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Hada A, Li L, Kandel A, Jin Y, Xiao Z. Characterization of Bovine Intraepithelial T Lymphocytes in the Gut. Pathogens 2023; 12:1173. [PMID: 37764981 PMCID: PMC10535955 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Intraepithelial T lymphocytes (T-IELs), which constitute over 50% of the total T lymphocytes in the animal, patrol the mucosal epithelial lining to defend against pathogen invasion while maintaining gut homeostasis. In addition to expressing T cell markers such as CD4 and CD8, T-IELs display T cell receptors (TCR), including either TCRαβ or TCRγδ. Both humans and mice share similar T-IEL subsets: TCRγδ+, TCRαβ+CD8αα+, TCRαβ+CD4+, and TCRαβ+CD8αβ+. Among these subsets, human T-IELs are predominantly TCRαβ+ (over 80%), whereas those in mice are mostly TCRγδ+ (~60%). Of note, the majority of the TCRγδ+ subset expresses CD8αα in both species. Although T-IELs have been extensively studied in humans and mice, their profiles in cattle have not been well examined. Our study is the first to characterize bovine T-IELs using flow cytometry, where we identified several distinct features. The percentage of TCRγδ+ was comparable to that of TCRαβ+ T-IELs (both ~50% of CD3+), and the majority of bovine TCRγδ+ T-IELs did not express CD8 (CD8-) (above 60%). Furthermore, about 20% of TCRαβ+ T-IELs were CD4+CD8αβ+, and the remaining TCRαβ+ T-IELs were evenly distributed between CD4+ and CD8αβ+ (~40% of TCRαβ+ T-IELs each) with no TCRαβ+CD8αα+ identified. Despite these unique properties, bovine T-IELs, similar to those in humans and mice, expressed a high level of CD69, an activation and tissue-retention marker, and a low level of CD62L, a lymphoid adhesion marker. Moreover, bovine T-IELs produced low levels of inflammatory cytokines such as IFNγ and IL17A, and secreted small amounts of the immune regulatory cytokine TGFβ1. Hence, bovine T-IELs' composition largely differs from that of human and mouse, with the dominance of the CD8- population among TCRγδ+ T-IELs, the substantial presence of TCRαβ+CD4+CD8αβ+ cells, and the absence of TCRαβ+CD8αα+ T-IELs. These results provide the groundwork for conducting future studies to examine how bovine T-IELs respond to intestinal pathogens and maintain the integrity of the gut epithelial barrier in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Zhengguo Xiao
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; (A.H.); (L.L.); (A.K.); (Y.J.)
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S Subauste C, Hubal A. Animal Models for Toxoplasma gondii Infection. Curr Protoc 2023; 3:e871. [PMID: 37695167 PMCID: PMC10621533 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that commonly infects mammals and birds throughout the world. This protocol describes murine models of acute T. gondii infection, toxoplasmic encephalitis and toxoplasma retinochoroiditis. T. gondii infection in severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice, deficient in T and B cells, has allowed for the study of T cell-independent mechanisms of defense against intracellular organisms, as described here. The uracil auxotroph strain cps1-1 and temperature-sensitive mutant strains of T. gondii induce protection against challenge with virulent strains of the parasite. They have allowed studies of immunization and adoptive-transfer experiments. A protocol is provided for infection with these mutant strains. The EGS strain of T. gondii has the unique feature of spontaneously forming tissue cysts in cell culture. Dual fluorescent reporter stains of this strain have allowed the study of tachyzoite to bradyzoite transitions in vitro and in vivo. A protocol for in vitro and in vivo growth of this strain and tissue cyst isolation is provided. Genetic manipulation of T. gondii and mice has led to the development of parasites that express fluorescent proteins as well as mice with fluorescently labeled leukocytes. This together with the use of T. gondii that express model antigens and transgenic mice that express the appropriate T cell receptor have facilitated the in vivo study of parasite host-interaction. In addition, parasites that express bioluminescent markers have made it possible to study the dynamics of infection in real time using bioluminescence imaging. Support protocols present methodology for evaluation of progression of infection and immune response to the parasite that includes these newer methodologies. In addition, support protocols address the maintenance of T. gondii tissue cysts and tachyzoites, as well as preparation of T. gondii lysate antigens. © 2023 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Induction of acute T. gondii infection in mice Basic Protocol 2: Model of toxoplasmic encephalitis and toxoplasma retinochoroiditis in chronically infected mice Basic Protocol 3: Assessment of T. gondii invasion into neural tissue Basic Protocol 4: T. gondii infection in scid/scid (SCID) mice Basic Protocol 5: Infection with the uracil auxotroph strain CPS1-1 or the temperature-sensitive TS-4 strain of T. gondii Basic Protocol 6: In vivo and in vitro maintenance of the EGS strain of T. gondii Support Protocol 1: Assessment of progression of infection and immune response to T. gondii Support Protocol 2: Maintenance of a bank of T. gondii cysts of the ME49 strain Support Protocol 3: Maintenance of T. gondii tachyzoites using human foreskin fibroblasts Support Protocol 4: Maintenance of T. gondii tachyzoites in mice Support Protocol 5: Preparation of T. gondii lysate antigens Support Protocol 6: Isolation of T. gondii tissue cysts from brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos S Subauste
- Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Alyssa Hubal
- Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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3
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Sana M, Rashid M, Rashid I, Akbar H, Gomez-Marin JE, Dimier-Poisson I. Immune response against toxoplasmosis-some recent updates RH: Toxoplasma gondii immune response. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2022; 36:3946320221078436. [PMID: 35227108 PMCID: PMC8891885 DOI: 10.1177/03946320221078436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Cytokines, soluble mediators of immunity, are key factors of the innate and adaptive immune system. They are secreted from and interact with various types of immune cells to manipulate host body's immune cell physiology for a counter-attack on the foreign body. A study was designed to explore the mechanism of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) resistance from host immune response. METHODS AND RESULTS The published data on aspect of host (murine and human) immune response against T. gondii was taken from Google scholar and PubMed. Most relevant literature was included in this study. The basic mechanism of immune response starts from the interactions of antigens with host immune cells to trigger the production of cytokines (pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory) which then act by forming a cytokinome (network of cytokine). Their secretory equilibrium is essential for endowing resistance to the host against infectious diseases, particularly toxoplasmosis. A narrow balance lying between Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines (as demonstrated until now) is essential for the development of resistance against T. gondii as well as for the survival of host. Excessive production of pro-inflammatory cytokines leads to tissue damage resulting in the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines which enhances the proliferation of Toxoplasma. Stress and other infectious diseases (human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)) that weaken the host immunity particularly the cellular component, make the host susceptible to toxoplasmosis especially in pregnant women. CONCLUSION The current review findings state that in vitro harvesting of IL12 from DCs, Np and MΦ upon exposure with T. gondii might be a source for therapeutic use in toxoplasmosis. Current review also suggests that therapeutic interventions leading to up-regulation/supplementation of SOCS-3, IL12, and IFNγ to the infected host could be a solution to sterile immunity against T. gondii infection. This would be of interest particularly in patients passing through immunosuppression owing to any reason like the ones receiving anti-cancer therapy, the ones undergoing immunosuppressive therapy for graft/transplantation, the ones suffering from immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or having AIDS. Another imortant suggestion is to launch the efforts for a vaccine based on GRA6Nt or other similar antigens of T. gondii as a probable tool to destroy tissue cysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madiha Sana
- Department of Parasitology, 66920University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Rashid
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 66920The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Imran Rashid
- Department of Parasitology, 66920University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Haroon Akbar
- Department of Parasitology, 66920University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Jorge E Gomez-Marin
- Grupo Gepamol, Centro de Investigaciones Biomedicas, Universidad del Quindio, Armenia, CO, South America
| | - Isabelle Dimier-Poisson
- Université de Tours, Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Unité mixte de recherche 1282 (UMR1282), Infectiologie et santé publique (ISP), Tours, France
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Abstract
Transforming Growth Factor-β is a potent regulator of the immune system, acting at every stage from thymic differentiation, population of the periphery, control of responsiveness, tissue repair and generation of memory. It is therefore a central player in the immune response to infectious pathogens, but its contribution is often clouded by multiple roles acting on different cells in time and space. Hence, context is all-important in understanding when TGF-β is beneficial or detrimental to the outcome of infection. In this review, a full range of infectious agents from viruses to helminth parasites are explored within this framework, drawing contrasts and general conclusions about the importance of TGF-β in these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick M Maizels
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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5
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Mukhopadhyay D, Arranz-Solís D, Saeij JPJ. Influence of the Host and Parasite Strain on the Immune Response During Toxoplasma Infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:580425. [PMID: 33178630 PMCID: PMC7593385 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.580425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an exceptionally successful parasite that infects a very broad host range, including humans, across the globe. The outcome of infection differs remarkably between hosts, ranging from acute death to sterile infection. These differential disease patterns are strongly influenced by both host- and parasite-specific genetic factors. In this review, we discuss how the clinical outcome of toxoplasmosis varies between hosts and the role of different immune genes and parasite virulence factors, with a special emphasis on Toxoplasma-induced ileitis and encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jeroen P. J. Saeij
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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Menge C. The Role of Escherichia coli Shiga Toxins in STEC Colonization of Cattle. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12090607. [PMID: 32967277 PMCID: PMC7551371 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Many cattle are persistently colonized with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and represent a major source of human infections with human-pathogenic STEC strains (syn. enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)). Intervention strategies most effectively protecting humans best aim at the limitation of bovine STEC shedding. Mechanisms enabling STEC to persist in cattle are only partialy understood. Cattle were long believed to resist the detrimental effects of Shiga toxins (Stxs), potent cytotoxins acting as principal virulence factors in the pathogenesis of human EHEC-associated diseases. However, work by different groups, summarized in this review, has provided substantial evidence that different types of target cells for Stxs exist in cattle. Peripheral and intestinal lymphocytes express the Stx receptor globotriaosylceramide (Gb3syn. CD77) in vitro and in vivo in an activation-dependent fashion with Stx-binding isoforms expressed predominantly at early stages of the activation process. Subpopulations of colonic epithelial cells and macrophage-like cells, residing in the bovine mucosa in proximity to STEC colonies, are also targeted by Stxs. STEC-inoculated calves are depressed in mounting appropriate cellular immune responses which can be overcome by vaccination of the animals against Stxs early in life before encountering STEC. Considering Stx target cells and the resulting effects of Stxs in cattle, which significantly differ from effects implicated in human disease, may open promising opportunities to improve existing yet insufficient measures to limit STEC carriage and shedding by the principal reservoir host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Menge
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut/Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis, D-07743 Jena, Germany
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7
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Ryffel B, Huang F, Robinet P, Panek C, Couillin I, Erard F, Piotet J, Le Bert M, Mackowiak C, Torres Arias M, Dimier-Poisson I, Zheng SG. Blockade of IL-33R/ST2 Signaling Attenuates Toxoplasma gondii Ileitis Depending on IL-22 Expression. Front Immunol 2019; 10:702. [PMID: 31057534 PMCID: PMC6482336 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral T. gondii infection (30 cysts of 76K strain) induces acute lethal ileitis in sensitive C57BL/6 (B6) mice with increased expression of IL-33 and its receptor ST2 in the ileum. Here we show that IL-33 is involved in ileitis, since absence of IL-33R/ST2 attenuated neutrophilic inflammation and Th1 cytokines upon T. gondii infection with enhanced survival. Blockade of ST2 by neutralizing ST2 antibody in B6 mice conferred partial protection, while rmIL-33 aggravated ileitis. Since IL-22 expression further increased in absence of ST2, we blocked IL-22 by neutralizing antibody, which abrogated protection from acute ileitis in ST2 deficient mice. In conclusion, severe lethal ileitis induced by oral T. gondii infection is attenuated by blockade of ST2 signaling and may be mediated in part by endogenous IL-22.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Ryffel
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Sun Yat-sen University Third Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou, China
- INEM UMR 7355 CNRS and University of Orleans, Orléans, France
| | - Feng Huang
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Sun Yat-sen University Third Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Pauline Robinet
- INEM UMR 7355 CNRS and University of Orleans, Orléans, France
| | - Corine Panek
- INEM UMR 7355 CNRS and University of Orleans, Orléans, France
| | | | - François Erard
- INEM UMR 7355 CNRS and University of Orleans, Orléans, France
| | - Julie Piotet
- INEM UMR 7355 CNRS and University of Orleans, Orléans, France
| | - Marc Le Bert
- INEM UMR 7355 CNRS and University of Orleans, Orléans, France
| | | | - Marbel Torres Arias
- Immunology and Virology Laboratory, Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Center, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas, ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador
| | | | - Song Guo Zheng
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ohio State College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, United States
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8
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Hu MD, Jia L, Edelblum KL. Policing the intestinal epithelial barrier: Innate immune functions of intraepithelial lymphocytes. CURRENT PATHOBIOLOGY REPORTS 2018; 6:35-46. [PMID: 29755893 PMCID: PMC5943048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review will explore the contribution of IELs to mucosal innate immunity and highlight the similarities in IEL functional responses to bacteria, viruses and protozoan parasite invasion. RECENT FINDINGS IELs rapidly respond to microbial invasion by activating host defense responses, including the production of mucus and antimicrobial peptides to prevent microbes from reaching the epithelial surface. During active infection, IELs promote epithelial cytolysis, cytokine and chemokine production to limit pathogen invasion, replication and dissemination. Commensal-induced priming of IEL effector function or continuous surveillance of the epithelium may be important contributing factors to the rapidity of response. SUMMARY Impaired microbial recognition, dysregulated innate immune signaling or microbial dysbiosis may limit the protective function of IELs and increase susceptibility to disease. Further understanding of the mechanisms regulating IEL surveillance and sentinel function may provide insight into the development of more effective targeted therapies designed to reinforce the mucosal barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine D Hu
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ
| | - Luo Jia
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ
| | - Karen L Edelblum
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ
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9
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Policing the Intestinal Epithelial Barrier: Innate Immune Functions of Intraepithelial Lymphocytes. CURRENT PATHOBIOLOGY REPORTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40139-018-0157-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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10
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Nascimento BB, Cartelle CT, Noviello MDL, Pinheiro BV, de Almeida Vitor RW, Souza DDG, de Vasconcelos Generoso S, Cardoso VN, Martins FDS, Nicoli JR, Arantes RME. Influence of indigenous microbiota on experimental toxoplasmosis in conventional and germ-free mice. Int J Exp Pathol 2017; 98:191-202. [PMID: 28895246 DOI: 10.1111/iep.12236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis represents one of the most common zoonoses worldwide. Its agent, Toxoplasma gondii, causes a severe innate pro-inflammatory response. The indigenous intestinal microbiota promotes host animal homoeostasis and may protect the host against pathogens. Germ-free (GF) animals provide an important tool for the study of interactions between host and microbiota. In this study, we assessed the role of indigenous microorganisms in disease development utilizing a murine toxoplasmosis model, which includes conventional (CV) and GF NIH Swiss mice. CV and GF mice orally inoculated with T. gondii had similar survival curves. However, disease developed differently in the two animal groups. In CV mice, intestinal permeability increased and levels of intestinal pro-inflammatory cytokines were altered. In GF animals, there were discrete epithelial degenerative changes and mucosal oedema, but the liver and lungs displayed significant lesions. We conclude that, despite similar survival curves, CV animals succumb to an exaggerated inflammatory response, whereas GF mice fail to produce an adequate systemic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna B Nascimento
- Departamento de Patologia Geral, Laboratório de Neuro-Imunopatologia Experimental (NIPE), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Christiane T Cartelle
- Departamento de Patologia Geral, Laboratório de Neuro-Imunopatologia Experimental (NIPE), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Maria de L Noviello
- Departamento de Patologia Geral, Laboratório de Neuro-Imunopatologia Experimental (NIPE), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Breno V Pinheiro
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ricardo W de Almeida Vitor
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Danielle da G Souza
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Simone de Vasconcelos Generoso
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Valbert N Cardoso
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Flaviano Dos S Martins
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Jacques R Nicoli
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Rosa M E Arantes
- Departamento de Patologia Geral, Laboratório de Neuro-Imunopatologia Experimental (NIPE), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Ihara S, Hirata Y, Koike K. TGF-β in inflammatory bowel disease: a key regulator of immune cells, epithelium, and the intestinal microbiota. J Gastroenterol 2017; 52:777-787. [PMID: 28534191 DOI: 10.1007/s00535-017-1350-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is defined as chronic intestinal inflammation, and includes ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Multiple factors are involved in the pathogenesis of IBD, and the condition is characterized by aberrant mucosal immune reactions to intestinal microbes in genetically susceptible hosts. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is an immune-suppressive cytokine produced by many cell types and activated by integrins. Active TGF-β binds to its receptor and regulates mucosal immune reactions through the TGF-β signaling pathway. Dysregulated TGF-β signaling is observed in the intestines of IBD patients. TGF-β signal impairment in specific cell types, such as T-cells and dendritic cells, results in spontaneous colitis in mouse models. In addition, specific intestinal microbes contribute to immune homeostasis by modulating TGF-β production. In this review, we describe the role of TGF-β in intestinal immunity, focusing on immune cells, epithelium, and intestinal microbes. In addition, we present potential therapeutic strategies for IBD that target TGF-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sozaburo Ihara
- Division of Gastroenterology, The Institute for Adult Diseases, Asahi Life Foundation, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Gastroenterology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Hirata
- Department of Gastroenterology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan.
| | - Kazuhiko Koike
- Department of Gastroenterology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
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Li Y, Liu M, Zuo Z, Liu J, Yu X, Guan Y, Zhan R, Han Q, Zhang J, Zhou R, Sun R, Tian Z, Zhang C. TLR9 Regulates the NF-κB-NLRP3-IL-1β Pathway Negatively in Salmonella-Induced NKG2D-Mediated Intestinal Inflammation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:761-773. [PMID: 28576980 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
TLRs are key sensors for conserved bacterial molecules and play a critical role in host defense against invading pathogens. Although the roles of TLRs in defense against pathogen infection and in maintaining gut immune homeostasis have been studied, the precise functions of different TLRs in response to pathogen infection in the gut remain elusive. The present study investigated the role of TLR signaling in defense against the Gram-negative bacterial pathogen Salmonella typhimurium The results indicated that TLR9-deficient mice were more susceptible to S. typhimurium infection compared with wild-type and TLR2- or TLR4-deficient mice, as indicated by more severe intestinal damage and the highest bacterial load. TLR9 deficiency in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) augmented the activation of NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasomes significantly, resulting in increased secretion of IL-1β. IL-1β increased the expression of NKG2D on intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes and NKG2D ligands on IECs, resulting in higher susceptibility of IECs to cytotoxicity of intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes and damage to the epithelial barrier. We proposed that TLR9 regulates the NF-κB-NLRP3-IL-1β pathway negatively in Salmonella-induced NKG2D-mediated intestinal inflammation and plays a critical role in defense against S. typhimurium infection and in the protection of intestinal integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Meifang Liu
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Zengyan Zuo
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Jing Liu
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Xin Yu
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Yun Guan
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Renhui Zhan
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Qiuju Han
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Jian Zhang
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
| | - Rongbin Zhou
- Institute of Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Rui Sun
- Institute of Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Zhigang Tian
- Institute of Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Cai Zhang
- Institute of Immunopharmacology and Immunotherapy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China; and
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Zare-Bidaki M, Assar S, Hakimi H, Abdollahi SH, Nosratabadi R, Kennedy D, Arababadi MK. TGF-β in Toxoplasmosis: Friend or foe? Cytokine 2016; 86:29-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Lack of a Functioning P2X7 Receptor Leads to Increased Susceptibility to Toxoplasmic Ileitis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129048. [PMID: 26053862 PMCID: PMC4460092 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral infection of C57BL/6J mice with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii leads to a lethal inflammatory ileitis. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Mice lacking the purinergic receptor P2X7R are acutely susceptible to toxoplasmic ileitis, losing significantly more weight than C57BL/6J mice and exhibiting much greater intestinal inflammatory pathology in response to infection with only 10 cysts of T. gondii. This susceptibility is not dependent on the ability of P2X7R-deficient mice to control the parasite, which they accomplish just as efficiently as C57BL/6J mice. Rather, susceptibility is associated with elevated ileal concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reactive nitrogen intermediates and altered regulation of elements of NFκB activation in P2X7R-deficient mice. CONCLUSIONS Our data support the thesis that P2X7R, a well-documented activator of pro-inflammatory cytokine production, also plays an important role in the regulation of intestinal inflammation.
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15
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Cohen SB, Denkers EY. The gut mucosal immune response toToxoplasma gondii. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:108-17. [DOI: 10.1111/pim.12164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 11/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. B. Cohen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; College of Veterinary Medicine; Cornell University; Ithaca NY USA
| | - E. Y. Denkers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; College of Veterinary Medicine; Cornell University; Ithaca NY USA
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16
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Wilhelm CL, Yarovinsky F. Apicomplexan infections in the gut. Parasite Immunol 2014; 36:409-20. [PMID: 25201405 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii and Cryptosporidium parvum are intracellular protozoan parasites that establish infection through the small intestinal bowel after the ingestion of contaminated food products. These Apicomplexan parasites have emerged as an important cause of chronic and fatal disease in immunodeficient individuals, in addition to being investigated as possible triggers of inflammatory bowel disease. T. gondii disseminates to the brain and other tissues after infection, whereas C. parvum remains localized to the intestine. In the following review, we will discuss the pathogenesis of these parasitic diseases in the small intestine, the site of initial invasion. Themes include the sequence of invasion, the structure of Th1 immunity provoked by these parasites and the contribution of intestinal microbiota to the development of the mucosal immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Wilhelm
- Departments of Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA
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17
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Bowcutt R, Forman R, Glymenaki M, Carding SR, Else KJ, Cruickshank SM. Heterogeneity across the murine small and large intestine. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:15216-15232. [PMID: 25386070 PMCID: PMC4223255 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i41.15216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The small and large intestine of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) have evolved to have discrete functions with distinct anatomies and immune cell composition. The importance of these differences is underlined when considering that different pathogens have uniquely adapted to live in each region of the gut. Furthermore, different regions of the GIT are also associated with differences in susceptibility to diseases such as cancer and chronic inflammation. The large and small intestine, given their anatomical and functional differences, should be seen as two separate immunological sites. However, this distinction is often ignored with findings from one area of the GIT being inappropriately extrapolated to the other. Focussing largely on the murine small and large intestine, this review addresses the literature relating to the immunology and biology of the two sites, drawing comparisons between them and clarifying similarities and differences. We also highlight the gaps in our understanding and where further research is needed.
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18
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Cohen SB, Denkers EY. Border maneuvers: deployment of mucosal immune defenses against Toxoplasma gondii. Mucosal Immunol 2014; 7:744-52. [PMID: 24717355 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2014.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a highly prevalent protozoan pathogen that is transmitted through oral ingestion of infectious cysts. As such, mucosal immune defenses in the intestine constitute the first and arguably most important line of resistance against the parasite. The response to infection is now understood to involve complex three-way interactions between Toxoplasma, the mucosal immune system, and the host intestinal microbiota. Productive outcome of these interactions ensures resolution of infection in the intestinal mucosa. Nonsuccessful outcome may result in emergence of proinflammatory damage that can spell death for the host. Here, we discuss new advances in our understanding of the mechanisms underpinning these disparate outcomes, with particular reference to initiators, effectors, and regulators of mucosal immunity stimulated by Toxoplasma in the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- S B Cohen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - E Y Denkers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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19
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Cortez VS, Cervantes-Barragan L, Song C, Gilfillan S, McDonald KG, Tussiwand R, Edelson BT, Murakami Y, Murphy KM, Newberry RD, Sibley LD, Colonna M. CRTAM controls residency of gut CD4+CD8+ T cells in the steady state and maintenance of gut CD4+ Th17 during parasitic infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 211:623-33. [PMID: 24687959 PMCID: PMC3978276 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20130904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between cell adhesion molecules CRTAM and Cadm1 regulate the residency and maintenance of CD4+CD8+ and CD4+ T cells in the gut that can influence the immune response to infection. Retention of lymphocytes in the intestinal mucosa requires specialized chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules. We find that both CD4+CD8+ and CD4+ T cells in the intestinal epithelium, as well as CD8+ T cells in the intestinal mucosa and mesenteric lymph nodes, express the cell adhesion molecule class I–restricted T cell–associated molecule (Crtam) upon activation, whereas the ligand of Crtam, cell adhesion molecule 1 (Cadm1), is expressed on gut CD103+DCs. Lack of Crtam–Cadm1 interactions in Crtam−/− and Cadm1−/− mice results in loss of CD4+CD8+ T cells, which arise from mucosal CD4+ T cells that acquire a CD8 lineage expression profile. After acute oral infection with Toxoplasma gondii, both WT and Crtam−/− mice mounted a robust TH1 response, but markedly fewer TH17 cells were present in the intestinal mucosa of Crtam−/− mice. The almost exclusive TH1 response in Crtam−/− mice resulted in more efficient control of intestinal T. gondii infection. Thus, Crtam–Cadm1 interactions have a major impact on the residency and maintenance of CD4+CD8+ T cells in the gut mucosa in the steady state. During pathogenic infection, Crtam–Cadm1 interactions regulate the dynamic equilibrium between newly formed CD4+ T cells and their retention in the gut, thereby shaping representation of disparate CD4+ T cell subsets and the overall quality of the CD4+ T cell response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor S Cortez
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, 2 Department of Internal Medicine, 3 Department of Molecular Microbiology, and 4 Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110
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20
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Benevides L, Cardoso CR, Milanezi CM, Castro-Filice LS, Barenco PVC, Sousa RO, Rodrigues RM, Mineo JR, Silva JS, Silva NM. Toxoplasma gondii soluble tachyzoite antigen triggers protective mechanisms against fatal intestinal pathology in oral infection of C57BL/6 mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e75138. [PMID: 24086456 PMCID: PMC3782460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii induces a potent IL-12 response early in infection that results in IFN-γ-dependent control of parasite growth. It was previously shown that T. gondii soluble tachyzoite antigen (STAg) injected 48 hr before intraperitoneal infection reduces lipoxin A4 and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO)-dependent systemic IL-12 and IFN-γ production as well as hepatic immunopathology. This study investigated the ability of STAg-pretreatment to control the fatal intestinal pathology that develops in C57BL/6 mice orally infected with 100 T. gondii cysts. STAg-pretreatment prolonged the animals’ survival by decreasing tissue parasitism and pathology, mainly in the ilea. Protection was associated with decreases in the systemic IFN-γ levels and IFN-γ and TNF message levels in the ilea and with increased TGF-β production in this tissue, but protection was independent of 5-LO and IL-4. STAg-pretreatment decreased CD4+ T cell, NK cell, CD11b+ monocyte and CD11b+CD11c+ dendritic cell numbers in the lamina propria and increased CD8+ T cells in the intestinal epithelial compartment. In parallel, decreases were observed in iNOS and IL-17 expression in this organ. These results demonstrate that pretreatment with STAg can induce the recruitment of protective CD8+ T cells to the intraepithelial compartment and decrease proinflammatory immune mechanisms that promote intestinal pathology in T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Benevides
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Cristina R. Cardoso
- Department of Clinical Analyses Toxicology Bromatologics, Ribeirão Preto College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Cristiane M. Milanezi
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Paulo V. C. Barenco
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | - Romulo O. Sousa
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | | | - José R. Mineo
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | - João S. Silva
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Neide M. Silva
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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21
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Malhotra N, Kang J. SMAD regulatory networks construct a balanced immune system. Immunology 2013; 139:1-10. [PMID: 23347175 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2012] [Revised: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A balanced immune response requires combating infectious assaults while striving to maintain quiescence towards the self. One of the central players in this process is the pleiotropic cytokine transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), whose deficiency results in spontaneous systemic autoimmunity in mice. The dominant function of TGF-β is to regulate the peripheral immune homeostasis, particularly in the microbe-rich and antigen-rich environment of the gut. To maintain intestinal integrity, the epithelial cells, myeloid cells and lymphocytes that inhabit the gut secrete TGF-β, which acts in both paracrine and autocrine fashions to activate its signal transducers, the SMAD transcription factors. The SMAD pathway regulates the production of IgA by B cells, maintains the protective mucosal barrier and promotes the balanced differentiation of CD4(+) T cells into inflammatory T helper type 17 cells and suppressive FOXP3(+) T regulatory cells. While encounters with pathogenic microbes activate SMAD proteins to evoke a protective inflammatory immune response, SMAD activation and synergism with immunoregulatory factors such as the vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid enforce immunosuppression toward commensal microbes and innocuous food antigens. Such complementary context-dependent functions of TGF-β are achieved by the co-operation of SMAD proteins with distinct dominant transcription activators and accessory chromatin modifiers. This review highlights recent advances in unravelling the molecular basis for the multi-faceted functions of TGF-β in the gut that are dictacted by fluid orchestrations of SMADs and their myriad partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhi Malhotra
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
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22
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Thorum SC, Hester SN, Comstock SS, Monaco MH, Pence BD, Woods JA, Donovan SM. Dietary (1,3/1,6)-β-D-glucan decreases transforming growth factor β expression in the lung of the neonatal piglet. Nutr Res 2013; 33:322-31. [PMID: 23602250 DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2013.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 02/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Identification and characterization of compounds that enhance the growth, development, and health of infants who are not breastfed continues to be a goal for nutritional science. This study explored the effects of one dietary component, (1,3/1,6)-β-D-glucan (Wellmune WGP), on lung immune development in the neonatal piglet. The hypothesis was that supplementation with WGP, a pathogen-associated molecular pattern, would enhance pathogen-responsive elements of the immune system, for instance, by increasing the size of the cytotoxic T-cell population or the expression of inflammatory cytokines. Piglets were fed a control formula or formula plus WGP at 1.8, 18, or 90 mg/kg body weight per day. Serum, thoracic lymph nodes (TLNs), mediastinal lymph nodes, and lung were collected at days 7 or 21. Immune parameters including tissue messenger RNA (mRNA) expression and T-cell phenotypes were analyzed. Normal developmental changes were observed, with a decrease in T-helper cells and an increase in cytotoxic T cells in both TLN and mediastinal lymph node, but there was no effect of WGP. Dietary WGP reduced the mRNA expression of transforming growth factor (TGF) β2 and tended to reduce the mRNA expression of TGF-β1 in lung tissue. With the exception of reducing TGF-β mRNA in the lung and tending to decrease the ratio of T helper to cytotoxic T cell in the TLN, dietary WGP did not affect lung-associated adaptive immunity in piglets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon C Thorum
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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23
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Abstract
The ubiquitous apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii stimulates its host’s immune response to achieve quiescent chronic infection. Central to this goal are host dendritic cells. The parasite exploits dendritic cells to disseminate through the body, produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, present its antigens to the immune system and yet at the same time subvert their signaling pathways in order to evade detection. This carefully struck balance by Toxoplasma makes it the most successful parasite on this planet. Recent progress has highlighted specific parasite and host molecules that mediate some of these processes particularly in dendritic cells and in other cells of the innate immune system. Critically, there are several important factors that need to be taken into consideration when concluding how the dendritic cells and the immune system deal with a Toxoplasma infection, including the route of administration, parasite strain and host genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Sanecka
- Division of Parasitology, MRC National Institute of Medical Research, London, UK
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24
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Schulthess J, Meresse B, Ramiro-Puig E, Montcuquet N, Darche S, Bègue B, Ruemmele F, Combadière C, Di Santo JP, Buzoni-Gatel D, Cerf-Bensussan N. Interleukin-15-dependent NKp46+ innate lymphoid cells control intestinal inflammation by recruiting inflammatory monocytes. Immunity 2012; 37:108-21. [PMID: 22705105 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2012.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Revised: 03/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
With the goal in mind to define how interleukin-15 (IL-15) contributes to acute intestinal inflammation, we have used a mouse model of ileitis induced by oral infection with Toxoplasma gondii. We observed that a crosstalk between IL-15 and interleukin-18 (IL-18) promoted intestinal recruitment of inflammatory monocytes, where these cells participated in parasite control but also in tissue damage. A stromal source of IL-15 controlled the development of lamina propria NKp46(+)NK1.1(+) cells, whereas IL-18 produced during T. gondii infection stimulated their production of the chemokine CCL3. In turn, CCL3 attracted inflammatory monocytes via their chemokine receptor CCR1, which was indispensable for their recruitment into the inflamed gut. Collectively, these results identify the IL-15-dependent subset of intestinal NKp46(+) cells as an important source of CCL3, which can amplify intestinal inflammation via the recruitment of CCR1(+) inflammatory monocytes. Preliminary evidence suggests that this pathway might operate in Crohn's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Schulthess
- INSERM, U989, 75015 Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Paris Sorbonne Cité, Institut Imagine, France
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25
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Subauste C. Animal models for Toxoplasma gondii infection. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN IMMUNOLOGY 2012; Chapter 19:19.3.1-19.3.23. [PMID: 22314833 DOI: 10.1002/0471142735.im1903s96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan of worldwide distribution. This unit describes murine models of acute T. gondii infection, toxoplasmic encephalitis, and Toxoplasma retinochoroiditis. T. gondii infection in SCID mice allows the study of T cell-independent mechanisms of defense. The uracil auxotroph strain cps1-1 and temperature-sensitive mutant strains of T. gondii allow studies of immunization and adoptive transfer. In vivo study of parasite host-interaction is possible with the use of parasites that express fluorescent proteins and model antigens, plus the use of transgenic mice that express the appropriate T cell receptor and fluorescently labeled leukocytes. Parasites that express bioluminescent markers make it possible to study the dynamics of infection in real time using bioluminescence imaging. Support protocols present methodology for evaluation of progression of infection and immune response to the parasite, the maintenance of T. gondii tissue cysts and tachyzoites, as well as preparation of T. gondii lysate antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Subauste
- Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
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26
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Egan CE, Cohen SB, Denkers EY. Insights into inflammatory bowel disease using Toxoplasma gondii as an infectious trigger. Immunol Cell Biol 2011; 90:668-75. [PMID: 22064707 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2011.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Oral infection of certain inbred mouse strains with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii triggers inflammatory pathology resembling lesions seen during human inflammatory bowel disease, in particular Crohn's disease (CD). Damage triggered by the parasite is largely localized to the distal portion of the small intestine, and as such is one of only a few models for ileal inflammation. This is important because ileal involvement is a characteristic of CD in over two-thirds of patients. The disease induced by Toxoplasma is mediated by Th1 cells and the cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ. Inflammation is dependent upon IL-23, also identified by genome-wide association studies as a risk factor in CD. Development of lesions is concomitant with emergence of E. coli that display enhanced adhesion to the intestinal epithelium and subepithelial translocation. Furthermore, depletion of gut flora renders mice resistant to Toxoplasma-triggered ileitis. Recent findings suggest complex CCR2-dependent interactions between lamina propria T cells and intraepithelial lymphocytes in fueling proinflammatory pathology in the intestine. The advantage of the Toxoplasma model is that disease develops rapidly (within 7-10 days of infection) and can be induced in immunodeficient mice by adoptive transfer of mucosal T cells from infected donors. We propose that Toxoplasma acts as a trigger setting into motion a series of events culminating in loss of tolerance in the intestine and emergence of pathogenic T cell effectors. The Toxoplasma trigger model is providing new leaps in our understanding of immunity in the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte E Egan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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27
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Egan CE, Maurer KJ, Cohen SB, Mack M, Simpson KW, Denkers EY. Synergy between intraepithelial lymphocytes and lamina propria T cells drives intestinal inflammation during infection. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:658-70. [PMID: 21796113 PMCID: PMC3196813 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2011.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Oral infection of C57BL/6 mice with Toxoplasma gondii triggers severe necrosis in the ileum within 7-10 days of infection. Lesion development is mediated by Th-1 cytokines, CD4+ T cells, and subepithelial bacterial translocation. As such, these features share similarity to Crohn's disease. Recently, we uncovered a role for intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) in mediating pathology after Toxoplasma infection. We show here that αβ and not γδ T-cell IELs mediate intestinal damage. By adoptive transfer of mucosal T cells into naive Rag1⁻/⁻ mice, we demonstrate that IELs do not function alone to cause inflammatory lesions, but act with CD4+ T lymphocytes from the lamina propria (LP). Furthermore, recipient mice pretreated with broad-spectrum antibiotics to eliminate intestinal flora resisted intestinal disease after transfer of IELs and LP lymphocytes. Our data provide valuable new insights into the mechanisms of intestinal inflammation, findings that have important implications for understanding human inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. E. Egan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA,Correspondence: E. Denkers () or C. Egan ()
| | - K. J. Maurer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA, Center for Animal Resources and Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - S. B. Cohen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - M. Mack
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Regensburg, Regensburg. Germany
| | - K. W. Simpson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - E. Y. Denkers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA,Correspondence: E. Denkers () or C. Egan ()
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28
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite. Following oral infection the parasite crosses the intestinal epithelial barrier to disseminate throughout the body and establish latent infection in central nervous tissues. The clinical presentation ranges from asymptomatic to severe neurological disorders in immunocompromised individuals. Since the clinical presentation is diverse and depends, among other factors, on the immune status of the host, in the present review, we introduce parasitological, epidemiological, clinical, and molecular biological aspects of infection with T. gondii to set the stage for an in-depth discussion of host immune responses. Since immune responses in humans have not been investigated in detail the present review is exclusively referring to immune responses in experimental models of infection. Systemic and local immune responses in different models of infection are discussed, and a separate chapter introduces commonly used animal models of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melba Munoz
- Charite Medical School Berlin - Microbiology and Hygiene, Berlin, Germany
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29
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SMAD3 prevents graft-versus-host disease by restraining Th1 differentiation and granulocyte-mediated tissue damage. Blood 2010; 117:1734-44. [PMID: 21119112 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2010-05-287649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene expression profiling of human donor T cells before allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation revealed that expression of selected genes correlated with the occurrence of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) in recipients. The gene with the best GVHD predictive accuracy was SMAD3, a core component of the transforming growth factor-β signaling pathway, whose expression levels vary more than a 6-fold range in humans. The putative role of SMAD3 in the establishment of graft-host tolerance remained elusive. We report that SMAD3-KO mice present ostensibly normal lymphoid and myeloid cell subsets. However, the lack of SMAD3 dramatically increased the frequency and severity of GVHD after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation into major histocompatibility complex-identical recipients. Lethal GVHD induced by SMAD3-KO donors affected mainly the intestine and resulted from massive tissue infiltration by T-bet(+) CD4 T cells and granulocytes that caused tissue damage by in situ release of Th1 cytokines and oxidative-nitrosative mediators, respectively. Our report reveals the nonredundant roles of SMAD3 in the development of tolerance to the host. Furthermore, our data support the concept that SMAD3 levels in donor cells dictate the risk of GVHD and that SMAD3 agonists would be attractive for prevention of GVHD.
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30
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Karlsson MR, Johansen FE, Kahu H, Macpherson A, Brandtzaeg P. Hypersensitivity and oral tolerance in the absence of a secretory immune system. Allergy 2010; 65:561-70. [PMID: 19886928 DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02225.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mucosal immunity protects the epithelial barrier by immune exclusion of foreign antigens and by anti-inflammatory tolerance mechanisms, but there is a continuing debate about the role of secretory immunoglobulins (SIgs), particularly SIgA, in the protection against allergy and other inflammatory diseases. Lack of secretory antibodies may cause immune dysfunction and affect mucosally induced (oral) tolerance against food antigens. METHODS We used polymeric Ig receptor (pIgR) knockout (KO) mice, which cannot export SIgA or SIgM, to study oral tolerance induction by ovalbumin (OVA) feeding and for parenteral antigen sensitization in the same animal. RESULTS Remarkable systemic hyperreactivity was observed in pIgR KO mice, as 50% died after intradermal OVA challenge, which was not seen in similarly sensitized and challenged wild-type (WT) mice. Oral tolerance induced by OVA completely protected the sensitized pIgR KO mice against anaphylaxis and suppressed antibody levels (particularly IgG1) as well as delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) to OVA. Delayed-type hypersensitivity to a bystander antigen, human serum albumin, was also suppressed and T-cell proliferation against OVA in vitro was reduced in tolerized compared with non-tolerized pIgR KO mice. This effect was largely mediated by CD25+ T cells. Adoptive transfer of splenic putative regulatory T cells (CD4+ CD25+) obtained from OVA-fed pIgR KO mice to naïve WT mice mediated suppression of DTH against OVA after sensitization of the recipients. CONCLUSION Compensatory regulatory T-cell function becomes critical in pIgR-deficient mice to avoid the potentially catastrophic effects of systemic immune hyperreactivity, presumably resulting from defective secretory antibody-mediated immune exclusion of microbial components.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Karlsson
- Centre for Immune Regulation, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Rikshospitalet, Norway
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31
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Egan CE, Craven M, Leng J, Mack M, Simpson KW, Denkers EY. CCR2-dependent intraepithelial lymphocytes mediate inflammatory gut pathology during Toxoplasma gondii infection. Mucosal Immunol 2009; 2:527-35. [PMID: 19741601 PMCID: PMC2860785 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2009.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mice of the C57BL/6 strain develop acute ileal inflammation after infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. This pathology resembles many key features of human Crohn's disease, including a Th1 cytokine profile with high levels of interferon gamma (IFN-gamma), interleukin 12 (IL)-12, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF)-alpha, presence of pathogenic CD4(+) T cells, and infiltration of gut flora into inflammed tissue. Using CCR2(-/-) mice, we identify a role for this chemokine receptor in the pathogenesis of inflammatory pathology during T. gondii infection. Lack of chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 (CCR2) was associated with low levels of CD103(+) T lymphocytes in the intraepithelial compartment, Peyer's patch, and lamina propria relative to wild-type animals. Adoptive transfer of wild-type, but not IFN-gamma(-/-), intraepithelial T lymphocytes converted CCR2 knockout mice from a resistant to susceptible phenotype with respect to parasite-triggered inflammatory gut pathology. These results for the first time show a role for intraepithelial T lymphocytes in pathogenesis of ileitis triggered by a microbial pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. E. Egan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - M.D. Craven
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - J. Leng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - M. Mack
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - K. W. Simpson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - E. Y. Denkers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
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Miller CM, Boulter NR, Ikin RJ, Smith NC. The immunobiology of the innate response to Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Parasitol 2008; 39:23-39. [PMID: 18775432 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2008] [Revised: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 08/11/2008] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a unique intracellular parasite. It can infect a variety of cells in virtually all warm-blooded animals. It has a worldwide distribution and, overall, around one-third of people are seropositive for the parasite, with essentially the entire human population being at risk of infection. For most people, T. gondii causes asymptomatic infection but the parasite can cause serious disease in the immunocompromised and, if contracted for the first time during pregnancy, can cause spontaneous abortion or congenital defects, which have a substantial emotional, social and economic impact. Toxoplasma gondii provokes one of the most potent innate, pro-inflammatory responses of all infectious disease agents. It is also a supreme manipulator of the immune response so that innate immunity to T. gondii is a delicate balance between the parasite and its host involving a coordinated series of cellular interactions involving enterocytes, neutrophils, dendritic cells, macrophages and natural killer cells. Underpinning these interactions is the regulation of complex molecular reactions involving Toll-like receptors, activation of signalling pathways, cytokine production and activation of anti-microbial effector mechanisms including generation of reactive nitrogen and oxygen intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M Miller
- Institute for the Biotechnology of Infectious Diseases, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia
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33
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Guetard D, Greco R, Cervantes Gonzalez M, Celli S, Kostrzak A, Langlade-Demoyen P, Sala F, Wain-Hobson S, Sala M. Immunogenicity and tolerance following HIV-1/HBV plant-based oral vaccine administration. Vaccine 2008; 26:4477-85. [PMID: 18601967 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2008] [Revised: 05/07/2008] [Accepted: 06/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Transgenic tobacco plants expressing a HIV-1 polyepitope associated with hepatitis B (HBV) virus-like particles (VLPs) were previously described. It is demonstrated here that oral administration of these transgenic plants to humanized HSB mice to boost DNA-priming can elicit anti-HIV-1 specific CD8+ T cell activation detectable in mesenteric lymph nodes. Nevertheless, a significant regulatory T cell activation was induced in vivo by the vaccination protocols. The balance between tolerance and immunogenicity remains the main concern in the proof of concept of plant-based vaccine.
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MESH Headings
- AIDS Vaccines/administration & dosage
- AIDS Vaccines/adverse effects
- AIDS Vaccines/immunology
- Administration, Oral
- Animals
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Epitopes/genetics
- Epitopes/immunology
- Female
- Flow Cytometry
- HIV-1/genetics
- Hepatitis B Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Hepatitis B Vaccines/adverse effects
- Hepatitis B Vaccines/immunology
- Hepatitis B virus/genetics
- Immunization, Secondary/methods
- Lymph Nodes/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- Mice
- Plants, Genetically Modified
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- Nicotiana
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Vaccines, Edible/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Edible/adverse effects
- Vaccines, Edible/immunology
- Vaccines, Virosome/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Virosome/adverse effects
- Vaccines, Virosome/immunology
- Viral Proteins/biosynthesis
- Viral Proteins/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Guetard
- Department of Virology, Unité de Rétrovirologie Moléculaire, CNRS URA 3015, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France
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34
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Benevides L, Milanezi CM, Yamauchi LM, Benjamim CF, Silva JS, Silva NM. CCR2 receptor is essential to activate microbicidal mechanisms to control Toxoplasma gondii infection in the central nervous system. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2008; 173:741-51. [PMID: 18688032 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2008.080129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines comprise a structurally related family of cytokines that regulate leukocyte trafficking. Because infection with Toxoplasma gondii can induce an important inflammatory reaction that, if left uncontrolled, can lead to death, we investigated the role of the chemokine receptor CCR2 in T. gondii infection. We orally infected CCR2(-/-) mice with five ME-49 T. gondii cysts and monitored morbidity, survival, and immune response thereafter. The CCR2(-/-) mice displayed higher susceptibility to infection as all mice died on day 28 after infection. Despite similar Th1 responses, a more evident anti-inflammatory response was induced in the peripheral organs of CCR2(-/-) mice compared with wild-type C57BL/6 mice. Additionally, CCR2(-/-) mice presented greater parasitism and a milder inflammatory reaction in their peripheral organs with lesser CD4(+) and MAC-1(+) and greater CD8(+) cell migration. The parasite load decreased in these organs in CCR2(-/-) mice but remained uncontrolled in the central nervous system. Additionally, we observed down-regulated inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in peripheral organs from CCR2(-/-) mice that was associated with a small nitric oxide production by spleen macrophages. In conclusion, in the absence of CCR2, another mechanism is activated to control tissue parasitism in peripheral organs. Nevertheless, CCR2 is essential for the activation of microbicidal mediators that control T. gondii replication in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Benevides
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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35
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Girard MP, Bansal GP, Pedroza-Martins L, Dodet B, Mehra V, Schito M, Mathieson B, Delfraissy JF, Bradac J. Mucosal immunity and HIV/AIDS vaccines. Report of an International Workshop, 28-30 October 2007. Vaccine 2008; 26:3969-77. [PMID: 18513838 PMCID: PMC7131112 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.04.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2008] [Accepted: 04/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In October 2007, a joint ANRS-NIH workshop was held on “Mucosal immunity and HIV/AIDS vaccines” in Veyrier-du-Lac, France. Goal of the meeting was to discuss recent developments in the understanding of viral entry and dissemination at mucosal surfaces, rationale for designing vaccines to elicit mucosal immune responses by various routes of immunization, and the types of immune responses elicited. Lessons were drawn from existing vaccines against viral mucosal infections, from the recent failure of the Merck Ad5/HIV vaccine and from attempts at mucosal immunization against SIV. This report summarizes the main concepts and conclusions that came out of the meeting.
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Kadaoui KA, Corthésy B. Secretory IgA mediates bacterial translocation to dendritic cells in mouse Peyer's patches with restriction to mucosal compartment. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 179:7751-7. [PMID: 18025221 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.11.7751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In addition to fulfilling its function of immune exclusion at mucosal surfaces, secretory IgA (SIgA) Ab exhibits the striking feature to adhere selectively to M cells in the mouse and human intestinal Peyer's patches (PPs). Subsequent uptake drives the SIgA Ab to dendritic cells (DCs), which become partially activated. Using freshly isolated mouse DCs, we found that the interaction with SIgA was tissue and DC subtype dependent. Only DCs isolated from PPs and mesenteric lymph nodes interacted with the Ab. CD11c(+)CD11b(+) DCs internalized SIgA, while CD11c(+)CD19(+) DCs only bound SIgA on their surface, and no interaction occurred with CD11c(+)CD8alpha(+) DCs. We next examined whether SIgA could deliver a sizeable cargo to PP DCs in vivo by administering SIgA-Shigella flexneri immune complexes into a mouse ligated intestinal loop containing a PP. We found that such immune complexes entered the PPs and were internalized by subepithelial dome PP DCs, in contrast to S. flexneri alone that did not penetrate the intestinal epithelium in mice. Dissemination of intraepithelial S. flexneri delivered as immune complexes was limited to PPs and mesenteric lymph nodes. We propose that preexisting SIgA Abs associated with microbes contribute to mucosal defense by eliciting responses that prevent overreaction while maintaining productive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalil A Kadaoui
- R&D Laboratory of the Division of Immunology and Allergy, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Rue du Bugnon, Switzerland
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37
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Cardoso CR, Teixeira G, Provinciatto PR, Godoi DF, Ferreira BR, Milanezi CM, Ferraz DB, Rossi MA, Cunha FQ, Silva JS. Modulation of mucosal immunity in a murine model of food-induced intestinal inflammation. Clin Exp Allergy 2007; 38:338-49. [PMID: 18005184 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2007.02866.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypersensitivity or uncontrolled responses against dietary antigens can lead to inflammatory disorders like food allergy and current models reflect a variety of causes but do not reveal the detailed modulation of gut immunity in response to food antigens after breakdown in mucosal tolerance. OBJECTIVE To develop and characterize a murine model for food-induced intestinal inflammation and to demonstrate the modulation of gut immune response by dietary allergenic antigens. METHODS C57BL/6 mice were sensitized with peanut proteins, challenged with peanut seeds and their sera and gut segments were collected for subsequent analyses. RESULTS Sensitization and challenged with peanut seeds led to alterations in gut architecture with inflammatory response characterized by oedema in lamina propria and cell infiltrate composed mainly by eosinophils, mast cells, phagocytes, natural killer and plasma cells, together with low percentage of gammadelta+ and CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ cells in Peyer's patches. These animals also presented high levels of specific IgE and IgG1 in sera and modulation of mucosal immunity was mediated by increased expression of GATA-3, IL-4, IL-13 and TNF-alpha in contrast to low IFN-gamma in the gut. CONCLUSION A murine model for food-induced intestinal inflammation was characterized in which modulation of gut immunity occurs by peanut antigens in consequence of T-helper type 2 (Th2) allergic response and failure of regulatory mechanisms necessary for mucosa homeostasis, resembling food allergy. This work shed some light on the understanding of the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal disorders and intolerance in the gut and supports the development of therapies for food-related enteropathies like food allergy, focusing on gut-specific immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- C R Cardoso
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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38
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Abstract
Surviving a given infection requires the generation of a controlled immune response. Failure to establish or restore homeostatic conditions during or following the onset of an infection can lead to tissue damage. Investigation of the immunoregulatory network that arises in response to the infectious process or that is induced by the pathogen itself should provide insight into therapeutic approaches for the control of infection and any subsequent immunopathology. In this Review, I discuss current hypotheses and points of polemic associated with the origin, mode of action and antigen specificity of the various populations of regulatory T cells that arise during infection.
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39
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Nguyen TV, Yuan L, Azevedo MS, Jeong KI, Gonzalez AM, Saif LJ. Transfer of maternal cytokines to suckling piglets: in vivo and in vitro models with implications for immunomodulation of neonatal immunity. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2007; 117:236-48. [PMID: 17403542 PMCID: PMC4094377 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2007.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2006] [Revised: 02/08/2007] [Accepted: 02/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Maternal cytokines may play instructive roles in development of the neonatal immune system. However, cytokines in colostrum and milk and their transfer from mothers to neonates have not been well documented, except for TGF-beta. Swine provide a unique model to study lactogenic cytokines because the sow's impermeable placenta prohibits transplacental passage. We investigated IL-6 and TNF-alpha (pro-inflammatory), IFN-gamma and IL-12 (Th1), IL-10 and IL-4 (Th2) and TGF-beta1 (Th3) concentrations in sow serum and colostrum/milk and serum of their suckling and weaned piglets and in age-matched colostrum-deprived gnotobiotic piglets. All cytokines were detected in colostrum/milk and correlated with concentrations in sow serum except for mammary-derived TNF-alpha and TGF-beta1. Detection of IL-12 and TGF-beta1 in pre-suckling and colostrum-deprived gnotobiotic piglet serum suggests constitutive production: other cytokines were undetectable confirming absence of transplacental transfer. Peak median cytokine concentrations in suckling piglet serum occurred at post-partum days 1-2 (IL-4>IL-6>IFN-gamma>IL-10). The effects in vitro of physiologically relevant concentrations of the two predominant lactogenic cytokines (TGF-beta1 and IL-4) on porcine naive B cell responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and rotavirus (RV) were investigated. High (10 ng/ml) TGF-beta1 suppressed immunoglobulin secreting cell responses to LPS and rotavirus; low concentrations (0.1 ng/ml) promoted isotype switching to IgA antibody. Interleukin-4 induced inverse dose-dependent (0.1 ng>10 ng/ml) isotype switching to IgA and enhanced IgM secreting cell responses to LPS and rotavirus. In summary, we documented the transfer and persistence of maternal cytokines from colostrum/milk to neonates and their potential role in Th-2 biased IgA responses and reduced immunologic responsiveness of neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lijuan Yuan
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, Ohio 44691-4096, USA
| | - Marli S.P. Azevedo
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, Ohio 44691-4096, USA
| | - Kwang-il Jeong
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, Ohio 44691-4096, USA
| | - Ana-Maria Gonzalez
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, Ohio 44691-4096, USA
| | - Linda J. Saif
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, Ohio 44691-4096, USA
- Correspondence address: Dr. Linda J. Saif, Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, Ohio 44691-4096, USA. Telephone: (330)263-3742. Fax: (330)263-3677.
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40
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Correale J, Farez M. Association between parasite infection and immune responses in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 2007; 61:97-108. [PMID: 17230481 DOI: 10.1002/ana.21067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess whether parasite infection is correlated with a reduced number of exacerbations and altered immune reactivity in multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS A prospective, double-cohort study was performed to assess the clinical course and radiological findings in 12 MS patients presenting associated eosinophilia. All patients presented parasitic infections with positive stool specimens. In all parasite-infected MS patients, the eosinophilia was not present during the 2 previous years. Eosinophil counts were monitored at 3- to 6-month intervals. When counts became elevated, patients were enrolled in the study. Interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-12, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta, and interferon-gamma production by myelin basic protein-specific peripheral blood mononuclear cells were studied using enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT). FoxP3 and Smad7 expression were studied by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS During a 4.6-year follow-up period, parasite-infected MS patients showed a significantly lower number of exacerbations, minimal variation in disability scores, as well as fewer magnetic resonance imaging changes when compared with uninfected MS patients. Furthermore, myelin basic protein-specific responses in peripheral blood showed a significant increase in IL-10 and TGF-beta and a decrease in IL-12 and interferon-gamma-secreting cells in infected MS patients compared with noninfected patients. Myelin basic protein-specific T cells cloned from infected subjects were characterized by the absence of IL-2 and IL-4 production, but high IL-10 and/or TGF-beta secretion, showing a cytokine profile similar to the T-cell subsets Tr1 and Th3. Moreover, cloning frequency of CD4+CD25+ FoxP3+ T cells was substantially increased in infected patients compared with uninfected MS subjects. Finally, Smad7 messenger RNA was not detected in T cells from infected MS patients secreting TGF-beta. INTERPRETATION Increased production of IL-10 and TGF-beta, together with induction of CD25+CD4+ FoxP3+ T cells, suggests that regulatory T cells induced during parasite infections can alter the course of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Correale
- Department of Neurology, Raúl Carrea Institute for Neurological Research (FLENI), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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41
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection is an important cause of central nervous system and ocular disease, both in immunocompromised and in certain immunocompetent populations. Although parasite-mediated host cell lysis is probably the principal cause of tissue destruction in immunodeficiency states, hypersensitivity and inflammatory responses may underlie severe disease in otherwise immuno-sufficient individuals. In this review, we have critically evaluated the body of experimental evidence indicating a role of CD4 T cells in systemic and local immunopathology associated with T. gondii infection. We also discuss the pathogenic roles of cytokines produced by T helper (Th) 1 and Th17 cells and the protective and homeostatic roles of interleukin (IL)-10, transforming growth factor-beta and IL-27 in modulating hypersensitivity responses induced by T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela J Gaddi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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42
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Chassin C, Goujon JM, Darche S, du Merle L, Bens M, Cluzeaud F, Werts C, Ogier-Denis E, Le Bouguénec C, Buzoni-Gatel D, Vandewalle A. Renal collecting duct epithelial cells react to pyelonephritis-associated Escherichia coli by activating distinct TLR4-dependent and -independent inflammatory pathways. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:4773-84. [PMID: 16982918 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.7.4773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
TLR4 plays a central role in resistance to pyelonephritis caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). It has been suggested that renal tubule epithelial cells expressing TLRs may play a key role in inflammatory disorders and in initiating host defenses. In this study we used an experimental mouse model of ascending urinary tract infection to show that UPEC isolates preferentially adhered to the apical surface of medullary collecting duct (MCD) intercalated cells. UPEC-infected C3H/HeJ (Lps(d)) mice carrying an inactivating mutation of tlr4 failed to clear renal bacteria and exhibited a dramatic slump in proinflammatory mediators as compared with infected wild-type C3H/HeOuJ (Lps(n)) mice. However, the level of expression of the leukocyte chemoattractants MIP-2 and TNF-alpha still remained greater in UPEC-infected than in naive C3H/HeJ (Lps(d)) mice. Using primary cultures of microdissected Lps(n) MCDs that expressed TLR4 and its accessory molecules MD2, MyD88, and CD14, we also show that UPECs stimulated both a TLR4-mediated, MyD88-dependent, TIR domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-beta-independent pathway and a TLR4-independent pathway, leading to bipolarized secretion of MIP-2. Stimulation by UPECs of the TLR4-mediated pathway in Lps(n) MCDs leads to the activation of NF-kappaB, and MAPK p38, ERK1/2, and JNK. In addition, UPECs stimulated TLR4-independent signaling by activating a TNF receptor-associated factor 2-apoptosis signal-regulatory kinase 1-JNK pathway. These findings demonstrate that epithelial collecting duct cells are actively involved in the initiation of an immune response via several distinct signaling pathways and suggest that intercalated cells play an active role in the recognition of UPECs colonizing the kidneys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécilia Chassin
- INSERM U773, Centre de Recherche Biomédicale Bichat-Beaujon (CRB3), Unité de Formation et de Recherche de Médecine Xavier Bichat, 16 Rue Henri Huchard, F-75870 Paris Cedex 18, France
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Buzoni-Gatel D, Werts C. Toxoplasma gondii and subversion of the immune system. Trends Parasitol 2006; 22:448-52. [PMID: 16904378 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2006.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2006] [Revised: 07/12/2006] [Accepted: 08/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular obligate parasite that enters the host via the gastrointestinal tract. The parasite is able to evade or subvert the immune response of its host via various mechanisms. Here, we discuss a recent in vitro study by Eric Denkers and colleagues that focused on the modulation of gene transcription of host macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) following infection with T. gondii. The parasite was able to block the response of macrophages to LPS, a major immunostimulatory component of Gram negative bacteria, thus possibly avoiding the hyperinflammatory response of the host to gut microflora, among which Gram negative bacteria are abundant.
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44
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Welter A, Mineo JR, Silva DADO, Lourenço EV, Ferro EAV, Roque-Barreira MC, da Silva NM. An opposite role is exerted by the acarian Myocoptes musculinus in the outcome of Toxoplasma gondii infection according to the route of the protozoa inoculation. Microbes Infect 2006; 8:2618-28. [PMID: 17055964 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2006.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2005] [Revised: 04/15/2006] [Accepted: 07/12/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Infection with Toxoplasma gondii leads to a Th1 immune response. Alternatively, the acarian Myocoptes musculinus induces a disease in BALB/c mice that involves Th2 immune mechanisms. In this study, we investigated whether infestation by M. musculinus induces Th2 immune response in C57BL/6 mice and if this response influences the T. gondii-induced Th1 response when mice are inoculated by intraperitoneal or oral route. The animals were infected with M. musculinus and one month later with T. gondii ME-49 strain and the survival and immune response were monitored. The co-infected animals displayed higher mortality rate and the spleen cells showed a decreased IFN-gamma and elevated IL-4 and IL-5 production. These changes were associated with severe pneumonia and wasting condition. On the other hand, when mice were orally infected with 100 T. gondii cysts, co-infection prolonged the survival rates and ameliorated intestinal lesions in association with a significant drop in IFN-gamma levels in sera. These results indicate the interference of Th2 response induced by M. musculinus in a T. gondii-induced Th1 response. Altogether, these data demonstrate the profound interactions between the immune response induced against unrelated organisms T. gondii and M. musculinus, and suggest that this type of interactions may impact clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurea Welter
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Campus Umuarama, Av. Pará, 1720, Bloco 4C, Uberlândia, MG 38400-902, Brazil
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45
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Belkaid Y, Sun CM, Bouladoux N. Parasites and immunoregulatory T cells. Curr Opin Immunol 2006; 18:406-12. [PMID: 16766171 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2006.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2006] [Accepted: 05/31/2006] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Surviving a parasitic infection requires the generation of a controlled immune response. Failure to establish or to maintain homeostatic conditions usually causes disease. Investigation of the immunoregulatory network as the response to the parasitic process or induced by the parasite promises enormous therapeutic benefits for the control of parasitic diseases. Recent findings implicate various populations of regulatory T cells in this homeostatic regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine Belkaid
- Mucosal Immunology Unit, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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46
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Minns LA, Menard LC, Foureau DM, Darche S, Ronet C, Mielcarz DW, Buzoni-Gatel D, Kasper LH. TLR9 is required for the gut-associated lymphoid tissue response following oral infection of Toxoplasma gondii. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:7589-97. [PMID: 16751405 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.12.7589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
TLRs expressed by a variety of cells, including epithelial cells, B cells, and dendritic cells, are important initiators of the immune response following stimulation with various microbial products. Several of the TLRs require the adaptor protein, MyD88, which is an important mediator for the immune response following Toxoplasma gondii infection. Previously, TLR9-mediated innate immune responses were predominantly associated with ligation of unmethylated bacterial CpG DNA. In this study, we show that TLR9 is required for the Th1-type inflammatory response that ensues following oral infection with T. gondii. After oral infection with T. gondii, susceptible wild-type (WT; C57BL/6) but not TLR9(-/-) (B6 background) mice develop a Th1-dependent acute lethal ileitis; TLR9(-/-) mice have higher parasite burdens than control WT mice, consistent with depressed IFN-gamma-dependent parasite killing. A reduction in the total T cell and IFN-gamma-producing T cell frequencies was observed in the lamina propria of the TLR9(-/-) parasite-infected mice. TLR9 and type I IFN production was observed by cells from infected intestines in WT mice. TLR9 expression by dendritic cell populations is essential for their expansion in the mesenteric lymph nodes of infected mice. Infection of chimeric mice deleted of TLR9 in either the hemopoietic or nonhemopoietic compartments demonstrated that TLR9 expression by cells from both compartments is important for efficient T cell responses to oral infection. These observations demonstrate that TLR9 mediates the innate response to oral parasite infection and is involved in the development of an effective Th1-type immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie A Minns
- Department of Medicine, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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Buzoni-Gatel D, Schulthess J, Menard LC, Kasper LH. Mucosal defences against orally acquired protozoan parasites, emphasis on Toxoplasma gondii infections. Cell Microbiol 2006; 8:535-44. [PMID: 16548880 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00692.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Protozoan parasites that gain access to the host through the mucosal tissue of the alimentary tract may influence the development of intestinal inflammatory disorders. Despite the diversity of the extracellular and intracellular protozoan pathogens discussed in this review, our current understanding of the mechanisms involved in the immune response indicates that a common exuberant immune response to rid the host of these agents is elicited. This robust inflammatory response is orchestrated both by cells from parenchymatous origin such as intestinal epithelial cells and by cells from the haematopoietic system such as macrophages, dendritic cells and lymphocytes. This inflammatory immune response is controlled by a series of regulatory mechanisms in most species. When this balance is no longer evident, an inflammation of the intestine may occur, leading to acute gastritis and diarrhoea and that would add pathological effects to those because of the pathogen itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Buzoni-Gatel
- Réponses Précoces aux Parasites et Immunopathologie, Institut Pasteur, 28 Rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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Ploquin MJY, Desoutter JF, Santos PR, Pandrea I, Diop OM, Hosmalin A, Butor C, Barre-Sinoussi F, Müller-Trutwin MC. Distinct expression profiles of TGF-beta1 signaling mediators in pathogenic SIVmac and non-pathogenic SIVagm infections. Retrovirology 2006; 3:37. [PMID: 16800882 PMCID: PMC1533859 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-3-37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2006] [Accepted: 06/26/2006] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The generalized T-cell activation characterizing HIV-1 and SIVmac infections in humans and macaques (MACs) is not found in the non-pathogenic SIVagm infection in African green monkeys (AGMs). We have previously shown that TGF-β1, Foxp3 and IL-10 are induced very early after SIVagm infection. In SIVmac-infected MACs, plasma TGF-β1 induction persists during primary infection [1]. We raised the hypothesis that MACs are unable to respond to TGF-β1 and thus cannot resorb virus-driven inflammation. We therefore compared the very early expression dynamics of pro- and anti-inflammatory markers as well as of factors involved in the TGF-β1 signaling pathway in SIV-infected AGMs and MACs. Methods Levels of transcripts encoding for pro- and anti-inflammatory markers (tnf-α, ifn-γ, il-10, t-bet, gata-3) as well as for TGF-β1 signaling mediators (smad3, smad4, smad7) were followed by real time PCR in a prospective study enrolling 6 AGMs and 6 MACs. Results During primary SIVmac infection, up-regulations of tnf-α, ifn-γ and t-bet responses (days 1–16 p.i.) were stronger whereas il-10 response was delayed (4th week p.i.) compared to SIVagm infection. Up-regulation of smad7 (days 3–8 p.i.), a cellular mediator inhibiting the TGF-β1 signaling cascade, characterized SIV-infected MACs. In AGMs, we found increases of gata-3 but not t-bet, a longer lasting up-regulation of smad4 (days 1–21 p.i), a mediator enhancing TGF-β1 signaling, and no smad7 up-regulations. Conclusion Our data suggest that the inability to resorb virus-driven inflammation and activation during the pathogenic HIV-1/SIVmac infections is associated with an unresponsiveness to TGF-β1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mickaël J-Y Ploquin
- Unité de Régulation des Infections Rétrovirales, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Desoutter
- Institut Cochin, Département d'Immunologie, INSERM U567, CNRS UMR8104, Université Paris-Descartes, Faculté de Médecine, Paris, France
| | - Patricia R Santos
- Institut Cochin, Département d'Immunologie, INSERM U567, CNRS UMR8104, Université Paris-Descartes, Faculté de Médecine, Paris, France
| | - Ivona Pandrea
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington Louisiana 70433, Tulane University Health Science Cente, New Orleans Louisiana 70112, USA
| | | | - Anne Hosmalin
- Institut Cochin, Département d'Immunologie, INSERM U567, CNRS UMR8104, Université Paris-Descartes, Faculté de Médecine, Paris, France
| | - Cécile Butor
- Institut Cochin, Département d'Immunologie, INSERM U567, CNRS UMR8104, Université Paris-Descartes, Faculté de Médecine, Paris, France
- Université Paris 7 – Denis Diderot, France
| | | | - Michaela C Müller-Trutwin
- Unité de Régulation des Infections Rétrovirales, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Docteur ROUX, F75724 PARIS Cedex 15, France
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Brandtzaeg P. The changing immunological paradigm in coeliac disease. Immunol Lett 2006; 105:127-39. [PMID: 16647763 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2006.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2006] [Revised: 03/13/2006] [Accepted: 03/15/2006] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
When coeliac disease is referred to as an inflammatory disorder, this may detract from its true nature. Activation of innate and adaptive immunity takes place in the mucosal lesion, but the tissue reaction is not that of classical inflammation. In fact, coeliac disease contrasts strikingly with typical inflammatory bowel disorders such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. The coeliac lesion apparently reflects, in the main, immune-driven remodelling of mucosal architecture with only a minor inflammatory component - initially most likely resulting from innate signals. Complement split products might be one of several potential initial hits that lead to activation of lamina propria and epithelial cells with release of mediators such as interleukin-15. This cytokine appears to stimulate potentially pathogenic intraepithelial lymphocytes. In genetically susceptible individuals, such early innate events could turn into persistent pathogenic signalling with subsequent adaptive cellular and humoral immunopathology resulting in a chronic lesion. Nevertheless, mucosal homeostasis is surprisingly well preserved as signified by the remarkable dominance of plasma cells that produce dimeric immunoglobulin A as a basis for enhanced secretory immunity. This shows that the microvascular endothelium in the lesion largely maintains its 'gatekeeper' function for mucosal immune cells - in striking contrast to the 'promiscuous' situation in inflammatory bowel disease. Altogether, a two-signal model is emerging for the pathogenesis of coeliac disease - signal 1 generated by innate immunity and signal 2 by adaptive immunity. Hence, there is currently an increased focus on immune activation in the epithelial compartment rather than on changes in the microvasculature as a basis for classical inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Brandtzaeg
- Laboratory for Immunohistochemistry and Immunopathology (LIIPAT), Institute and Department of Pathology, University of Oslo, Rikshospitalet-Radiumhospitalet Medical Centre, N-0027 Oslo, Norway.
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Flach CF, Lange S, Jennische E, Lönnroth I, Holmgren J. Cholera toxin induces a transient depletion of CD8+ intraepithelial lymphocytes in the rat small intestine as detected by microarray and immunohistochemistry. Infect Immun 2005; 73:5595-602. [PMID: 16113276 PMCID: PMC1231117 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.9.5595-5602.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholera toxin (CT), besides causing intestinal hypersecretion after intragastric administration or during cholera infection, affects a multitude of regulatory mechanisms within the gut mucosal network, including T cells. By use of microarray screening, real-time PCR, and immunohistochemistry, we demonstrate here a rapid depletion of jejunal CD8(+) intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) in rats after intragastric CT challenge. This depletion may depend on CT-induced migration of IEL, since it was associated with a progressive decrease of CD8(+) cells in the epithelium and a contemporary transient increase of such cells, preferentially at the base of the villi, in the lamina propria. A significant decrease in the total number of villous CD8(+) cells at 6 and 18 h after CT challenge was detected; this possibly reflects an efflux from the jejunal mucosa. The kinetics of the CD8(+) IEL demonstrate the return to normal intraepithelial position at original numbers already 72 h after the single CT dose. The induced migration seems to be dependent on the enzymatic A-subunit of CT, since challenge with neither sorbitol nor CT B-subunit did mimic the effects of CT on CD8(+) IEL. Furthermore, a decrease in the level of both RANTES transcript and protein was detected, most likely as a consequence of the CT-induced migration of CD8(+) IEL. These results point to a complex interaction between CT, epithelial cells, and IEL, resulting in a disturbance of the gut homeostasis, which might have relevance for the strong immunomodulatory effects of intragastrically administered CT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl-Fredrik Flach
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Göteborg University, 40530 Göteborg, Sweden
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