Inputs to the ventrolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

Control of sodium appetite by hindbrain aldosterone-sensitive neurons

Mineralocorticoids play a key role in hydromineral balance by regulating sodium retention and potassium wasting. Through favoring sodium, mineralocorticoids can cause hypertension from fluid overload under conditions of hyperaldosteronism, such as aldosterone-secreting tumors. An often-overlooked mechanism by which aldosterone functions to increase sodium is through stimulation of salt appetite. To drive sodium intake, aldosterone targets neurons in the hindbrain which uniquely express 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2). This enzyme is a necessary precondition for aldosterone-sensing cells as it metabolizes glucocorticoids - preventing their activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor. In this review, we will consider the role of hindbrain HSD2 neurons in regulating sodium appetite by discussing HSD2 expression in the brain, regulation of hindbrain HSD2 neuron activity, and the circuitry mediating the effects of these aldosterone-sensitive neurons. Reducing the activity of hindbrain HSD2 neurons may be a viable strategy to reduce sodium intake and cardiovascular risk, particularly for conditions of hyperaldosteronism.

Social threat alters the behavioral structure of social motivation and reshapes functional brain connectivity

Traumatic social experiences redefine socially motivated behaviors to enhance safety and survival. Although many brain regions have been implicated in signaling a social threat, the mechanisms by which global neural networks regulate such motivated behaviors remain unclear. To address this issue, we first combined traditional and modern behavioral tracking techniques in mice to assess both approach and avoidance, as well as sub-second behavioral changes, during a social threat learning task. We were able to identify previously undescribed body and tail movements during social threat learning and recognition that demonstrate unique alterations into the behavioral structure of social motivation. We then utilized inter-regional correlation analysis of brain activity after a mouse recognizes a social threat to explore functional communication amongst brain regions implicated in social motivation. Broad brain activity changes were observed within the nucleus accumbens, the paraventricular thalamus, the ventromedial hypothalamus, and the nucleus of reuniens. Inter-regional correlation analysis revealed a reshaping of the functional connectivity across the brain when mice recognize a social threat. Altogether, these findings suggest that reshaping of functional brain connectivity may be necessary to alter the behavioral structure of social motivation when a social threat is encountered.

Afferent projections to the Calca /CGRP-expressing parabrachial neurons in mice

The parabrachial nucleus (PB), located in the dorsolateral pons, contains primarily glutamatergic neurons which regulate responses to a variety of interoceptive and cutaneous sensory signals. The lateral PB subpopulation expressing the Calca gene which produces the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) relays signals related to threatening stimuli such as hypercarbia, pain, and nausea, yet the afferents to these neurons are only partially understood. We mapped the afferent projections to the lateral part of the PB in mice using conventional cholera toxin B subunit (CTb) retrograde tracing, and then used conditional rabies virus retrograde tracing to map monosynaptic inputs specifically targeting the PB Calca /CGRP neurons. Using vesicular GABA (vGAT) and glutamate (vGLUT2) transporter reporter mice, we found that lateral PB neurons receive GABAergic afferents from regions such as the lateral part of the central nucleus of the amygdala, lateral dorsal subnucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, substantia innominata, and the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray. Additionally, they receive glutamatergic afferents from the infralimbic and insular cortex, paraventricular nucleus, parasubthalamic nucleus, trigeminal complex, medullary reticular nucleus, and nucleus of the solitary tract. Using anterograde tracing and confocal microscopy, we then identified close axonal appositions between these afferents and PB Calca /CGRP neurons. Finally, we used channelrhodopsin-assisted circuit mapping to test whether some of these inputs directly synapse upon the PB Calca /CGRP neurons. These findings provide a comprehensive neuroanatomical framework for understanding the afferent projections regulating the PB Calca /CGRP neurons.

Recruitment of Hippocampal and Thalamic Pathways to the Central Amygdala in the Control of Feeding Behavior Under Novelty

It is adaptive to restrict eating under uncertainty, such as during habituation to novel foods and unfamiliar environments. However, sustained restrictive eating is a core symptom of eating disorders and has serious long-term health consequences. Current therapeutic efforts are limited, because the neural substrates of restrictive eating are poorly understood. Using a model of feeding avoidance under novelty, our recent study identified forebrain activation patterns and found evidence that the central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA) is a core integrating node. The current study analyzed the activity of CEA inputs in male and female rats to determine if specific pathways are recruited during feeding under novelty. Recruitment of direct inputs from the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT), the infralimbic cortex (ILA), the agranular insular cortex (AI), the hippocampal ventral field CA1, and the bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BST) was assessed with combined retrograde tract tracing and Fos induction analysis. The study found that during consumption of a novel food in a novel environment, larger number of neurons within the PVTp and the CA1 that send monosynaptic inputs to the CEA were recruited compared to controls that consumed familiar food in a familiar environment. The ILA, AI, and BST inputs to the CEA were similarly recruited across conditions. There were no sex differences in activation of any of the pathways analyzed. These results suggest that the PVTp-CEA and CA1-CEA pathways underlie feeding inhibition during novelty and could be potential sites of malfunction in excessive food avoidance.

Whole-brain connectivity to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis calretinin-expressing interneurons in male mice

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a neuropeptide-enriched brain region that modulates a wide variety of emotional behaviours and states, including stress, anxiety, reward and social interaction. The BNST consists of diverse subregions and neuronal ensembles; however, because of the high molecular heterogeneity within BNST neurons, the mechanisms through which the BNST regulates distinct emotional behaviours remain largely unclear. Prior studies have identified BNST calretinin (CR)-expressing neurons, which lack neuropeptides. Here, employing virus-based cell-type-specific retrograde and anterograde tracing systems, we mapped the whole-brain monosynaptic inputs and axonal projections of BNST CR-expressing neurons in male mice. We found that BNST CR-expressing neurons received inputs mainly from the amygdalopiriform transition area, central amygdala and hippocampus and moderately from the medial preoptic area, basolateral amygdala, paraventricular thalamus and lateral hypothalamus. Within the BNST, plenty of input neurons were primarily located in the oval and interfascicular subregions. Furthermore, numerous BNST CR-expressing neuronal boutons were observed within the BNST but not in other brain regions, thus suggesting that these neurons are a type of interneuron. These results will help further elucidate the neuronal circuits underlying the elaborate and distinct functions of the BNST.

The integrated brain network that controls respiration

Respiration is a brain function on which our lives essentially depend. Control of respiration ensures that the frequency and depth of breathing adapt continuously to metabolic needs. In addition, the respiratory control network of the brain has to organize muscular synergies that integrate ventilation with posture and body movement. Finally, respiration is coupled to cardiovascular function and emotion. Here, we argue that the brain can handle this all by integrating a brainstem central pattern generator circuit in a larger network that also comprises the cerebellum. Although currently not generally recognized as a respiratory control center, the cerebellum is well known for its coordinating and modulating role in motor behavior, as well as for its role in the autonomic nervous system. In this review, we discuss the role of brain regions involved in the control of respiration, and their anatomical and functional interactions. We discuss how sensory feedback can result in adaptation of respiration, and how these mechanisms can be compromised by various neurological and psychological disorders. Finally, we demonstrate how the respiratory pattern generators are part of a larger and integrated network of respiratory brain regions.

Differential central regulatory mineralocorticoidreceptor systems for anxiety and depression - Could KCNJ5 be an interesting target for further investigations in major depression?

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is suggested to play a role in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety. Main support comes from studies in patients with primary aldosteronism (PA) which suggested different central pathways for depression and anxiety mediated via the MR and gender differences. We investigated 118 patients with PA over 3 years using self-rating questionnaires for anxiety (GAD-7) and depression (PHQD) at baseline and once a year under specific treatment with adrenalectomy (ADX; n = 48) or a MR antagonist (MRA; n = 70). Genotyping for KCNJ5 mutation was performed in resected tumors. At baseline, patients treated by ADX or MRA had comparable scores for anxiety and depression. Females showed a better metabolic profile but higher scores of depression and anxiety, compared to males. Initiation of specific treatment for PA resulted in a better response in depressive symptoms after ADX and of anxiety under MRA treatment. However, GAD-7 and PHQD remained high in women over the three-year follow-up. KCNJ5 mutation, linked to co-secretion of hybrid steroids as 18-oxocortisol and 18-hydroxycortisol, was detected in 10 female and 2 male patients. They tended to have higher GAD and PHQD scores at baseline compared to patients without KNCJ5 mutation, but showed a significant better reduction in symptoms of anxiety during the 3-year follow up compared to patients without this mutation (all p < 0.05). These data support a differentiated regulation of depression and anxiety by the MR. Moreover, genetic mutations such as KCNJ5 could affect the pathophysiology of these disorders by impacting in adrenal steroidogenesis.

The Solitary Nucleus Connectivity to Key Autonomic Regions in Humans MRI and Literature based Considerations

The nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), is a key brainstem structure relaying interoceptive peripheral information to the interrelated brain centers for eliciting rapid autonomic responses and for shaping longer-term neuroendocrine and motor patterns. Structural and functional NTS' connectivity has been extensively investigated in laboratory animals. But there is limited information about NTS' connectome in humans. Using MRI, we examined diffusion and resting state data from 20 healthy participants in the Human Connectome Project. The regions within the brainstem (n=8), subcortical (n=6), cerebellar (n=2) and cortical (n=5) parts of the brain were selected via a systematic review of the literature and their white matter NTS connections were evaluated via probabilistic tractography along with functional and directional (i.e., Granger-causality) analyses. The underlying study confirms previous results from animal models and provides novel aspects on NTS integration in humans. Two key findings can be summarized: (i) the NTS predominantly processes afferent input and (ii) a lateralization towards a predominantly left-sided NTS processing. Our results lay the foundations for future investigations into the NTS' tripartite role comprised of interoreceptors' input integration, the resultant neurochemical outflow and cognitive/affective processing. The implications of these data add to the understanding of NTS' role in specific aspects of autonomic functions.

Coordination of social behaviors by the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a sexually dimorphic, neuropeptide-rich node of the extended amygdala that has been implicated in responses to stress, drugs of abuse, and natural rewards. Its function is dysregulated in neuropsychiatric disorders that are characterized by stress- or drug-induced alterations in mood, arousal, motivation, and social behavior. However, compared to the BNST's role in mood, arousal, and motivation, its role in social behavior has remained relatively understudied. Moreover, the precise cell types and circuits underlying the BNST's role in social behavior have only recently begun to be explored using modern neuroscience techniques. Here, we systematically review the existing literature investigating the neurobiological substrates within the BNST that contribute to the coordination of various sex-dependent and sex-independent social behavioral repertoires, focusing largely on pharmacological and circuit-based behavioral studies in rodents. We suggest that the BNST coordinates social behavior by promoting appropriate assessment of social contexts to select relevant behavioral outputs and that disruption of socially relevant BNST systems by stress and drugs of abuse may be an important factor in the development of social dysfunction in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Subiculum - BNST Structural Connectivity in Humans and Macaques

Invasive tract-tracing studies in rodents implicate a direct connection between the subiculum and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) as a key component of neural pathways mediating hippocampal regulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. A clear characterisation of the connections linking the subiculum and BNST in humans and non-human primates is lacking. To address this, we first delineated the projections from the subiculum to the BNST using anterograde tracers injected into macaque monkeys, revealing evidence for a monosynaptic subiculum-BNST projection involving the fornix. Second, we used in vivo diffusion MRI tractography in macaques and humans to demonstrate substantial subiculum complex connectivity to the BNST in both species. This connection was primarily carried by the fornix, with additional connectivity via the amygdala, consistent with rodent anatomy. Third, utilising the twin-based nature of our human sample, we found that microstructural properties of these tracts were moderately heritable (h² ∼ 0.5). In a final analysis, we found no evidence of any significant association between subiculum complex-BNST tract microstructure and indices of perceived stress/dispositional negativity and alcohol use, derived from principal component analysis decomposition of self-report data. Our findings address a key translational gap in our knowledge of the neurocircuitry regulating stress.

The Omnipresence of Autonomic Modulation in Health and Disease

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a critical part of the homeostatic machinery with both central and peripheral components. However, little is known about the integration of these components and their joint role in the maintenance of health and in allostatic derailments leading to somatic and/or neuropsychiatric (co)morbidity. Based on a comprehensive literature search on the ANS neuroanatomy we dissect the complex integration of the ANS: (1) First we summarize Stress and Homeostatic Equilibrium - elucidating the responsivity of the ANS to stressors; (2) Second we describe the overall process of how the ANS is involved in Adaptation and Maladaptation to Stress; (3) In the third section the ANS is hierarchically partitioned into the peripheral/spinal, brainstem, subcortical and cortical components of the nervous system. We utilize this anatomical basis to define a model of autonomic integration. (4) Finally, we deploy the model to describe human ANS involvement in (a) Hypofunctional and (b) Hyperfunctional states providing examples in the healthy state and in clinical conditions.

Dyspnea

The clinical term dyspnea (a.k.a. breathlessness or shortness of breath) encompasses at least three qualitatively distinct sensations that warn of threats to breathing: air hunger, effort to breathe, and chest tightness. Air hunger is a primal homeostatic warning signal of insufficient alveolar ventilation that can produce fear and anxiety and severely impacts the lives of patients with cardiopulmonary, neuromuscular, psychological, and end-stage disease. The sense of effort to breathe informs of increased respiratory muscle activity and warns of potential impediments to breathing. Most frequently associated with bronchoconstriction, chest tightness may warn of airway inflammation and constriction through activation of airway sensory nerves. This chapter reviews human and functional brain imaging studies with comparison to pertinent neurorespiratory studies in animals to propose the interoceptive networks underlying each sensation. The neural origins of their distinct sensory and affective dimensions are discussed, and areas for future research are proposed. Despite dyspnea's clinical prevalence and impact, management of dyspnea languishes decades behind the treatment of pain. The neurophysiological bases of current therapeutic approaches are reviewed; however, a better understanding of the neural mechanisms of dyspnea may lead to development of novel therapies and improved patient care.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor-mediated stimulation of a GABAergic projection from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus

We previously reported that GABAergic neurons within the ventral anterior lateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (alBST) express glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (GLP1R) in rats, and that virally-mediated “knock-down” of GLP1R expression in the alBST prolongs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to acute stress. Given other evidence that a GABAergic projection pathway from ventral alBST serves to limit stress-induced activation of the HPA axis, we hypothesized that GLP1 signaling promotes activation of GABAergic ventral alBST neurons that project directly to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). After PVN microinjection of fluorescent retrograde tracer followed by preparation of ex vivo rat brain slices, whole-cell patch clamp recordings were made in identified PVN-projecting neurons within the ventral alBST. Bath application of Exendin-4 (a specific GLP1R agonist) indirectly depolarized PVN-projecting neurons in the ventral alBST and adjacent hypothalamic parastrial nucleus (PS) through a network-dependent increase in excitatory synaptic inputs, coupled with a network-independent reduction in inhibitory inputs. Additional retrograde tracing experiments combined with in situ hybridization confirmed that PVN-projecting neurons within the ventral alBST/PS are GABAergic, and do not express GLP1R mRNA. Conversely, GLP1R mRNA is expressed by a subset of neurons that project into the ventral alBST and were likely contained within coronal ex vivo slices, including GABAergic neurons within the oval subnucleus of the dorsal alBST and glutamatergic neurons within the substantia innominata. Our novel findings reveal potential GLP1R-mediated mechanisms through which the alBST exerts inhibitory control over the endocrine HPA axis.

Differential effects of reduced mineralocorticoid receptor activation by unilateral adrenalectomy vs mineralocorticoid antagonist treatment in patients with primary aldosteronism - Implications for depression and anxiety

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and its ligand aldosterone have been found to play a major role in the pathophysiology of depression. Both could be targets of therapeutic interventions. We analyzed laboratory data and questionnaires evaluating anxiety (using GAD-7 questionnaire) and depression (using PHQD questionnaire) of up to 210 patients with primary aldosteronism (PA) (82 females, 54.7 ± 12.0yrs; 128 males, 48.7 ± 12.8yrs) before and one year after initiation of specific treatment of PA by either adrenalectomy (ADX) or treatment with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRA). After ADX normalization of aldosterone excess was observed. This was associated with a significant reduction of depressive symptoms, but no significant change in GAD-7 score. MRA treatment was accompanied with persistent high aldosterone levels, but led to a significant improvement of anxiety, but no significant changes in PHQD scores. These data suggest different mechanistic pathways for depression and anxiety mediated via the MR. For treatment of depression a reduction of aldosterone levels might be relevant at CNS locations specific for aldosterone, whereas MRA targets MR more broadly, including areas, where cortisol is the main ligand. MRA may be useful in treatment of anxiety related behavior.

Estrogen Withdrawal Increases Postpartum Anxiety via Oxytocin Plasticity in the Paraventricular Hypothalamus and Dorsal Raphe Nucleus

BACKGROUND

Estrogen increases dramatically during pregnancy but quickly drops below prepregnancy levels at birth and remains suppressed during the postpartum period. Clinical and rodent work suggests that this postpartum drop in estrogen results in an estrogen withdrawal state that is related to changes in affect, mood, and behavior. How estrogen withdrawal affects oxytocin (OT) neurocircuitry has not been examined.

METHODS

We used a hormone-simulated pseudopregnancy followed by estrogen withdrawal in Syrian hamsters, a first for this species. Ovariectomized females were given daily injections to approximate hormone levels during gestation and then withdrawn from estrogen to simulate postpartum estrogen withdrawal. These hamsters were tested for behavioral assays of anxiety and anhedonia during estrogen withdrawal. Neuroplasticity in OT-producing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and its efferent targets was measured.

RESULTS

Estrogen-withdrawn females had increased anxiety-like behaviors in the elevated plus maze and open field tests but did not differ from control females in sucrose preference. Furthermore, estrogen-withdrawn females had more OT-immunoreactive cells and OT messenger RNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and an increase in OT receptor density in the dorsal raphe nucleus. Finally, blocking OT receptors in the dorsal raphe nucleus during estrogen withdrawal prevented the high-anxiety behavioral phenotype in estrogen-withdrawn females.

CONCLUSIONS

Estrogen withdrawal induces OT neuroplasticity in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and dorsal raphe nucleus to increase anxiety-like behavior during the postpartum period. More broadly, these experiments suggest Syrian hamsters as a novel organism in which to model the effects of postpartum estrogen withdrawal on the brain and anxiety-like behavior.

Efferent projections of CGRP/Calca-expressing parabrachial neurons in mice

The parabrachial nucleus (PB) is composed of glutamatergic neurons at the midbrain-hindbrain junction. These neurons form many subpopulations, one of which expresses Calca, which encodes the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). This Calca-expressing subpopulation has been implicated in a variety of homeostatic functions, but the overall distribution of Calca-expressing neurons in this region remains unclear. Also, while previous studies in rats and mice have identified output projections from CGRP-immunoreactive or Calca-expressing neurons, we lack a comprehensive understanding of their efferent projections. We began by identifying neurons with Calca mRNA and CGRP immunoreactivity in and around the PB, including populations in the locus coeruleus and motor trigeminal nucleus. Calca-expressing neurons in the PB prominently express the mu opioid receptor (Oprm1) and are distinct from neighboring neurons that express Foxp2 and Pdyn. Next, we used Cre-dependent anterograde tracing with synaptophysin-mCherry to map the efferent projections of these neurons. Calca-expressing PB neurons heavily target subregions of the amygdala, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, basal forebrain, thalamic intralaminar and ventral posterior parvicellular nuclei, and hindbrain, in different patterns depending on the injection site location within the PB region. Retrograde axonal tracing revealed that the previously unreported hindbrain projections arise from a rostral-ventral subset of CGRP/Calca neurons. Finally, we show that these efferent projections of Calca-expressing neurons are distinct from those of neighboring PB neurons that express Pdyn. This information provides a detailed neuroanatomical framework for interpreting experimental work involving CGRP/Calca-expressing neurons and opioid action in the PB region.

Chronic running and a corticosterone treatment attenuate astrocyte-like neural stem cell proliferation in the area postrema of the adult mouse brain

The discovery of neural stem cells (NSCs) in the adult mammalian brain has provided insights into an extra level of brain plasticity. The proliferation and differentiation of NSCs is modulated by various physiological, pathological, and pharmacological stimuli. NSCs were recently detected in the medulla oblongata of adult rodents and humans; however, their functional significance currently remains unknown. In the present study, we examined the effects of chronic wheel-running and a corticosterone (CORT) treatment on the proliferation of astrocyte-like NSCs in the area postrema (AP) and dentate gyrus (DG). Chronic running significantly decreased the number of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-labeled astrocyte-like NSCs in the AP of adult mice, but markedly increased that of BrdU+ NSCs/neural progenitor cells in the DG. The chronic CORT treatment markedly reduced the number of BrdU+ astrocyte-like NSCs in the AP, but not in the DG. These results demonstrate that the proliferation of astrocyte-like NSCs in the medulla oblongata is decreased by chronic running and a CORT treatment.

Functional networks activated by controllable and uncontrollable stress in male and female rats

The ability of an individual to reduce the intensity, duration or frequency of a stressor is a critical determinant of the consequences of that stressor on physiology and behavior. To expand our understanding of the brain networks engaged during controllable and uncontrollable stress and to identify sex differences, we used functional connectivity analyses of the immediate early gene product Fos in male and female rats exposed to either controllable or uncontrollable tail shocks. Twenty-eight regions of interest (ROI) were selected from the structures previously evinced to be responsible for stress response, action-outcome learning, or sexual dimorphism. We found that connectivity across these structures was strongest in female rats without control while weaker connectivity was evident in male rats with control over stress. Interestingly, this pattern correlates with known behavioral sex differences where stressor controllability leads to resilience in male but not female rats. Graph theoretical analysis identified several structures important to networks under specific conditions. In sum, the findings suggest that control over stress reshapes functional connectivity.

Central afferents to the nucleus of the solitary tract in rats and mice

The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) regulates life-sustaining functions ranging from appetite and digestion to heart rate and breathing. It is also the brain's primary sensory nucleus for visceral sensations relevant to symptoms in medical and psychiatric disorders. To better understand which neurons may exert top-down control over the NTS, here we provide a brain-wide map of all neurons that project axons directly to the caudal, viscerosensory NTS, focusing on a medial subregion with aldosterone-sensitive HSD2 neurons. Injecting an axonal tracer (cholera toxin b) into the NTS produces a similar pattern of retrograde labeling in rats and mice. The paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVH), lateral hypothalamic area, and central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) contain the densest concentrations of NTS-projecting neurons. PVH afferents are glutamatergic (express Slc17a6/Vglut2) and are distinct from neuroendocrine PVH neurons. CeA afferents are GABAergic (express Slc32a1/Vgat) and are distributed largely in the medial CeA subdivision. Other retrogradely labeled neurons are located in a variety of brain regions, including the cerebral cortex (insular and infralimbic areas), bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, periaqueductal gray, Barrington's nucleus, Kölliker-Fuse nucleus, hindbrain reticular formation, and rostral NTS. Similar patterns of retrograde labeling result from tracer injections into different NTS subdivisions, with dual retrograde tracing revealing that many afferent neurons project axon collaterals to both the lateral and medial NTS subdivisions. This information provides a roadmap for studying descending axonal projections that may influence visceromotor systems and visceral "mind-body" symptoms.

Neurostimulation in Anxiety Disorders, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Many pharmacological treatments were proved effective in the treatment of panic disorder (PD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); still many patients do not achieve remission with these treatments. Neurostimulation techniques have been studied as promising alternatives or augmentation treatments to pharmacological and psychological therapies. The most studied neurostimulation method for anxiety disorders, PTSD, and OCD was repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). This neurostimulation technique had the highest level of evidence for GAD. There were also randomized sham-controlled trials indicating that rTMS may be effective in the treatment of PTSD and OCD, but there were conflicting findings regarding these two disorders. There is indication that rTMS may be effective in the treatment of panic disorder, but the level of evidence is low. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) was most studied for treatment of OCD, but the randomized sham-controlled trials had mixed findings. Preliminary findings indicate that DBS could be affective for PTSD. There is weak evidence indicating that electroconvulsive therapy, transcranial direct current stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation, and trigeminal nerve stimulation could be effective in the treatment of anxiety disorders, PTSD, and OCD. Regarding these disorders, there is no support in the current literature for the use of neurostimulation in clinical practice. Large high-quality studies are warranted.

BNST-insula structural connectivity in humans

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is emerging as a critical region in multiple psychiatric disorders including anxiety, PTSD, and alcohol and substance use disorders. In conjunction with growing knowledge of the BNST, an increasing number of studies examine connections of the BNST and how those connections impact BNST function. The importance of this BNST network is highlighted by rodent studies demonstrating that projections from other brain regions regulate BNST activity and influence BNST-related behavior. While many animal and human studies replicate the components of the BNST network, to date, structural connections between the BNST and insula have only been described in rodents and have yet to be shown in humans. In this study, we used probabilistic tractography to examine BNST-insula structural connectivity in humans. We used two methods of dividing the insula: 1) anterior and posterior insula, to be consistent with much of the existing insula literature; and 2) eight subregions that represent informative cytoarchitectural divisions. We found evidence of a BNST-insula structural connection in humans, with the strongest BNST connectivity localized to the anteroventral insula, a region of agranular cortex. BNST-insula connectivity differed by hemisphere and was moderated by sex. These results translate rodent findings to humans and lay an important foundation for future studies examining the role of BNST-insula pathways in psychiatric disorders.

An insular view of the social decision-making network

Social animals must detect, evaluate and respond to the emotional states of other individuals in their group. A constellation of gestures, vocalizations, and chemosignals enable animals to convey affect and arousal to others in nuanced, multisensory ways. Observers integrate social information with environmental and internal factors to select behavioral responses to others via a process call social decision-making. The Social Decision Making Network (SDMN) is a system of brain structures and neurochemicals that are conserved across species (mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds) that are the proximal mediators of most social behaviors. However, how sensory information reaches the SDMN to shape behavioral responses during a social encounter is not well known. Here we review the empirical data that demonstrate the necessity of sensory systems in detecting social stimuli, as well as the anatomical connectivity of sensory systems with each node of the SDMN. We conclude that the insular cortex is positioned to link integrated social sensory cues to this network to produce flexible and appropriate behavioral responses to socioemotional cues.

Neuropeptides at the crossroad of fear and hunger: a special focus on neuropeptide Y

Survival in a natural environment forces an individual into constantly adapting purposive behavior. Specified interoceptive neurons monitor metabolic and physiological balance and activate dedicated brain circuits to satisfy essential needs, such as hunger, thirst, thermoregulation, fear, or anxiety. Neuropeptides are multifaceted, central components within such life‐sustaining programs. For instance, nutritional depletion results in a drop in glucose levels, release of hormones, and activation of hypothalamic and brainstem neurons. These neurons, in turn, release several neuropeptides that increase food‐seeking behavior and promote food intake. Similarly, internal and external threats activate neuronal pathways of avoidance and defensive behavior. Interestingly, specific nuclei of the hypothalamus and extended amygdala are activated by both hunger and fear. Here, we introduce the relevant neuropeptides and describe their function in feeding and emotional‐affective behaviors. We further highlight specific pathways and microcircuits, where neuropeptides may interact to identify prevailing homeostatic needs and direct respective compensatory behaviors. A specific focus will be on neuropeptide Y, since it is known for its pivotal role in metabolic and emotional pathways. We hypothesize that the orexigenic and anorexigenic properties of specific neuropeptides are related to their ability to inhibit fear and anxiety.

Genetic identification of a population of noradrenergic neurons implicated in attenuation of stress-related responses

Noradrenergic signaling plays a well-established role in promoting the stress response. Here we identify a subpopulation of noradrenergic neurons, defined by developmental expression of Hoxb1, that has a unique role in modulating stress-related behavior. Using an intersectional chemogenetic strategy, in combination with behavioral and physiological analyses, we show that activation of Hoxb1-noradrenergic (Hoxb1-NE) neurons decreases anxiety-like behavior and promotes an active coping strategy in response to acute stressors. In addition, we use cerebral blood volume-weighted functional magnetic resonance imaging to show that chemoactivation of Hoxb1-NE neurons results in reduced activity in stress-related brain regions, including the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, amygdala, and locus coeruleus. Thus, the actions of Hoxb1-NE neurons are distinct from the well-documented functions of the locus coeruleus in promoting the stress response, demonstrating that the noradrenergic system contains multiple functionally distinct subpopulations.

CRF modulation of central monoaminergic function: Implications for sex differences in alcohol drinking and anxiety

Decades of research have described the importance of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling in alcohol addiction, as well as in commonly co-expressed neuropsychiatric diseases, including anxiety and mood disorders. However, CRF signaling can also acutely regulate binge alcohol consumption, anxiety, and affect in non-dependent animals, possibly via modulation of central monoaminergic signaling. We hypothesize that basal CRF tone is particularly high in animals and humans with an inherent propensity for high anxiety and alcohol consumption, and thus these individuals are at increased risk for the development of alcohol use disorder and comorbid neuropsychiatric diseases. The current review focuses on extrahypothalamic CRF circuits, particularly those stemming from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), found to play a role in basal phenotypes, and examines whether the intrinsic hyperactivity of these circuits is sufficient to escalate the expression of these behaviors and steepen the trajectory of development of disease states. We focus our efforts on describing CRF modulation of biogenic amine neuron populations that have widespread projections to the forebrain to modulate behaviors, including alcohol and drug intake, stress reactivity, and anxiety. Further, we review the known sex differences and estradiol modulation of these neuron populations and CRF signaling at their synapses to address the question of whether females are more susceptible to the development of comorbid addiction and stress-related neuropsychiatric diseases because of hyperactive extrahypothalamic CRF circuits compared to males.

Aldosterone-sensitive HSD2 neurons in mice

Sodium deficiency elevates aldosterone, which in addition to epithelial tissues acts on the brain to promote dysphoric symptoms and salt intake. Aldosterone boosts the activity of neurons that express 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2), a hallmark of aldosterone-sensitive cells. To better characterize these neurons, we combine immunolabeling and in situ hybridization with fate mapping and Cre-conditional axon tracing in mice. Many cells throughout the brain have a developmental history of Hsd11b2 expression, but in the adult brain one small brainstem region with a leaky blood-brain barrier contains HSD2 neurons. These neurons express Hsd11b2, Nr3c2 (mineralocorticoid receptor), Agtr1a (angiotensin receptor), Slc17a6 (vesicular glutamate transporter 2), Phox2b, and Nxph4; many also express Cartpt or Lmx1b. No HSD2 neurons express cholinergic, monoaminergic, or several other neuropeptidergic markers. Their axons project to the parabrachial complex (PB), where they intermingle with AgRP-immunoreactive axons to form dense terminal fields overlapping FoxP2 neurons in the central lateral subnucleus (PBcL) and pre-locus coeruleus (pLC). Their axons also extend to the forebrain, intermingling with AgRP- and CGRP-immunoreactive axons to form dense terminals surrounding GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTvL). Sparse axons target the periaqueductal gray, ventral tegmental area, lateral hypothalamic area, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, and central nucleus of the amygdala. Dual retrograde tracing revealed that largely separate HSD2 neurons project to pLC/PB or BSTvL. This projection pattern raises the possibility that a subset of HSD2 neurons promotes the dysphoric, anorexic, and anhedonic symptoms of hyperaldosteronism via AgRP-inhibited relay neurons in PB.

Neuropeptide Y2 receptors in anteroventral BNST control remote fear memory depending on extinction training

The anterior bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST) is involved in reinstatement of extinguished fear, and neuropeptide Y2 receptors influence local synaptic signaling. Therefore, we hypothesized that Y2 receptors in anteroventral BNST (BNSTav) interfere with remote fear memory and that previous fear extinction is an important variable. C57BL/6NCrl mice were fear-conditioned, and a Y2 receptor-specific agonist (NPY_3-36) or antagonist (JNJ-5207787) was applied in BNSTav before fear retrieval at the following day. Remote fear memory was tested on day 16 in two groups of mice, which had (experiment 1) or had not (experiment 2) undergone extinction training after conditioning. In the group with extinction training, tests of remote fear memory revealed partial retrieval of extinction, which was prevented after blockade of Y2 receptors in BNSTav. No such effect was observed in the group with no extinction training, but stimulation of Y2 receptors in BNSTav mimicked the influence of extinction during tests of remote fear memory. Pharmacological manipulation of Y2 receptors in BNSTav before fear acquisition (experiment 3) had no effect on fear memory retrieval, extinction or remote fear memory. Furthermore, partial retrieval of extinction during tests of remote fear memory was associated with changes in number of c-Fos expressing neurons in BNSTav, which was prevented or mimicked upon Y2 blockade or stimulation in BNSTav. These results indicate that Y2 receptor manipulation in BNSTav interferes with fear memory and extinction retrieval at remote stages, likely through controlling neuronal activity in BNSTav during extinction training.

A Basal Forebrain Site Coordinates the Modulation of Endocrine and Behavioral Stress Responses via Divergent Neural Pathways

The bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (BST) are critically important for integrating stress-related signals between the limbic forebrain and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) effector neurons in the paraventricular hypothalamus (PVH). Nevertheless, the circuitry underlying BST control over the stress axis and its role in depression-related behaviors has remained obscure. Utilizing optogenetic approaches in rats, we have identified a novel role for the anteroventral subdivision of BST in the coordinated inhibition of both HPA output and passive coping behaviors during acute inescapable (tail suspension, TS) stress. Follow-up experiments probed axonal pathways emanating from the anteroventral BST which accounted for separable endocrine and behavioral functions subserved by this cell group. The PVH and ventrolateral periaqueductal gray were recipients of GABAergic outputs from the anteroventral BST that were necessary to restrain stress-induced HPA activation and passive coping behavior, respectively, during TS and forced swim tests. In contrast to other BST subdivisions implicated in anxiety-like responses, these results direct attention to the anteroventral BST as a nodal point in a stress-modulatory network for coordinating neuroendocrine and behavioral coping responses, wherein impairment could account for core features of stress-related mood disorders.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Dysregulation of the neural pathways modulating stress-adaptive behaviors is implicated in stress-related psychiatric illness. While aversive situations activate a network of limbic forebrain regions thought to mediate such changes, little is known about how this information is integrated to orchestrate complex stress responses. Here we identify novel roles for the anteroventral bed nuclei of the stria terminalis in inhibiting both stress hormone output and passive coping behavior via divergent projections to regions of the hypothalamus and midbrain. Inhibition of these projections produced features observed with rodent models of depression, namely stress hormone hypersecretion and increased passive coping behavior, suggesting that dysfunction in these networks may contribute to expression of pathological changes in stress-related disorders.

Functional Heterogeneity in the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis

Early work stressed the differing involvement of the central amygdala (CeA) and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) in the genesis of fear versus anxiety, respectively. In 2009, Walker, Miles, and Davis proposed a model of amygdala-BNST interactions to explain these functional differences. This model became extremely influential and now guides a new wave of studies on the role of BNST in humans. Here, we consider evidence for and against this model, in the process highlighting central principles of BNST organization. This analysis leads us to conclude that BNST's influence is not limited to the generation of anxiety-like responses to diffuse threats, but that it also shapes the impact of discrete threatening stimuli. It is likely that BNST-CeA interactions are involved in modulating responses to such threats. In addition, whereas current views emphasize the contributions of the anterolateral BNST region in anxiety, accumulating data indicate that the anteromedial and anteroventral regions also play a critical role. The presence of multiple functional subregions within the small volume of BNST raises significant technical obstacles for functional imaging studies in humans.

Lesions of the paraventricular thalamic nucleus attenuates prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex

The paraventricular thalamic nucleus (PVT) is a midline nucleus with strong connections to cortical and subcortical brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, nucleus accumbens and hippocampus and receives strong projections from brain stem nuclei. Prepulse inhibition (PPI) is mediated and modulated by complex cortical and subcortical networks that are yet to be fully identified in detail. Here, we suggest that the PVT may be an important brain region for the modulation of PPI. In our study, the paraventricular thalamic nuclei of rats were electrolytically lesioned. Two weeks after the surgery, the PPI responses of the animals were monitored and recorded using measurements of acoustic startle reflex. Our results show that disruption of the PVT dramatically attenuated PPI at prepulse intensities of 74, 78 and 86dB compared to that in the sham lesion group. Thus, we suggest that the PVT may be an important part of the PPI network in the rat brain.

Medullary Norepinephrine Projections Release Norepinephrine into the Contralateral Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis

Central norepinephrine signaling influences a wide range of behavioral and physiological processes, and the ventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (vBNST) receives some of the densest norepinephrine innervation in the brain. Previous work describes norepinephrine neurons as projecting primarily unilaterally; however, recent evidence for cross-hemispheric catecholamine signaling challenges this idea. Here, we use fast-scan cyclic voltammetry and retrograde tracing to characterize cross-hemispheric norepinephrine signaling in the vBNST. We delivered stimulations to noradrenergic pathways originating in the A1/A2 and locus coeruleus and found hemispherically equivalent norepinephrine release in the vBNST regardless of stimulated hemisphere. Unilateral retrograde tracing revealed that medullary, but not locus coeruleus norepinephrine neurons send cross-hemispheric projections to the vBNST. Further characterization with pharmacological lesions revealed that stimulations of the locus coeruleus and its axon bundles likely elicit vBNST norepinephrine release through indirect activation. These experiments are the first to demonstrate contralateral norepinephrine release and establish that medullary, but not coerulean neurons are responsible for norepinephrine release in the vBNST.

Learning about stress: neural, endocrine and behavioral adaptations

In this review, nonassociative learning is advanced as an organizing principle to draw together findings from both sympathetic-adrenal medullary and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis responses to chronic intermittent exposure to a variety of stressors. Studies of habituation, facilitation and sensitization of stress effector systems are reviewed and linked to an animal's prior experience with a given stressor, the intensity of the stressor and the appraisal by the animal of its ability to mobilize physiological systems to adapt to the stressor. Brain pathways that regulate physiological and behavioral responses to stress are discussed, especially in light of their regulation of nonassociative processes in chronic intermittent stress. These findings may have special relevance to various psychiatric diseases, including depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Whole-brain mapping of afferent projections to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in tree shrews

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) plays an important role in integrating and relaying input information to other brain regions in response to stress. The cytoarchitecture of the BST in tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri chinensis) has been comprehensively described in our previous publications. However, the inputs to the BST have not been described in previous reports. The aim of the present study was to investigate the sources of afferent projections to the BST throughout the brain of tree shrews using the retrograde tracer Fluoro-Gold (FG). The present results provide the first detailed whole-brain mapping of BST-projecting neurons in the tree shrew brain. The BST was densely innervated by the prefrontal cortex, entorhinal cortex, ventral subiculum, amygdala, ventral tegmental area, and parabrachial nucleus. Moreover, moderate projections to the BST originated from the medial preoptic area, supramammillary nucleus, paraventricular thalamic nucleus, pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, dorsal raphe nucleus, locus coeruleus, and nucleus of the solitary tract. Afferent projections to the BST are identified in the ventral pallidum, nucleus of the diagonal band, ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus, posterior complex of the thalamus, interfascicular nucleus, retrorubral field, rhabdoid nucleus, intermediate reticular nucleus, and parvicellular reticular nucleus. In addition, the different densities of BST-projecting neurons in various regions were analyzed in the tree shrew brains. In summary, whole-brain mapping of direct inputs to the BST is delineated in tree shrews. These brain circuits are implicated in the regulation of numerous physiological and behavioral processes including stress, reward, food intake, and arousal.

Stress Modulation of Opposing Circuits in the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis

The anterior bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) has been recognized as a critical structure in regulating trait anxiety, contextual fear memory, and appetitive behavior, and is known to be sensitive to stress manipulations. As one of the most complex structures in the central nervous system, the intrinsic circuitry of the BNST is largely unknown; however, recent technological developments have allowed researchers to begin to untangle the internal connections of the nucleus. This research has revealed the possibility of two opposing circuits, one anxiolytic and one anxiogenic, within the BNST, the relative strength of which determines the behavioral outcome. The balance of these pathways is critical in maintaining a normal physiological and behavioral state; however, stress and drugs of abuse can differentially affect the opposing circuitry within the nucleus to shift the balance to a pathological state. In this review, we will examine how stress interacts with the neuromodulators, corticotropin-releasing factor, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin to affect the circuitry of the BNST as well as how synaptic plasticity in the BNST is modulated by stress, resulting in long-lasting changes in the circuit and behavioral state.

Optogenetic study of the projections from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to the central amygdala

It has been proposed that the central amygdala (CeA), particularly its medial sector (CeM), generates brief fear responses to discrete conditioned cues, whereas the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) promotes long-lasting, anxiety-like states in response to more diffuse contingencies. Although it is believed that BNST-CeA interactions determine the transition between short- and long-duration responses, the nature of these interactions remains unknown. To shed light on this question, we used a double viral strategy to drive the expression of channelrhodopsin (ChR2) in BNST cells that project to CeA. Next, using patch-clamp recordings in vitro, we investigated the connectivity of infected cells to noninfected cells in BNST and compared the influence of BNST axons on neurons in the medial and lateral (CeL) parts of CeA. CeA-projecting BNST cells were concentrated in the anterolateral (AL) and anteroventral (AV) sectors of BNST. Dense plexuses of BNST axons were observed throughout CeA. In CeA and BNST, light-evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials accounted for a minority of responses (0-9% of tested cells); inhibition prevailed. The incidence of inhibitory responses was higher in CeM than in CeL (66% and 43% of tested cells, respectively). Within BNST, the connections from CeA-projecting to non-CeA-targeting cells varied as a function of the BNST sector: 50% vs. 9% of tested cells exhibited light-evoked responses in BNST-AL vs. BNST-AV, respectively. Overall, these results suggest that via its projection to CeA, BNST exerts an inhibitory influence over cued fear and that BNST neurons projecting to CeA form contrasting connections in different BNST subnuclei.

Assessing contributions of nucleus accumbens shell subregions to reward-seeking behavior

BACKGROUND

The nucleus accumbens (NAc) plays a key role in brain reward processes including drug seeking and reinstatement. Several anatomical, behavioral, and neurochemical studies discriminate between the limbic-associated shell and the motor-associated core regions. Less studied is the fact that the shell can be further subdivided into a dorsomedial shell (NAcDMS) and an intermediate zone (NAcINT) based on differential expression of transient c-Fos and long-acting immediate-early gene ΔFosB upon cocaine sensitization. These disparate expression patterns suggest that NAc shell subregions may play distinct roles in reward-seeking behavior. In this study, we examined potential differences in the contributions of the NAcDMS and the NAcINT to reinstatement of reward-seeking behavior after extinction.

METHODS

Rats were trained to intravenously self-administer cocaine, extinguished, and subjected to a reinstatement test session consisting of an intracranial microinfusion of either amphetamine or vehicle targeted to the NAcDMS or the NAcINT.

RESULTS

Small amphetamine microinfusions targeted to the NAcDMS resulted in statistically significant reinstatement of lever pressing, whereas no significant difference was observed for microinfusions targeted to the NAcINT. No significant difference was found for vehicle microinfusions in either case.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest heterogeneity in the behavioral relevance of NAc shell subregions, a possibility that can be tested in specific neuronal populations in the future with recently developed techniques including optogenetics.

Central nervous system control of gastrointestinal motility and secretion and modulation of gastrointestinal functions

Although the gastrointestinal (GI) tract possesses intrinsic neural plexuses that allow a significant degree of autonomy over GI functions, the central nervous system (CNS) provides extrinsic neural inputs that regulate, modulate, and control these functions. While the intestines are capable of functioning in the absence of extrinsic inputs, the stomach and esophagus are much more dependent upon extrinsic neural inputs, particularly from parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways. The sympathetic nervous system exerts a predominantly inhibitory effect upon GI muscle and provides a tonic inhibitory influence over mucosal secretion while, at the same time, regulates GI blood flow via neurally mediated vasoconstriction. The parasympathetic nervous system, in contrast, exerts both excitatory and inhibitory control over gastric and intestinal tone and motility. Although GI functions are controlled by the autonomic nervous system and occur, by and large, independently of conscious perception, it is clear that the higher CNS centers influence homeostatic control as well as cognitive and behavioral functions. This review will describe the basic neural circuitry of extrinsic inputs to the GI tract as well as the major CNS nuclei that innervate and modulate the activity of these pathways. The role of CNS-centered reflexes in the regulation of GI functions will be discussed as will modulation of these reflexes under both physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Finally, future directions within the field will be discussed in terms of important questions that remain to be resolved and advances in technology that may help provide these answers.

Limbic circuitry of the midline thalamus

The thalamus was subdivided into three major groups: sensorimotor nuclei (or principal/relay nuclei), limbic nuclei and nuclei bridging these two domains. Limbic nuclei of thalamus (or 'limbic thalamus') consist of the anterior nuclei, midline nuclei, medial division of the mediodorsal nucleus (MDm) and central medial nucleus (CM) of the intralaminar complex. The midline nuclei include the paraventricular (PV) and paratenial (PT) nuclei, dorsally, and the reuniens (RE) and rhomboid (RH) nuclei, ventrally. The 'limbic' thalamic nuclei predominantly connect with limbic-related structures and serve a direct role in limbic-associated functions. Regarding the midline nuclei, RE/RH mainly target limbic cortical structures, particularly the hippocampus and the medial prefrontal cortex. Accordingly, RE/RH participate in functions involving interactions of the HF and mPFC. By contrast, PV/PT mainly project to limbic subcortical structures, particularly the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, and hence are critically involved in affective behaviors such as stress/anxiety, feeding behavior, and drug seeking activities. The anatomical/functional characteristics of MDm and CM are very similar to those of the midline nuclei and hence the collection of nuclei extending dorsoventrally along the midline/paramidline of the thalamus constitute the core of the 'limbic thalamus'.

Ethanol induced adaptations in 5-HT2c receptor signaling in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis: implications for anxiety during ethanol withdrawal

One of the hallmarks of alcohol dependence is the presence of a withdrawal syndrome during abstinence, which manifests as physical craving for alcohol accompanied by subjective feelings of anxiety. Using a model of chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) vapor in mice, we investigated the role of serotonin2c receptor (5HT2c-R) signaling in the BNST as a neural substrate underlying ethanol-induced anxiety during withdrawal. Mice were subjected to a 5-day CIE regimen of 16 h of ethanol vapor exposure followed by an 8 h "withdrawal" period between exposures. After the 5th and final exposure, mice were withdrawn for 24 h or 1 week before experiments began. Anxiety-like behavior was assessed in the social approach, light dark, and open field tests with mice showing deficits in social, but not general anxiety-like behavior that was alleviated by pretreatment with the 5HT2c-R antagonist SB 242,084 (3 mg/kg, i.p.) 24 h and 1 week post-CIE. Using immunohistochemistry and whole cell patch clamp electrophysiology, we also found that CIE increased FOS-IR and enhanced neuronal excitability in the ventral BNST (vBNST) 24 h into withdrawal in a 5HT2c-R dependent manner. This enhanced excitability persisted for 1 week post-CIE. We also found that mCPP, a 5HT2c/b agonist, induced a more robust depolarization in cells of the vBNST in CIE mice, confirming that 5HT2c-R signaling is upregulated in the vBNST following CIE. Taken together, these results suggest that CIE upregulates 5HT2c-R signaling in the vBNST, leading to increased excitability. This enhanced excitability of the vBNST may drive increased anxiety-like behavior during ethanol withdrawal.

Neuropeptide regulation of signaling and behavior in the BNST

Recent technical developments have transformed how neuroscientists can probe brain function. What was once thought to be difficult and perhaps impossible, stimulating a single set of long range inputs among many, is now relatively straight-forward using optogenetic approaches. This has provided an avalanche of data demonstrating causal roles for circuits in a variety of behaviors. However, despite the critical role that neuropeptide signaling plays in the regulation of behavior and physiology of the brain, there have been remarkably few studies demonstrating how peptide release is causally linked to behaviors. This is likely due to both the different time scale by which peptides act on and the modulatory nature of their actions. For example, while glutamate release can effectively transmit information between synapses in milliseconds, peptide release is potentially slower [See the excellent review by Van Den Pol on the time scales and mechanisms of release (van den Pol, 2012)] and it can only tune the existing signals via modulation. And while there have been some studies exploring mechanisms of release, it is still not as clearly known what is required for efficient peptide release. Furthermore, this analysis could be complicated by the fact that there are multiple peptides released, some of which may act in contrast. Despite these limitations, there are a number of groups making progress in this area. The goal of this review is to explore the role of peptide signaling in one specific structure, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, that has proven to be a fertile ground for peptide action.

Aggrecan and chondroitin-6-sulfate abnormalities in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a postmortem study on the amygdala

Perineuronal nets (PNNs) are specialized extracellular matrix aggregates surrounding distinct neuronal populations and regulating synaptic functions and plasticity. Previous findings showed robust PNN decreases in amygdala, entorhinal cortex and prefrontal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia (SZ), but not bipolar disorder (BD). These studies were carried out using a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG) lectin marker. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the CSPG aggrecan, and 6-sulfated chondroitin sulfate (CS-6) chains highly represented in aggrecan, may contribute to these abnormalities. Antibodies against aggrecan and CS-6 (3B3 and CS56) were used in the amygdala of healthy control, SZ and BD subjects. In controls, aggrecan immunoreactivity (IR) was observed in PNNs and glial cells. Antibody 3B3, but not CS56, also labeled PNNs in the amygdala. In addition, dense clusters of CS56 and 3B3 IR encompassed CS56- and 3B3-IR glia, respectively. In SZ, numbers of aggrecan- and 3B3-IR PNNs were decreased, together with marked reductions of aggrecan-IR glial cells and CS-6 (3B3 and CS56)-IR 'clusters'. In BD, numbers of 3B3-IR PNNs and CS56-IR clusters were reduced. Our findings show disruption of multiple PNN populations in the amygdala of SZ and, more modestly, BD. Decreases of aggrecan-IR glia and CS-6-IR glial 'clusters', in sharp contrast to increases of CSPG/lectin-positive glia previously observed, indicate that CSPG abnormalities may affect distinct glial cell populations and suggest a potential mechanism for PNN decreases. Together, these abnormalities may contribute to a destabilization of synaptic connectivity and regulation of neuronal functions in the amygdala of subjects with major psychoses.

Role of nucleus of the solitary tract noradrenergic neurons in post-stress cardiovascular and hormonal control in male rats

Chronic stress causes hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hyperactivity and cardiovascular dyshomeostasis. Noradrenergic (NA) neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) are considered to play a role in these changes. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that NTS NA A2 neurons are required for cardiovascular and HPA axis responses to both acute and chronic stress. Adult male rats received bilateral microinjection into the NTS of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) to lesion A2 neurons [cardiovascular study, n = 5; HPA study, n = 5] or vehicle [cardiovascular study, n = 6; HPA study, n = 4]. Rats were exposed to acute restraint stress followed by 14 d of chronic variable stress (CVS). On the last day of testing, rats were placed in a novel elevated plus maze (EPM) to test post-CVS stress responses. Lesions of NTS A2 neurons reduced the tachycardic response to acute restraint, confirming that A2 neurons promote sympathetic activation following acute stress. In addition, CVS increased the ratio of low-frequency to high-frequency power for heart rate variability, indicative of sympathovagal imbalance, and this effect was significantly attenuated by 6-OHDA lesion. Lesions of NTS A2 neurons reduced acute restraint-induced corticosterone secretion, but did not affect the corticosterone response to the EPM, indicating that A2 neurons promote acute HPA axis responses, but are not involved in CVS-mediated HPA axis sensitization. Collectively, these data indicate that A2 neurons promote both cardiovascular and HPA axis responses to acute stress. Moreover, A2 catecholaminergic neurons may contribute to the potentially deleterious enhancement of sympathetic drive following chronic stress.

Brain mineralocorticoid receptors in cognition and cardiovascular homeostasis

Mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) mediate diverse functions supporting osmotic and hemodynamic homeostasis, response to injury and inflammation, and neuronal changes required for learning and memory. Inappropriate MR activation in kidneys, heart, vessels, and brain hemodynamic control centers results in cardiovascular and renal pathology and hypertension. MR binds aldosterone, cortisol and corticosterone with similar affinity, while the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) has less affinity for cortisol and corticosterone. As glucocorticoids are more abundant than aldosterone, aldosterone activates MR in cells co-expressing enzymes with 11β-hydroxydehydrogenase activity to inactivate them. MR and GR co-expressed in the same cell interact at the molecular and functional level and these functions may be complementary or opposing depending on the cell type. Thus the balance between MR and GR expression and activation is crucial for normal function. Where 11β-hydroxydehydrogenase 2 (11β-HSD2) that inactivates cortisol and corticosterone in aldosterone target cells of the kidney and nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) is not expressed, as in most neurons, MR are activated at basal glucocorticoid concentrations, GR at stress concentrations. An exception may be pre-autonomic neurons of the PVN which express MR and 11β-HSD1 in the absence of hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase required to generate the requisite cofactor for reductase activity, thus it acts as a dehydrogenase. MR antagonists, valuable adjuncts to the treatment of cardiovascular disease, also inhibit MR in the brain that are crucial for memory formation and exacerbate detrimental effects of excessive GR activation on cognition and mood. 11β-HSD1 inhibitors combat metabolic and cognitive diseases related to glucocorticoid excess, but may exacerbate MR action where 11β-HSD1 acts as a dehydrogenase, while non-selective 11β-HSD1&2 inhibitors cause injurious disruption of MR hemodynamic control. MR functions in the brain are multifaceted and optimal MR:GR activity is crucial. Therefore selectively targeting down-stream effectors of MR specific actions may be a better therapeutic goal.

CART in the brain of vertebrates: circuits, functions and evolution

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide (CART) with its wide distribution in the brain of mammals has been the focus of considerable research in recent years. Last two decades have witnessed a steady rise in the information on the genes that encode this neuropeptide and regulation of its transcription and translation. CART is highly enriched in the hypothalamic nuclei and its relevance to energy homeostasis and neuroendocrine control has been understood in great details. However, the occurrence of this peptide in a range of diverse circuitries for sensory, motor, vegetative, limbic and higher cortical areas has been confounding. Evidence that CART peptide may have role in addiction, pain, reward, learning and memory, cognition, sleep, reproduction and development, modulation of behavior and regulation of autonomic nervous system are accumulating, but an integration has been missing. A steady stream of papers has been pointing at the therapeutic potentials of CART. The current review is an attempt at piecing together the fragments of available information, and seeks meaning out of the CART elements in their anatomical niche. We try to put together the CART containing neuronal circuitries that have been conclusively demonstrated as well as those which have been proposed, but need confirmation. With a view to finding out the evolutionary antecedents, we visit the CART systems in sub-mammalian vertebrates and seek the answer why the system is shaped the way it is. We enquire into the conservation of the CART system and appreciate its functional diversity across the phyla.