film transistor (OTFT) was demonstrated. Photochemical activation of sol-gel-derived AlO_x films under 150 °C permitted the formation of a dense film with low leakage and relatively high dielectric-permittivity characteristics, which are almost comparable to the results yielded by the conventionally used vacuum deposition and high temperature annealing method. Octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA) self-assembled monolayer (SAM) treatment of the AlO_x was employed in order to realize high-performance (>0.4 cm²/Vs saturation mobility) and low-operation-voltage (<5 V) diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP)-based OTFTs on an ultra-thin polyimide film (3-μm thick). Thus, low-temperature photochemically-annealed solution-processed AlO_x film with SAM layer is an attractive candidate as a dielectric-layer for use in high-performance organic TFTs operated at low voltages.

Controllable fabrication of copper phthalocyanine nanostructure crystals

Copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) nanostructure crystals, including nanoflower, nanoribbon, and nanowire, were controllably fabricated by temperature gradient physical vapor deposition (TG-PVD) through controlling the growth parameters. In a controllable growth system with carrier gas N2, nanoflower, nanoribbon, and nanowire crystals were formed in a high-temperature zone, medium-temperature zone, and low-temperature zone, respectively. They were proved to be β-phase, coexist of α-phase and β-phase, and α-phase respectively based on x-ray diffraction results. Furthermore, ultralong CuPc nanowires up to several millimeters could be fabricated by TG-PVD without carrier gas, and they were well-aligned to form large-area CuPc nanowire crystal arrays by the Langmuir-Blodgett method. The nanostructure crystals showed unusual optical absorption spectra from the ultraviolet-visible to near-infrared range, which was explained by the diffraction and scattering caused by the wavelength-sized nanostructures. These CuPc nanostructure crystals show potential applications in organic electronic and optoelectronic devices.

Large-area formation of self-aligned crystalline domains of organic semiconductors on transistor channels using CONNECT

The electronic properties of solution-processable small-molecule organic semiconductors (OSCs) have rapidly improved in recent years, rendering them highly promising for various low-cost large-area electronic applications. However, practical applications of organic electronics require patterned and precisely registered OSC films within the transistor channel region with uniform electrical properties over a large area, a task that remains a significant challenge. Here, we present a technique termed "controlled OSC nucleation and extension for circuits" (CONNECT), which uses differential surface energy and solution shearing to simultaneously generate patterned and precisely registered OSC thin films within the channel region and with aligned crystalline domains, resulting in low device-to-device variability. We have fabricated transistor density as high as 840 dpi, with a yield of 99%. We have successfully built various logic gates and a 2-bit half-adder circuit, demonstrating the practical applicability of our technique for large-scale circuit fabrication.