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Junges LH, Müller-Santos M. Exploring the biocatalysis of psilocybin and other tryptamines: Enzymatic pathways, synthetic strategies, and industrial implications. Biotechnol Prog 2024:e3513. [PMID: 39366919 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2024] [Revised: 09/17/2024] [Accepted: 09/24/2024] [Indexed: 10/06/2024]
Abstract
Tryptamines play diverse roles as neurotransmitters and psychoactive compounds found in various organisms. Psilocybin, a notable tryptamine, has garnered attention for its therapeutic potential in treating mental health disorders like depression and anxiety. Despite its promising applications, current extraction methods for psilocybin are labor-intensive and economically limiting. We suggest biocatalysis as a sustainable alternative, leveraging enzymes to synthesize psilocybin and other tryptamines efficiently. By elucidating psilocybin biosynthesis pathways, researchers aim to advance synthetic methodologies and industrial applications. This review underscores the transformative potential of biocatalysis in enhancing our understanding of tryptamine biosynthesis and facilitating the production of high-purity psilocybin and other tryptamines for therapeutic and research use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Henrique Junges
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Müller-Santos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil
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2
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Rakoczy RJ, Runge GN, Sen AK, Sandoval O, Wells HG, Nguyen Q, Roberts BR, Sciortino JH, Gibbons WJ, Friedberg LM, Jones JA, McMurray MS. Pharmacological and behavioural effects of tryptamines present in psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Br J Pharmacol 2024; 181:3627-3641. [PMID: 38825326 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Demand for new antidepressants has resulted in a re-evaluation of the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drugs. Several tryptamines found in psilocybin-containing "magic" mushrooms share chemical similarities with psilocybin. Early work suggests they may share biological targets. However, few studies have explored their pharmacological and behavioural effects. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We compared baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin with psilocybin to determine if they are metabolized by the same enzymes, similarly penetrate the blood-brain barrier, serve as ligands for similar receptors and modulate behaviour in rodents similarly. We also assessed the stability and optimal storage and handling conditions for each compound. KEY RESULTS In vitro enzyme kinetics assays found that all compounds had nearly identical rates of dephosphorylation via alkaline phosphatase and metabolism by monoamine oxidase. Further, we found that only the dephosphorylated products of baeocystin and norbaeocystin crossed a blood-brain barrier mimetic to a similar degree as the dephosphorylated form of psilocybin, psilocin. The dephosphorylated form of norbaeocystin was found to activate the 5-HT2A receptor with similar efficacy to psilocin and norpsilocin in in vitro cell imaging assays. Behaviourally, only psilocybin induced head twitch responses in rats, a marker of 5-HT2A-mediated psychedelic effects and hallucinogenic potential. However, like psilocybin, norbaeocystin improved outcomes in the forced swim test. All compounds caused minimal changes to metrics of renal and hepatic health, suggesting innocuous safety profiles. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Collectively, this work suggests that other naturally occurring tryptamines, especially norbaeocystin, may share overlapping therapeutic potential with psilocybin, but without causing hallucinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J Rakoczy
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Grace N Runge
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Abhishek K Sen
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Oscar Sandoval
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Hunter G Wells
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Quynh Nguyen
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Jon H Sciortino
- Department of Psychology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - William J Gibbons
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Lucas M Friedberg
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - J Andrew Jones
- Department of Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
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3
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Cao L, Zhang J, Chen J, Li M, Chen H, Wang C, Gong C. Tryptophan production by catalysis of a putative tryptophan synthase protein. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:390. [PMID: 39222088 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-024-04123-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2024] [Revised: 08/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Essential amino acid, tryptophan which intake from food plays a critical role in numerous metabolic functions, exhibiting extensive biological functions and applications. Tryptophan is beneficial for the food sector by enhancing nutritional content and promoting the development of functional foods. A putative gene encoding tryptophan synthase was the first identified in Sphingobacterium soilsilvae Em02, a cellulosic bacterium making it inherently more environmentally friendly. The gene was cloned and expressed in exogenous host Escherichia coli, to elucidate its function. The recombinant tryptophan synthase with a molecular weight 42 KDa was expressed in soluble component. The enzymatic activity to tryptophan synthase in vivo was assessed using indole and L-serine and purified tryptophan synthase. The optimum enzymatic activity for tryptophan synthase was recorded at 50 ºC and pH 7.0, which was improved in the presence of metal ions Mg2+, Sr2+ and Mn2+, whereas Cu2+, Zn2+ and Co2+ proved to be inhibitory. Using site-directed mutagenesis, the consensus pattern HK-S-[GGGSN]-E-S in the tryptophan synthase was demonstrated with K100Q, S202A, G246A, E361A and S385A as the active sites. Tryptophan synthase has been demonstrated to possess the defining characteristics of the β-subunits. The tryptophan synthase may eventually be useful for tryptophan production on a larger scale. Its diverse applications highlight the potential for improving both the quality and health benefits of food products, making it an essential component in advancing food science and technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Cao
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), National "111", Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, PR China
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), National "111", Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, PR China
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Jia Chen
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), National "111", Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, PR China
| | - Mei Li
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), National "111", Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, PR China
| | - Hao Chen
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), National "111", Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, PR China
| | - Chongju Wang
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), National "111", Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, PR China
| | - Chunjie Gong
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), National "111", Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, 430068, PR China.
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Seibold PS, Dörner S, Fricke J, Schäfer T, Beemelmanns C, Hoffmeister D. Genetic regulation of L-tryptophan metabolism in Psilocybe mexicana supports psilocybin biosynthesis. Fungal Biol Biotechnol 2024; 11:4. [PMID: 38664850 PMCID: PMC11046786 DOI: 10.1186/s40694-024-00173-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although Basidiomycota produce pharmaceutically and ecologically relevant natural products, knowledge of how they coordinate their primary and secondary metabolism is virtually non-existent. Upon transition from vegetative mycelium to carpophore formation, mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe use L-tryptophan to supply the biosynthesis of the psychedelic tryptamine alkaloid psilocybin with the scaffold, leading to a strongly increased demand for this particular amino acid as this alkaloid may account for up to 2% of the dry mass. Using Psilocybe mexicana as our model and relying on genetic, transcriptomic, and biochemical methods, this study investigated if L-tryptophan biosynthesis and degradation in P. mexicana correlate with natural product formation. RESULTS A comparative transcriptomic approach of gene expression in P. mexicana psilocybin non-producing vegetative mycelium versus producing carpophores identified the upregulation of L-tryptophan biosynthesis genes. The shikimate pathway genes trpE1, trpD, and trpB (encoding anthranilate synthase, anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase, and L-tryptophan synthase, respectively) were upregulated in carpophores. In contrast, genes idoA and iasA, encoding indole-2,3-dioxygenase and indole-3-acetaldehyde synthase, i.e., gateway enzymes for L-tryptophan-consuming pathways, were massively downregulated. Subsequently, IasA was heterologously produced in Escherichia coli and biochemically characterized in vitro. This enzyme represents the first characterized microbial L-tryptophan-preferring acetaldehyde synthase. A comparison of transcriptomic data collected in this study with prior data of Psilocybe cubensis showed species-specific differences in how L-tryptophan metabolism genes are regulated, despite the close taxonomic relationship. CONCLUSIONS The upregulated L-tryptophan biosynthesis genes and, oppositely, the concomitant downregulated genes encoding L-tryptophan-consuming enzymes reflect a well-adjusted cellular system to route this amino acid toward psilocybin production. Our study has pilot character beyond the genus Psilocybe and provides, for the first time, insight in the coordination of mushroom primary and secondary metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Sophie Seibold
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Janis Fricke
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Chemical Biology of Microbe-Host Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Tim Schäfer
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Christine Beemelmanns
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Chemical Biology of Microbe-Host Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
- Saarland University, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany.
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany.
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5
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Hudspeth J, Rogge K, Dörner S, Müll M, Hoffmeister D, Rupp B, Werten S. Methyl transfer in psilocybin biosynthesis. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2709. [PMID: 38548735 PMCID: PMC10978996 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46997-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Psilocybin, the natural hallucinogen produced by Psilocybe ("magic") mushrooms, holds great promise for the treatment of depression and several other mental health conditions. The final step in the psilocybin biosynthetic pathway, dimethylation of the tryptophan-derived intermediate norbaeocystin, is catalysed by PsiM. Here we present atomic resolution (0.9 Å) crystal structures of PsiM trapped at various stages of its reaction cycle, providing detailed insight into the SAM-dependent methylation mechanism. Structural and phylogenetic analyses suggest that PsiM derives from epitranscriptomic N6-methyladenosine writers of the METTL16 family, which is further supported by the observation that bound substrates physicochemically mimic RNA. Inherent limitations of the ancestral monomethyltransferase scaffold hamper the efficiency of psilocybin assembly and leave PsiM incapable of catalysing trimethylation to aeruginascin. The results of our study will support bioengineering efforts aiming to create novel variants of psilocybin with improved therapeutic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Hudspeth
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Kai Rogge
- Institute of Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Research Group Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Institute of Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Research Group Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Maximilian Müll
- Research Group Biosynthetic Design of Natural Products, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Institute of Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Research Group Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Rupp
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- k.-k. Hofkristallamt, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Sebastiaan Werten
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
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6
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Shah FI, Shehzadi S, Akram F, Haq IU, Javed B, Sabir S, Kazim Y, Ashfaq S. Unveiling the Psychedelic Journey: An Appraisal of Psilocybin as a Profound Antidepressant Therapy. Mol Biotechnol 2023:10.1007/s12033-023-00994-7. [PMID: 38117395 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-023-00994-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Depression, a global health concern with significant implications for suicide rates, remains challenging to treat effectively with conventional pharmacological options. The existing pharmaceutical interventions for these illnesses need daily dosing, are accompanied by various adverse effects, and may exhibit limited efficacy in certain cases. However, hope emerges from an unlikely source-Psilocybin, a natural hallucinogen found in certain mushrooms. Recently, this enigmatic compound has garnered attention for its potential therapeutic benefits in addressing various mental health issues, including depression. Psilocybin alters mood, cognition, and perception by acting on a particular subtype of serotonin receptors in the brain. It's feasible that these shifts in consciousness will promote healing development, offering a novel approach to depression management. This comprehensive review explores psilocybin, derived from specific mushrooms, and its implications in the treatment of depression. The study examines new perspectives and therapeutic possibilities surrounding psilocybin, addressing existing gaps in academic literature. It delves into its biosynthesis, unique mechanisms of action, therapeutic applications, and anti-depressive effects. By uncovering the potential of this mind-altering substance, the review aims to advance psychiatric care, offering hope to those globally affected by depression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Fatima Akram
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College University, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Ikram Ul Haq
- Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College University, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
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7
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Serreau R, Amirouche A, Benyamina A, Berteina-Raboin S. A Review of Synthetic Access to Therapeutic Compounds Extracted from Psilocybe. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 16:ph16010040. [PMID: 36678537 PMCID: PMC9867295 DOI: 10.3390/ph16010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychedelics are used for various pathologies of the central nervous system and are currently the subject of much research, some of which relates to the compounds contained in various Psilocybe-type hallucinogenic mushrooms. It is difficult, however, to obtain and purify sufficient quantities of these compounds from fungi to carry out biological studies, hence the need to develop simple and efficient synthetic routes. We review here the various syntheses used to obtain these molecules, focusing first on the classic historical syntheses, then the use of more recent metallo-catalyzed couplings and finally the known biocatalytic methods for obtaining these molecules. Other access routes are certainly possible and should be the subject of future research given the therapeutic interest of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Serreau
- Unité de Recherche PSYCOMADD, APHP Université Paris Saclay, Hôpital Paul-Brousse, 12 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94804 Villejuif, France
- Addictologie EPSM Georges DAUMEZON, GHT Loiret, 1 Route de Chanteau, 45400 Fleury les Aubrais, France
| | - Ammar Amirouche
- Unité de Recherche PSYCOMADD-Psychiatrie Comorbidités Addictions, APHP Université Paris Saclay, Hôpital Paul-Brousse, 12 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94804 Villejuif, France
| | - Amine Benyamina
- Unité de Recherche PSYCOMADD-Psychiatrie Comorbidités Addictions, APHP Université Paris Saclay, Hôpital Paul-Brousse, 12 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94804 Villejuif, France
| | - Sabine Berteina-Raboin
- Institut de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA), Université d’Orléans, UMR-CNRS 7311, BP 6759, Rue de Chartres, CEDEX 2, 45067 Orléans, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-238-494-856
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8
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Schäfer T, Kramer K, Werten S, Rupp B, Hoffmeister D. Characterization of the Gateway Decarboxylase for Psilocybin Biosynthesis. Chembiochem 2022; 23:e202200551. [PMID: 36327140 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202200551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The l-tryptophan decarboxylase PsiD catalyzes the initial step of the metabolic cascade to psilocybin, the major indoleethylamine natural product of the "magic" mushrooms and a candidate drug against major depressive disorder. Unlike numerous pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)-dependent decarboxylases for natural product biosyntheses, PsiD is PLP-independent and resembles type II phosphatidylserine decarboxylases. Here, we report on the in vitro biochemical characterization of Psilocybe cubensis PsiD along with in silico modeling of the PsiD structure. A non-canonical serine protease triad for autocatalytic cleavage of the pro-protein was predicted and experimentally verified by site-directed mutagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Schäfer
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Kristina Kramer
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastiaan Werten
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Schöpfstrasse 41, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bernhard Rupp
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Schöpfstrasse 41, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.,k.-k. Hofkristallamt, 991 Audrey Place, Vista, CA, 92084, USA
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
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9
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Yao S, Wei C, Lin H, Zhang P, Liu Y, Deng Y, Huang Q, Xie B. Cystathionine Gamma-Lyase Regulate Psilocybin Biosynthesis in Gymnopilus dilepis Mushroom via Amino Acid Metabolism Pathways. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:870. [PMID: 36012858 PMCID: PMC9410116 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
As a potential medicine for the treatment of depression, psilocybin has gradually attracted attention. To elucidate the molecular mechanism regulating psilocybin synthesis in Gymnopilus dilepis, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) was used to detect the changes in psilocybin content after S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine (SAH) treatment and the changes of psilocybin content in different parts (stipe and pileus), and RNA-Seq was used to explore the mechanism of psilocybin content changes. In this study, the psilocybin content in G. dilepis mycelia treated with SAH was significantly lower than that in the control group, and the content of psilocybin in the stipe was significantly higher than that in the pileus. Transcriptome analysis revealed that differential expression genes (DEGs) were associated with cysteine and methionine metabolism. In particular, the transcription levels of genes encoding Cystathionine gamma-lyase (CTH) in different treatments and different parts were positively correlated with psilocybin content. In addition, we found that the exogenous addition of CTH activity inhibitor (DL-propargylglycine, PAG) could reduce the content of psilocybin and L-serine, and the content of psilocybin and L-serine returned to normal levels after L-cysteine supplementation, suggesting that psilocybin synthesis may be positively correlated with L-cysteine or CTH, and L-cysteine regulates the synthesis of psilocybin by affecting L-serine and 4-hydroxy-L-tryptophan. In conclusion, this study revealed a new molecular mechanism that affects psilocybin biosynthesis, which can provide a theoretical basis for improving psilocybin synthesis and the possibility for the development of biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Yao
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Chuanzheng Wei
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Hui Lin
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Yuanyuan Liu
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Youjin Deng
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Qianhui Huang
- College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China
| | - Baogui Xie
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
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10
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Dörner S, Rogge K, Fricke J, Schäfer T, Wurlitzer JM, Gressler M, Pham DNK, Manke DR, Chadeayne AR, Hoffmeister D. Genetic Survey of Psilocybe Natural Products. Chembiochem 2022; 23:e202200249. [PMID: 35583969 PMCID: PMC9400892 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202200249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybe magic mushrooms are best known for their main natural product, psilocybin, and its dephosphorylated congener, the psychedelic metabolite psilocin. Beyond tryptamines, the secondary metabolome of these fungi is poorly understood. The genomes of five species (P. azurescens, P. cubensis, P. cyanescens, P. mexicana, and P. serbica) were browsed to understand more profoundly common and species-specific metabolic capacities. The genomic analyses revealed a much greater and yet unexplored metabolic diversity than evident from parallel chemical analyses. P. cyanescens and P. mexicana were identified as aeruginascin producers. Lumichrome and verpacamide A were also detected as Psilocybe metabolites. The observations concerning the potential secondary metabolome of this fungal genus support pharmacological and toxicological efforts to find a rational basis for yet elusive phenomena, such as paralytic effects, attributed to consumption of some magic mushrooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Dörner
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Kai Rogge
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Janis Fricke
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Tim Schäfer
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Jacob M. Wurlitzer
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Markus Gressler
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Duyen N. K. Pham
- Department of Chemistry & BiochemistryUniversity of Massachusetts285 Old Westport RoadDartmouthMA02747USA
| | - David R. Manke
- Department of Chemistry & BiochemistryUniversity of Massachusetts285 Old Westport RoadDartmouthMA02747USA
| | | | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
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11
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Polo-Castellano C, Álvarez JÁ, Palma M, Barbero GF, Ayuso J, Ferreiro-González M. Optimization through a Box-Behnken Experimental Design of the Microwave-Assisted Extraction of the Psychoactive Compounds in Hallucinogenic Fungi ( Psylocibe cubensis). J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:598. [PMID: 35736081 PMCID: PMC9225378 DOI: 10.3390/jof8060598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hallucinogenic fungi, mainly those from the Psilocybe genus, are being increasingly consumed even though there is no control on their culture conditions. Due to the therapeutic potential as antidepressants and anxiolytics of the alkaloids that they produce (psilocin and psilocybin), some form of control on their production would be highly recommended. Prior to identifying their optimal culture condition, a methodology that allows their study is required. Microwave-assisted extraction method (MAE) is a technique that has proven its efficiency to extract different compounds from solid matrices. For this reason, this study intends to optimize a MAE method to extract the alkaloids found in Psylocibe cubensis. A surface-response Box-Behnken design has been employed to optimize such extraction method and significantly reduce time and other resources in the extraction process. Based on the Box-Behnken design, 50 °C temperature, 60% methanol as extraction solvent, 0.6 g:10 mL sample mass:solvent ratio and 5 min extraction time, were established as optimal conditions. These mild conditions, combined with a rapid and efficient UHPLC analysis result in a practical and economical methodology for the extraction of psilocin and psilocybin from Psylocibe cubensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Curro Polo-Castellano
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), IVAGRO, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (C.P.-C.); (M.P.)
| | - José Á. Álvarez
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, INBIO, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (J.Á.Á.); (J.A.); (M.F.-G.)
| | - Miguel Palma
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), IVAGRO, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (C.P.-C.); (M.P.)
| | - Gerardo F. Barbero
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), IVAGRO, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (C.P.-C.); (M.P.)
| | - Jesús Ayuso
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, INBIO, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (J.Á.Á.); (J.A.); (M.F.-G.)
| | - Marta Ferreiro-González
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, INBIO, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (J.Á.Á.); (J.A.); (M.F.-G.)
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12
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Della-Felice F, de Andrade Bartolomeu A, Pilli RA. The phosphate ester group in secondary metabolites. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:1066-1107. [PMID: 35420073 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00078k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2000 to mid-2021The phosphate ester is a versatile, widespread functional group involved in a plethora of biological activities. Its presence in secondary metabolites, however, is relatively rare compared to other functionalities and thus is part of a rather unexplored chemical space. Herein, the chemistry of secondary metabolites containing the phosphate ester group is discussed. The text emphasizes their structural diversity, biological and pharmacological profiles, and synthetic approaches employed in the phosphorylation step during total synthesis campaigns, covering the literature from 2000 to mid-2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franco Della-Felice
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil.,Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Av. Països Catalans 16, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.
| | | | - Ronaldo Aloise Pilli
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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13
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Van Court R, Wiseman M, Meyer K, Ballhorn D, Amses K, Slot J, Dentinger B, Garibay-Orijel R, Uehling J. Diversity, biology, and history of psilocybin-containing fungi: Suggestions for research and technological development. Fungal Biol 2022; 126:308-319. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2022.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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14
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Lenz C, Dörner S, Sherwood A, Hoffmeister D. Structure Elucidation and Spectroscopic Analysis of Chromophores Produced by Oxidative Psilocin Dimerization. Chemistry 2021; 27:12166-12171. [PMID: 34062028 PMCID: PMC8457229 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202101382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Psilocin (1) is the dephosphorylated and psychotropic metabolite of the mushroom natural product psilocybin. Oxidation of the phenolic hydroxy group at the C-4 position of 1 results in formation of oligomeric indoloquinoid chromophores responsible for the iconic blueing of bruised psilocybin-producing mushrooms. Based on previous NMR experiments, the hypothesis included that the 5,5'-coupled quinone dimer of 1 was the primary product responsible for the blue color. To test this hypothesis, ring-methylated 1 derivatives were synthesized to provide stable analogs of 1 dimers that could be completely characterized. The chemically oxidized derivatives were spectroscopically analyzed and compared to computationally derived absorbance spectra. Experimental evidence did not support the original hypothesis. Rather, the blue color was shown to stem from the quinoid 7,7'-coupled dimer of 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudius Lenz
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | | | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
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15
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McKernan K, Kane LT, Crawford S, Chin CS, Trippe A, McLaughlin S. A draft reference assembly of the Psilocybe cubensis genome. F1000Res 2021; 10:281. [PMID: 34322225 PMCID: PMC8220353 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.51613.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe the use of high-fidelity single molecule sequencing to assemble the genome of the psychoactive
Psilocybe cubensis mushroom. The genome is 46.6Mb, 46% GC, and in 32 contigs with an N50 of 3.3Mb. The BUSCO completeness scores are 97.6% with 1.2% duplicates. The Psilocybin synthesis cluster exists in a single 3.2Mb contig. The dataset is available from NCBI BioProject with accessions
PRJNA687911 and
PRJNA700437.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liam T Kane
- R&D, Medicinal Genomics, Beverly, Mass, 01915, USA
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16
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Fricke J, Sherwood AM, Halberstadt AL, Kargbo RB, Hoffmeister D. Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of 5-Methylpsilocybin: A Tryptamine with Potential Psychedelic Activity. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2021; 84:1403-1408. [PMID: 33667102 PMCID: PMC9191645 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
A novel analogue of psilocybin was produced by hybrid chemoenzymatic synthesis in sufficient quantity to enable bioassay. Utilizing purified 4-hydroxytryptamine kinase from Psilocybe cubensis, chemically synthesized 5-methylpsilocin (2) was enzymatically phosphorylated to provide 5-methylpsilocybin (1). The zwitterionic product was isolated from the enzymatic step with high purity utilizing a solvent-antisolvent precipitation approach. Subsequently, 1 was tested for psychedelic-like activity using the mouse head-twitch response assay, which indicated activity that was more potent than the psychedelic dimethyltryptamine, but less potent than that of psilocybin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janis Fricke
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | | | - Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0804, United States
- Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California 92161, United States
| | | | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany
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17
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Watkins-Dulaney E, Straathof S, Arnold F. Tryptophan Synthase: Biocatalyst Extraordinaire. Chembiochem 2021; 22:5-16. [PMID: 32677310 PMCID: PMC7935429 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Tryptophan synthase (TrpS) has emerged as a paragon of noncanonical amino acid (ncAA) synthesis and is an ideal biocatalyst for synthetic and biological applications. TrpS catalyzes an irreversible, C-C bond-forming reaction between indole and serine to make l-tryptophan; native TrpS complexes possess fairly broad specificity for indole analogues, but are difficult to engineer to extend substrate scope or to confer other useful properties due to allosteric constraints and their heterodimeric structure. Directed evolution freed the catalytically relevant TrpS β-subunit (TrpB) from allosteric regulation by its TrpA partner and has enabled dramatic expansion of the enzyme's substrate scope. This review examines the long and storied career of TrpS from the perspective of its application in ncAA synthesis and biocatalytic cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella Watkins-Dulaney
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, MC 210-41, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Sabine Straathof
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, MC 210-41, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Frances Arnold
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, MC 210-41, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, MC 210-41, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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18
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Gressler M, Löhr NA, Schäfer T, Lawrinowitz S, Seibold PS, Hoffmeister D. Mind the mushroom: natural product biosynthetic genes and enzymes of Basidiomycota. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 38:702-722. [PMID: 33404035 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00077a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Covering: up to September 2020 Mushroom-forming fungi of the division Basidiomycota have traditionally been recognised as prolific producers of structurally diverse and often bioactive secondary metabolites, using the methods of chemistry for research. Over the past decade, -omics technologies were applied on these fungi, and sophisticated heterologous gene expression platforms emerged, which have boosted research into the genetic and biochemical basis of the biosyntheses. This review provides an overview on experimentally confirmed natural product biosyntheses of basidiomycete polyketides, amino acid-derived products, terpenoids, and volatiles. We also present challenges and solutions particular to natural product research with these fungi. 222 references are cited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Gressler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Nikolai A Löhr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Tim Schäfer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Stefanie Lawrinowitz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Paula Sophie Seibold
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany.
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19
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Lenz C, Sherwood A, Kargbo R, Hoffmeister D. Taking Different Roads: l-Tryptophan as the Origin of Psilocybe Natural Products. Chempluschem 2020; 86:28-35. [PMID: 33237633 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202000581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Psychotropic fungi of the genus Psilocybe, colloquially referred to as "magic mushrooms", are best known for their l-tryptophan-derived major natural product, psilocybin. Yet, recent research has revealed a more diverse secondary metabolism that originates from this amino acid. In this minireview, the focus is laid on l-tryptophan and the various Psilocybe natural products and their metabolic routes are highlighted. Psilocybin and its congeners, the heterogeneous blue-colored psilocyl oligomers, alongside β-carbolines and N,N-dimethyl-l-tryptophan, are presented as well as current knowledge on their biosynthesis is provided. The multidisciplinary character of natural product research is demonstrated, and pharmacological, medicinal, ecological, biochemical, and evolutionary aspects are included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudius Lenz
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Robert Kargbo
- The Usona Institute, 2800 Woods Hollow Road, Madison, 53711, WI, USA
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
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20
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Gotvaldová K, Hájková K, Borovička J, Jurok R, Cihlářová P, Kuchař M. Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:439-446. [PMID: 33119971 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin are tryptamines structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Psilocybin and its pharmacologically active metabolite psilocin in particular are known for their psychoactive effects. These substances typically occur in most species of the genus Psilocybe (Fungi, Strophariaceae). Even the sclerotia of some of these fungi known as "magic truffles" are of growing interest in microdosing due to them improving cognitive function studies. In addition to microdosing studies, psilocybin has also been applied in clinical studies, but only its pure form has been administrated so far. Moreover, the determination of tryptamine alkaloids is used in forensic analysis. In this study, freshly cultivated fruit bodies of Psilocybe cubensis were used for monitoring stability (including storage and processing conditions of fruiting bodies). Furthermore, mycelium and the individual parts of the fruiting bodies (caps, stipes, and basidiospores) were also examined. The concentration of tryptamines in final extracts was analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. No tryptamines were detected in the basidiospores, and only psilocin was present at 0.47 wt.% in the mycelium. The stipes contained approximately half the amount of tryptamine alkaloids (0.52 wt.%) than the caps (1.03 wt.%); however, these results were not statistically significant, as the concentration of tryptamines in individual fruiting bodies is highly variable. The storage conditions showed that the highest degradation of tryptamines was seen in fresh mushrooms stored at -80°C, and the lowest decay was seen in dried biomass stored in the dark at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klára Gotvaldová
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague 6-Dejvice, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Hájková
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague 6-Dejvice, Czech Republic.,Department of Brain Electrophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Borovička
- Institute of Geology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 6, Czech Republic.,Nuclear Physics Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Husinec, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Jurok
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague 6-Dejvice, Czech Republic.,Department of Brain Electrophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic.,Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague 6-Dejvice, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Cihlářová
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague 6-Dejvice, Czech Republic.,Department of Brain Electrophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague 6-Dejvice, Czech Republic.,Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
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21
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Fricke J, Kargbo R, Regestein L, Lenz C, Peschel G, Rosenbaum MA, Sherwood A, Hoffmeister D. Scalable Hybrid Synthetic/Biocatalytic Route to Psilocybin. Chemistry 2020; 26:8281-8285. [PMID: 32101345 PMCID: PMC7383583 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202000134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Psilocybin, the principal indole alkaloid of Psilocybe mushrooms, is currently undergoing clinical trials as a medication against treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder. The psilocybin supply for pharmaceutical purposes is met by synthetic chemistry. We replaced the problematic phosphorylation step during synthesis with the mushroom kinase PsiK. This enzyme was biochemically characterized and used to produce one gram of psilocybin from psilocin within 20 minutes. We also describe a pilot-scale protocol for recombinant PsiK that yielded 150 mg enzyme in active and soluble form. Our work consolidates the simplicity of tryptamine chemistry with the specificity and selectivity of enzymatic catalysis and helps provide access to an important drug at potentially reasonable cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janis Fricke
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Robert Kargbo
- Usona Institute2780 Woods Hollow RoadMadisonWI53711USA
| | - Lars Regestein
- Bio Pilot PlantLeibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knöll-InstituteBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Claudius Lenz
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Gundela Peschel
- Bio Pilot PlantLeibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knöll-InstituteBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Miriam A. Rosenbaum
- Bio Pilot PlantLeibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knöll-InstituteBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | | | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
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22
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Sabat N, Soualmia F, Retailleau P, Benjdia A, Berteau O, Guinchard X. Gold-Catalyzed Spirocyclization Reactions of N-Propargyl Tryptamines and Tryptophans in Aqueous Media. Org Lett 2020; 22:4344-4349. [PMID: 32396378 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c01370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
N-Propargyl tryptamine and tryptophan derivatives that are readily available from both synthetic and biocatalytic approaches undergo gold-catalyzed dearomative cyclizations in aqueous media to the corresponding spirocyclic derivatives. In addition to the efficiency of the method, operating in aqueous media affords a selective entry to C2-unsubstituted spiroindolenines that have long remained unattainable by Au(I) catalysis. Moderate to excellent yields of the desired spirocyclic products bearing various substituents were obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazarii Sabat
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Feryel Soualmia
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, ChemSyBio, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Pascal Retailleau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Alhosna Benjdia
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, ChemSyBio, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Olivier Berteau
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, ChemSyBio, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Xavier Guinchard
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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23
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Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
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24
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Demmler R, Fricke J, Dörner S, Gressler M, Hoffmeister D. S-Adenosyl-l-Methionine Salvage Impacts Psilocybin Formation in "Magic" Mushrooms. Chembiochem 2020; 21:1364-1371. [PMID: 31802575 PMCID: PMC7317531 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Psychotropic Psilocybe mushrooms biosynthesize their principal natural product psilocybin in five steps, among them a phosphotransfer and two methyltransfer reactions, which consume one equivalent of 5'-adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and two equivalents of S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM). This short but co-substrate-intensive pathway requires nucleoside cofactor salvage to maintain high psilocybin production rates. We characterized the adenosine kinase (AdoK) and S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine (SAH) hydrolase (SahH) of Psilocybe cubensis. Both enzymes are directly or indirectly involved in regenerating SAM. qRT-PCR expression analysis revealed an induced expression of the genes in the fungal primordia and carpophores. A one-pot in vitro reaction with the N-methyltransferase PsiM of the psilocybin pathway demonstrates a concerted action with SahH to facilitate biosynthesis by removal of accumulating SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Demmler
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Janis Fricke
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Markus Gressler
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
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25
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Mészáros R, Peng BJ, Ötvös SB, Yang SC, Fülöp F. Continuous-Flow Hydrogenation and Reductive Deuteration of Nitriles: a Simple Access to α,α-Dideutero Amines. Chempluschem 2020; 84:1508-1511. [PMID: 31943939 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201900526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A simple and efficient continuous flow methodology has been developed for hydrogenation and reductive deuteration of nitriles to yield primary amines and also valuable α,α-dideutero analogues. Raney nickel proved to be a useful catalyst for the transformation of a wide range of nitriles under reasonably mild conditions with excellent deuterium incorporation (>90 %) and quantitative conversion. Among known model compounds, three new deuterated primary amines were prepared. The large-scale synthesis of deuterated tryptamine was also carried out to deliver 1.1 g product under flow conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeka Mészáros
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6, 6720, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Bai-Jing Peng
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6, 6720, Szeged, Hungary.,School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan
| | - Sándor B Ötvös
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6, 6720, Szeged, Hungary.,MTA-SZTE Stereochemistry Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Eötvös u. 6, 6720, Szeged, Hungary.,Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Shyh-Chyun Yang
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.,Department of Fragrance and Cosmetic Science, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan
| | - Ferenc Fülöp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6, 6720, Szeged, Hungary.,MTA-SZTE Stereochemistry Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Eötvös u. 6, 6720, Szeged, Hungary
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26
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Fricke J, Sherwood A, Kargbo R, Orry A, Blei F, Naschberger A, Rupp B, Hoffmeister D. Enzymatic Route toward 6‐Methylated Baeocystin and Psilocybin. Chembiochem 2019; 20:2824-2829. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janis Fricke
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | | | - Robert Kargbo
- The Usona Institute 2800 Woods Hollow Road Madison WI 53711 USA
| | - Andrew Orry
- Molsoft L.L.C. 11199 Sorrento Valley Road San Diego CA 92121 USA
| | - Felix Blei
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Andreas Naschberger
- Department of Genetic EpidemiologyMedizinische Universität Innsbruck Schöpfstrasse 41 6020 Innsbruck Austria
| | - Bernhard Rupp
- Department of Genetic EpidemiologyMedizinische Universität Innsbruck Schöpfstrasse 41 6020 Innsbruck Austria
- Hofkristallamt 991 Audrey Place Vista CA 92084 USA
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
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27
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Adams AM, Kaplan NA, Wei Z, Brinton JD, Monnier CS, Enacopol AL, Ramelot TA, Jones JA. In vivo production of psilocybin in E. coli. Metab Eng 2019; 56:111-119. [PMID: 31550507 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2019.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybin, the prodrug of the psychoactive molecule psilocin, has demonstrated promising results in clinical trials for the treatment of addiction, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. The development of a psilocybin production platform in a highly engineerable microbe could lead to rapid advances towards the bioproduction of psilocybin for use in ongoing clinical trials. Here, we present the development of a modular biosynthetic production platform in the model microbe, Escherichia coli. Efforts to optimize and improve pathway performance using multiple genetic optimization techniques were evaluated, resulting in a 32-fold improvement in psilocybin titer. Further enhancements to this genetically superior strain were achieved through fermentation optimization, ultimately resulting in a fed-batch fermentation study, with a production titer of 1.16 g/L of psilocybin. This is the highest psilocybin titer achieved to date from a recombinant organism and a significant step towards demonstrating the feasibility of industrial production of biologically-derived psilocybin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra M Adams
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Nicholas A Kaplan
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Zhangyue Wei
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - John D Brinton
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Chantal S Monnier
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Alexis L Enacopol
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Theresa A Ramelot
- Miami University, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - J Andrew Jones
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
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28
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McDonald AD, Perkins LJ, Buller AR. Facile in Vitro Biocatalytic Production of Diverse Tryptamines. Chembiochem 2019; 20:1939-1944. [PMID: 30864270 PMCID: PMC6800669 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Tryptamines are a medicinally important class of small molecules that serve as precursors to more complex, clinically used indole alkaloid natural products. Typically, tryptamine analogues are prepared from indoles through multistep synthetic routes. In the natural world, the desirable tryptamine synthon is produced in a single step by l-tryptophan decarboxylases (TDCs). However, no TDCs are known to combine high activity and substrate promiscuity, which might enable a practical biocatalytic route to tryptamine analogues. We have now identified the TDC from Ruminococcus gnavus as the first highly active and promiscuous member of this enzyme family. RgnTDC performs up to 96 000 turnovers and readily accommodates tryptophan analogues with substituents at the 4, 5, 6, and 7 positions, as well as alternative heterocycles, thus enabling the facile biocatalytic synthesis of >20 tryptamine analogues. We demonstrate the utility of this enzyme in a two-step biocatalytic sequence with an engineered tryptophan synthase to afford an efficient, cost-effective route to tryptamines from commercially available indole starting materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allwin D McDonald
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Lydia J Perkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Andrew R Buller
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
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29
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Lin HC, Hewage RT, Lu YC, Chooi YH. Biosynthesis of bioactive natural products from Basidiomycota. Org Biomol Chem 2019; 17:1027-1036. [DOI: 10.1039/c8ob02774a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The club fungi, Basidioycota, produce a wide range of bioactive compounds. Here, we describe recent studies on the biosynthetic pathways and enzymes of bioactive natural products from these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Ching Lin
- Institute of Biological Chemistry
- Academia Sinica
- Taipei 115
- Republic of China
- Chemical Biology and Molecular Biophysics Program
| | - Ranuka T. Hewage
- Chemical Biology and Molecular Biophysics Program
- Taiwan International Graduate Program
- Academia Sinica
- Taipei 115
- Republic of China
| | - Yuan-Chun Lu
- Institute of Biological Chemistry
- Academia Sinica
- Taipei 115
- Republic of China
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences
| | - Yit-Heng Chooi
- School of Molecular Sciences
- The University of Western Australia
- Perth
- Australia
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30
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Blei F, Fricke J, Wick J, Slot JC, Hoffmeister D. Iterative
l
‐Tryptophan Methylation in
Psilocybe
Evolved by Subdomain Duplication. Chembiochem 2018; 19:2160-2166. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Felix Blei
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Janis Fricke
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Jonas Wick
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Jason C. Slot
- Department of Plant Pathology Ohio State University 2021 Coffey Road Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll Institute Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
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