Agree or Agree to Disagree? Assessing the Convergence between Parents and Observers on Infant Temperament

The kids are bored: Trait boredom in early childhood and links to self-regulation, coping strategies, and parent-child interactions

Boredom is a negative emotion that most people experience on occasion. However, some people experience boredom more or are unable to tolerate it, which is called trait boredom. Trait boredom has been well-studied in adolescence and adulthood, but little is known about trait boredom in childhood. The main goal of this study was to measure trait boredom in 4- to 6-year-olds (N = 130) and to test whether it relates to self-regulatory processes in a similar fashion that has been observed in adults and identify strategies children use to cope with boredom. We found boredom in childhood was related to self-regulatory processes in a similar fashion as it does in adults, and most children used social stimulation strategies (e.g., asking to play with a parent) or behavioral strategies (e.g., playing with toys) to cope with boredom. The findings are discussed within the context of prevention and the emotion regulation and boredom literature.

Parental sensitivity and intrusiveness with mothers and fathers: Associations between parental behavioral activation/inhibition and infant temperament

Understanding the factors contributing to sensitive parenting is crucial to optimize infant social and emotional functioning. Research has supported the association between parents' personality and parenting quality, but findings are inconsistent when examining various global personality measures. Further, it is likely that the interaction between parent-level (e.g., personality) and infant-level characteristics (e.g., temperament) are more strongly associated with caregiving quality. Most studies examining predictors of parenting quality have only included mothers, compared to fathers. The current study examined the interaction between parental personality and infant temperament and associations with parental sensitivity and intrusiveness with mothers and fathers. The participants included families (n = 102) when the infants were 4, 6, and 8 months old. Using parent report measures and a face-to-face play task, significant main effects of maternal behavioral inhibition on parenting behaviors were observed for mothers. A Behavioral Activation X Infant Negative Reactivity interaction predicted both maternal sensitivity and intrusiveness, whereas a Behavioral Inhibition X Infant Surgency predicted paternal intrusiveness. In summary, the results revealed support for the goodness-of-fit perspective between parents' personality and infant temperament.

Intergenerational transmission of maternal prenatal anxiety to infant fearfulness: the mediating role of mother-infant bonding

PURPOSE

This study is the first to directly investigate the mechanistic role of maternal bonding toward her infant in the early intergenerational pathway of risk from maternal anxiety to infant fearfulness.

METHODS

Mothers (N = 216; Mage=32.78) reported on their anxiety and bonding at four time-points between pregnancy and ten-months postpartum. At four and ten-months postpartum, infant temperamental precursors of anxiety were assessed through maternal report and observation.

RESULTS

Cross-lagged longitudinal path modeling indicated a significant link between prenatal maternal anxiety and infant temperamental fearful withdrawal at 10-months postpartum (R2 = 0.117), which was fully explained by decreased maternal bonding at one-month postpartum and increased infant temperamental negative reactivity at 4-months postpartum.

CONCLUSION

Results support the need to foster maternal bonding in preventive perinatal care, particularly in the context of maternal anxiety.

Maternal alcohol dependence symptoms, maternal insensitivity to children's distress, and young children's blunted emotional reactivity

Maternal insensitivity to children's emotional distress (e.g., expressions of sadness or fearfulness) is one mechanism through which maternal alcohol dependence may increase children's risk for psychopathology. Although emotion dysregulation is consistently associated with psychopathology, it remains unclear how or why alcohol dependence's effects on caregiving responses to children's distress may impact children's emotion regulation over time, particularly in ways that may engender risks for psychopathology. This study examined longitudinal associations between lifetime maternal alcohol dependence symptoms, mothers' insensitivity to children's emotional distress cues, and children's emotional reactivity among 201 mother-child dyads (Mchild age = 2.14 years; 56% Black; 11% Latino). Structural equation modeling analyses revealed a significant mediational pathway such that maternal alcohol dependence predicted increases in mothers' insensitivity to children's emotional distress across a one-year period (β = .16, p = .013), which subsequently predicted decreases in children's emotional reactivity one year later (β = -.29, p = .009). Results suggest that mothers with alcohol dependence symptoms may struggle to sensitively respond to children's emotional distress, which may prompt children to suppress or hide their emotions as an adaptive, protective strategy. The potential developmental benefits and consequences of early, protective expressive suppression strategies are discussed via developmental psychopathology frameworks.

Effect of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome Treatment Status and Maternal Depressive Symptomatology on Maternal Reports of Infant Behaviors

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of maternal perinatal depression symptoms and infant treatment status for neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) on maternal perceptions of infant regulatory behavior at 6 weeks of age.

METHODS

Mothers and their infants (N = 106; 53 dyads) were recruited from a rural, White cohort in Northeast Maine. Mothers in medication-assisted treatment (methadone) and their infants (n = 35 dyads) were divided based on the infant's NAS pharmacological treatment (n = 20, NAS+ group; n = 15, NAS- group) and compared with a demographically similar, nonexposed comparison group (n = 18 dyads; COMP group). At 6 weeks postpartum, mothers reported their depression symptoms Beck Depression Inventory-2nd Edition) and infant regulatory behaviors [Mother and Baby Scales (MABS)]. Infant neurobehavior was assessed during the same visit using the Neonatal Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS).

RESULTS

Mothers in the NAS+ group showed significantly higher depression scores than the COMP group (p < .05) while the NAS- group did not. Across the sample, mothers with higher depression scores reported higher infant "unsettled-irregularity" MABS scores, regardless of group status. Agreement between maternal reports of infant regulatory behaviors and observer-assessed NNNS summary scares was poor in both the NAS+ and COMP groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Postpartum women in opioid recovery with infants requiring pharmacological intervention for NAS are more at risk for depression which may adversely influence their perceptions of their infants' regulatory profiles. Unique, targeted attachment interventions may be needed for this population.

How Dog Behavior Influences Pet Owner's Perceptions of Dog Preference for Dental Chews

American pet owners spend billions of dollars on food and treats so it is important to understand what products they want and what they think their dog would enjoy. This study analyzed video recordings of dogs engaging in dental chews in their home environment and compared the observed appetitive behaviors to owner preference and owner-reported dog preference. Overall, appetitive behavior differed significantly between some dental chews. Owner preference for the chews correlated significantly with dog appetitive behavior, but the effect was small (r (702) = 0.22, p = 0.001), whereas owner-reported dog preference correlated significantly with dog appetitive behavior and showed a moderate effect size (r (702) = 0.43, p = 0.001)-similar in magnitude to findings when parents are asked to report on their children's behavior. By merging objective behavioral observation of owner-recorded videos with their survey responses, we were able to preliminarily parse out what factors owners may use to assess preference and encourage the future use of in-home video recordings to better understand dog and owner engagement and interaction with pet products.

White matter microstructure predicts individual differences in infant fear (But not anger and sadness)

We examine neural correlates of discrete expressions of negative emotionality in infants to determine whether the microstructure of white matter tracts at 1 month of age foreshadows the expression of specific negative emotions later in infancy. Infants (n = 103) underwent neuroimaging at 1-month, and mothers reported on infant fear, sadness, and anger at 6, 12, and 18 months using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. Levels and developmental change in fear, sadness, and anger were estimated from mother reports. Relations between MRI and infant emotion indicated that 1-month white matter microstructure was differentially associated with level and change in infant fear, but not anger or sadness, in the left stria terminalis (p < 0.05, corrected), a tract that connects frontal and tempo-parietal regions and has been implicated in emerging psychopathology in adults. More relaxed constraints on significance (p < 0.10, corrected) revealed that fear was associated with lower white matter microstructure bilaterally in the inferior portion of the stria terminalis and regions within the sagittal stratum. Results suggest the neurobehavioral uniqueness of fear as early as 1 month of age in regions that are associated with potential longer-term outcomes. This work highlights the early neural precursors of fearfulness, adding to literature explaining the psychobiological accounts of affective development. HIGHLIGHTS: Expressions of infant fear and anger, but not sadness, increase from 6 to 18 months of age. Early neural architecture in the stria terminalis is related to higher initial levels and increasing fear in infancy. After accounting for fear, anger and sadness do not appear to be associated with differences in early white matter microstructure. This work identifies early neural precursors of fearfulness as early as 1-month of age.

Associations between observed and reported infant negative affectivity, fear and self-regulation, and early communicative development-Evidence from the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study

Self-regulation and language are intertwined abilities, but the nature of their relations in early childhood when both skills are still emerging is insufficiently understood. Our knowledge of the relations between early negative affectivity and preverbal and verbal communicative development is still limited. Further, observed and reported temperament capture how aspects of temperament operate in different settings but are rarely used in parallel in studies examining early language. During the period of rapid development, longitudinal studies are needed to identify early risk factors for delayed communicative development. We studied relations between aspects of emerging self-regulation and negative affectivity using both observations at 8 months and mother-reports at 6 and 12 months, and communicative development measured by gesturing and vocabulary at 14 and vocabulary at 30 months in 183 children. Mother-reported self-regulation was related to a higher use of communicative gestures and observed self-regulation by gaze aversion to poorer receptive and expressive vocabulary at 14 months, but neither was significantly associated with vocabulary at 30 months. We found little evidence for associations between negative affectivity and fear in infancy and communicative development. Our findings highlight different aspects of self-regulation as both potential risk and protective factors for communicative development. Mixed results indicate a need for a more detailed examination of different strategies of self-regulation in different conditions and developmental stages to yield a deeper understanding of the relations between self-regulation in infancy and communicative development.

Stability of maternal postnatal bonding between 3 and 6 months: Associations with maternal mental health and infant temperament

Maternal bonding is key for infant development and well-being. Research to date focused on prenatal bonding experience, with fewer studies looking at the postnatal period. Moreover, evidence suggests significant associations among maternal bonding, maternal mental health, and infant temperament. The joint impact of maternal mental health and infant temperament on maternal postnatal bonding remains unclear, with limited research reporting longitudinal data. Hence, the present study aims (1) to explore the impact of maternal mental health and infant temperament on postnatal bonding at both 3 and 6 months of age, (2) to explore postnatal bonding stability from 3 to 6 months, and (3) to determine which factors are linked with 3-to-6-month changes in bonding. At the infants' 3 months (n = 261) and 6 months of age (n = 217), mothers provided measures of bonding, depressive and anxious symptoms, and infant temperament via validated questionnaires. At 3 months, higher levels of maternal bonding were predicted by lower levels of anxiety and depression in the mothers and by higher infants' regulation scores. At 6 months, lower levels of anxiety and depression predicted higher levels of bonding. Moreover, mothers showing decreases in bonding were characterized by 3-to-6-month increases in depression and anxiety, as well as increased reported difficulties in regulation dimensions of infant temperament. This study highlights the impact of both maternal mental health and infant temperament on maternal postnatal bonding in a longitudinal sample and could offer useful information for early childhood prevention and care.

Preschoolers' temperament and social functioning in novel and routine contexts

Introduction

The centrality of social competence to children's short and long-term well-being has sparked interest in the factors that contribute to its development, including temperament, a set of biologically based dispositions. A large body of work documents two types of temperamental dispositions associated with young children's social functioning: reactivity and regulation. There is consensus about the detrimental effects of negative reactive tendencies, called negative affective reactivity (NA), and about the beneficial effects of regulatory tendencies, called effortful control (EC), on social functioning. Another reactive component of temperament, Extraversion/Surgency (E/S) is less consistent in its relation with social functioning. Although NA is exacerbated by lack of familiarity, its contribution to social functioning in novel and routine contexts has not been systematically addressed.

Methods

To test this study's hypotheses, we devised a structured interview of adaptive responsiveness in context (ARC) which was completed by parents of preschoolers along with a comprehensive temperament questionnaire. Additionally, children completed an individually administered task measuring emotion-situation knowledge (N = 92) and their teachers completed a standard social competence questionnaire.

Results and Discussion

A path analysis that controlled for variance shared across contexts and temperamental traits showed that NA was the only unique predictor of social functioning in the Novel context, that EC was the only unique predictor of social functioning in the Routine context and that E/S was not a unique predictor of social functioning in either context. Bivariate analyses, conducted without controlling for context overlap, showed all reactive emotional traits (subsumed within NA and E/S) to correlate exclusively with ARC in the Novel contexts. However, regulatory traits showed a mixed pattern. Inhibitory Control correlated with ARC in both contexts but more highly in the Routine context, and Perceptual Sensitivity correlated with ARC in the Novel context.

"Katerina gets mad": Infants' physiological and behavioral responses to co-viewing educational, self-regulatory media

A growing body of research has focused on the physiological impact of media on older children and adolescents. Less research has been focused on the potential physiological impact of media on infants and younger children, especially media designed to be age appropriate and educational in content. In this study, we examined respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) in infants (N = 269, M_age  = 17.13 months) while they co-viewed an educational video clip that modeled emotion regulation and contrasted their physiological response to an unoccupied baseline and a frustration paradigm (arm-restraint). Given parent reports showing the calming effect of educational media viewing in young children, we anticipated that a similar pattern of calming would be observed physiologically in infants. Results showed that relative to baseline, most infants demonstrated an increase in RSA while co-viewing, suggesting greater parasympathetic (regulatory) activation consistent with behavioral calming. However, infants who demonstrated vagal withdrawal during co-viewing (decrease in RSA) were more likely to have parents who used a tablet to help infants go to sleep at night. Vagal withdrawal was also associated with increased levels of negative affect observed during the co-viewing task. Findings are discussed in relation to the contextual effect of co-viewing age-appropriate, educational media on children's physiological responses.

Sex-dependent association between variability in infants' OXTR methylation at birth and negative affectivity at 3 months

BACKGROUND

Sex-specific differences in DNA methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) have been shown in adults and are related to several mental disorders. Negative affectivity early in life is a trans-diagnostic risk marker of later psychopathology and is partly under genetic control. However, sex-specific variations in OXTR methylation (OXTRm) in infants and their associations with negative affectivity are still unknown.

AIMS

Here, we explored sex differences in the association between infant OXTRm at birth and negative affectivity at 3 months of age.

METHODS

Infants and their mothers (N = 224) were recruited at delivery. Infants' methylation status was assessed in 13 CpG sites within the OXTR gene intron 1 region (chr3: 8810654-8810919) in buccal cells at birth while 3-month-old infants' negative affectivity was assessed by mothers using a well-validated temperament questionnaire.

RESULTS

OXTRm at 12 CpG sites was higher in females than in males. Moreover, higher infants' OXTRm at 6 specific CpG sites was associated with greater negative affectivity in males, but not in females.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide new insights into the role of sex-dependent epigenetic mechanisms linking OXTRm with early infants' emotional development. Understanding the degree to which epigenetic processes relate to early temperamental variations may help inform the etiology of later childhood psychopathological outcomes.

Just as they expected: How parents' expectations about their unborn child's characteristics provide a context for early transactions between parenting and child temperament

Prenatal expectations about what children will be like after birth may provide a context for how parents perceive their infant's actual temperament. We examined how these expectations and perceptions are associated and together predict early parenting behavior, with parenting behavior in turn predicting changes in temperament. Reports of 125 families (N = 122 fathers; N = 123 mothers; sample 1) about their expectations of their unborn child's temperament (negative affectivity, surgency, regulation, T1), their infant's temperament at 4 and 12 months post-partum (T2 and T3), and their hostile, responsive, warm, and overprotective parenting (T2) were included. We also included data from an independent sample of 168 mothers (sample 2), with the same measures, except that mothers reported on Big Five personality traits at T1. Results indicated that in both samples, parents' expectations were positively associated with perceptions of infant temperament. Prenatal expectations and newborn temperament independently predicted parenting behavior, and maternal and paternal parenting in turn predicted infant temperament at T3, controlling for infant temperament at T2. Although overall findings indicated associations between (expectations of) a more difficult temperament and more negative/less positive parenting, significant combinations of specific traits and parenting behaviors were sample-specific—indicating that more research is necessary to draw a conclusion about specific links. Both maternal and paternal expectations about their unborn child's temperament appear to carry over into the postpartum reality and provide a context for shaping early interactions between caregivers and their children, which may further shape the developing temperament of the child.

Identifying moderating factors during the preschool period in the development of borderline personality disorder: a prospective longitudinal analysis

BACKGROUND

Despite a growing literature detailing early childhood risk factors for borderline personality disorder (BPD), few studies have examined moderating factors that might mitigate or exacerbate the effects of those risk factors. The current study examined whether three preschool-age characteristics-impulsivity, emotional lability, and initiative-taking-moderated the relationship between known preschool-age risk factors and adolescent BPD symptoms.

METHODS

We performed multilevel modeling analyses in a sample (n = 151) from the Preschool Depression Study, a prospective longitudinal study with assessments from preschool through adolescence. Preschool risk factors included adverse childhood experiences, internalizing symptoms, and externalizing symptoms measured with parent clinical interviews. Preschool moderating factors were assessed via parent report and observational coding of temperament and behavior. The Borderline Personality Features Scale for Children measured BPD symptoms in adolescence.

RESULTS

We found that observed initiative-taking moderated the relationship between preschool internalizing symptoms and adolescent BPD symptoms (b = 0.57, p = .011) and moderated the relationship between preschool externalizing symptoms and adolescent BPD symptoms (b = 1.42, p = .013). Greater initiative-taking was associated with lower BPD risk for children with high internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Conversely, for children with low internalizing or externalizing symptoms, greater initiative-taking was associated with increased BPD risk.

CONCLUSIONS

We identify a potential moderating factor in BPD development, offer novel targets for screening and intervention, and provide a framework for using early childhood observational assessments in BPD research. Our findings suggest the need for future research on early moderating factors in BPD development, which could inform early childhood interventions targeting those factors to mitigate the effects of potentially less malleable risk factors.

Parents' early representations of their children moderate socialization processes: Evidence from two studies

Difficult infants are commonly considered at risk for maladaptive developmental cascades, but evidence is mixed, prompting efforts to elucidate moderators of effects of difficulty. We examined features of parents' representations of their infants - adaptive (appropriate mind-mindedness, MM) and dysfunctional (low reflective functioning, RF, hostile attributions) - as potential moderators. In Family Study (N = 102), we tested parents' appropriate MM comments to their infants as moderating a path from infants' observed difficulty (negative affect, unresponsiveness) to parents' observed power assertion at ages 2-4.5 to children's observed and parent-rated (dis)regard for conduct rules at age 5.5. In father-child relationships, MM moderated that path: for fathers with low MM, the infants' increasing difficulty was associated with fathers' greater power assertion, which in turn was associated with children's more disregard for rules. The path was absent for fathers with average or high MM. In Children and Parents Study (N = 200), dysfunctional representations (low RF, hostile attributions) moderated the link between child objective difficulty, observed as anger in laboratory episodes, and difficulty as described by the parent. Reports of mothers with highly dysfunctional representations were unrelated to children's observed anger. Reports of mothers with average or low dysfunctional representations aligned with laboratory observations.

Mexican-origin 5-year-old children's ethnic-racial identity centrality and attitudes predicting social functioning

OBJECTIVE

Early childhood is an important developmental period to focus on the outcomes associated with ethnic-racial identity (ERI) given that children notice racial differences, are processing information about ethnicity and race, and have race-related experiences. The present study tested whether three components of ERI (i.e., positive attitudes, negative attitudes, and centrality) predicted children's social functioning (i.e., interactive, disruptive, and disconnected play with peers; externalizing behaviors; and observed frustration and cooperation with an adult). Child sex was also tested as a moderator.

METHOD

The present study included 182 5-year-old Mexican-origin children (57% male) of mothers who entered parenthood during adolescence (M = 21.95, SD = 1.00).

RESULTS

Children's positive ethnic-racial attitudes were associated with greater social functioning (i.e., greater interactive play and less externalizing behaviors) among boys and girls, and less frustration among boys. Negative ethnic-racial attitudes predicted maladaptive social functioning (i.e., greater disruptive play) among boys and girls and more disconnected play among girls. Contrary to expectations, ethnic-racial centrality predicted boys' and girls' maladaptive social functioning (i.e., greater disruptive and disconnected play).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the importance of fostering children's positive ethnic-racial attitudes and helping them discuss and cope with negative ethnic-racial attitudes to promote more adaptive social functioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Maternal Intimate Partner Violence Exposure and Autonomic Reactivity: Associations With Positive Parenting

Intimate partner violence (IPV) can negatively impact parenting, posing a threat both to the wellbeing of mothers and their young children. Parenting may also be influenced by emotion regulation (ER), which can support parents' ability to navigate relational challenges or buffer against the influence of adverse experiences on parenting. Changes in maternal respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) during parent-child interactions have been conceptualized as a psychophysiological index of ER. Competing theoretical models posit that RSA response may mediate or moderate the relation between IPV and parenting or may be independently associated with parenting, however, there is little prior evidence concerning these hypothesized associations. This study examined these associations in a sample of 125 low-income maltreating and comparison mothers and their 3- to 5-year-old children. Dyads completed a moderately challenging laboratory task, and positive parenting and maternal RSA were measured during the task. Maternal verbal IPV exposure, but not physical IPV, was associated with less positive parenting, while greater maternal RSA activation over the task was associated with more positive parenting. Maternal RSA activation did not mediate or moderate the relationship between IPV exposure and parenting, and this association did not differ by whether or not the mother had perpetrated child maltreatment. Consequently, verbal IPV exposure and greater RSA activation independently predicted positive parenting. Results suggest that interventions for IPV-exposed mothers of young children may benefit from ensuring psychological safety and improving maternal ER to promote positive parenting for at-risk children.

Observational measures of early irritability predict children's psychopathology risk

Irritability is a transdiagnostic feature of diverse forms of psychopathology and a rapidly growing literature implicates the construct in child maladaptation. However, most irritability measures currently used are drawn from parent-report questionnaires not designed to measure irritability per se; furthermore, parent report methods have several important limitations. We therefore examined the utility of observational ratings of children's irritability in predicting later psychopathology symptoms. Four-hundred and nine 3-year-old children (208 girls) completed observational tasks tapping temperamental emotionality and parents completed questionnaires assessing child irritability and anger. Parent-reported child psychopathology symptoms were assessed concurrently to the irritability assessment and when children were 5 and 8 years old. Children's irritability observed during tasks that did not typically elicit anger predicted their later depressive and hyperactivity symptoms, above and beyond parent-reported irritability and context-appropriate observed anger. Our findings support the use of observational indices of irritability and have implications for the development of observational paradigms designed to assess this construct in childhood.

The association of infant temperament and maternal sensitivity in preterm and full-term infants

Infants who experience sensitive caregiving are at lower risk for numerous adverse outcomes. This is especially true for infants born preterm, leading them to be more susceptible to risks associated with poorer quality caregiving. Some research suggests that preterm and full-term infants differ on temperament, which may contribute to these findings. This study aimed to investigate associations between infant temperament (negative emotionality, positive affectivity/surgency, and orienting/regulatory capacity) and maternal sensitivity among infants born preterm (M = 30.2 weeks) and full term. It was hypothesized that mothers of infants born preterm and mothers of infants with more difficult temperaments would display lower sensitivity, indicated by lower responsiveness to nondistress, lower positive regard, and higher intrusiveness. Videotaped play interactions and a measure of temperament (Infant Behavior Questionnaire) were coded for 18 preterm and 44 full-term infants at 9 months (corrected) age. Results suggest that mothers of preterm and full-term infants differed significantly in responding to their infants, but these results cannot be explained by infant temperament. Preterm status and sociodemographic risk emerged as correlates of maternal behavior, such that mothers of infants born preterm and mothers with greater sociodemographic risk displayed lower levels of maternal sensitivity.

Behavioral Inhibition in Childhood: European Portuguese Adaptation of an Observational Measure (Lab-TAB)

The assessment of behaviorally inhibited children is typically based on parent or teacher reports, but this approach has received criticisms, mainly for being prone to bias. Several researchers proposed the additional use of observational methods because they provide a direct and more objective description of the child's functioning in different contexts. The lack of a laboratory assessment of temperament for Portuguese children justifies the adaptation of some episodes of the Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (Lab-TAB) as an observational measure for behavioral inhibition. Method: In our study, we included 124 children aged between 3 and 9 years and their parents. The evaluation of child behavioral inhibition was made by parent report (Behavioral Inhibition Questionnaire) and through Lab-TAB episodes. Parental variables with potential influence on parents’ reports were also collected using the Social Interaction and Performance Anxiety and Avoidance Scale (SIPAAS) and the Parental Overprotection Measure (POM). Results and Discussion: The psychometric analyses provided evidence that Lab-TAB is a reliable instrument and can be incorporated in a multi-method approach to assess behavioral inhibition in studies involving Portuguese-speaking children. Moderate convergence between observational and parent report measures of behavioral inhibition was obtained. Mothers’ characteristics, as well as child age, seem to significantly affect differences between measures, being potential sources of bias in the assessment of child temperament.

Construct validity of the First-Year Inventory (FYI Version 2.0) in 12-month-olds at high-risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder

LAY ABSTRACT

The First-Year Inventory 2.0 is a parent-report screening instrument designed to identify 12-month-old infants at risk for an eventual diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder. This instrument focuses on Social-Communication and Sensory-Regulatory areas of infant behavior. Although the First-Year Inventory 2.0 screening performance has been previously studied, its validity has not been examined. Establishing validity of an instrument is important because it supports the effectiveness and the reliability of the instrument. In this study, we examined relationship between the First-Year Inventory 2.0 (Social-Communication and Sensory-Regulatory areas) and other instruments that measure similar areas of infant behavior in a sample of high-risk infant siblings of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. These other instruments share some common aims and theoretical areas with the First-Year Inventory 2.0: the Autism Observation Scale for Infants, the Mullen Scales of Early Learning, the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-II, and the Infant Behavior Questionnaire. Findings generally supported the validity of the First-Year Inventory 2.0 with other instruments. In particular, the Social-Communication area of the First-Year Inventory 2.0 showed greater commonality with other instruments than in the Sensory-Regulatory area. The Sensory-Regulatory area seemed to be a unique feature of the First-Year Inventory 2.0 instrument. Considering different aims and strengths of assessments, researchers and clinicians are encouraged to utilize a variety of instruments in a comprehensive evaluation of a child.

Effect of Maternal Distress on Perceptions of Infant Behavior May Differ in Chinese-American and European-American Mothers and Infants

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the associations between maternal distress (symptoms of depression and anxiety) and observer and maternal ratings of infant temperament in Chinese-American (CA) and European-American (EA) 4-month-old infants (N = 114 dyads).

METHODS

Maternal distress was obtained through self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. Mothers reported infant temperament (distress at limitations, soothability, and fear) through the short form of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. To obtain observer-rated infant reactivity, infants were administered a battery of visual and auditory stimuli in the laboratory, in which infant behaviors (fret/cry, limb activity, and arching of the back) were coded.

RESULTS

Maternal distress accounted more for the maternal perception of her infant among EA mothers than among CA mothers, but the relation was only observed for soothability. Higher maternal distress was associated with maternal report of lower soothability for EA mothers. Observer-rated infant reactivity, but not maternal distress, was positively associated with EA and CA maternal report of distress at limitations. Observer-rated infant negativity was associated with somewhat higher ratings of infant fear for EA mothers, although this association for EA mothers was not significantly different from CA mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Potential biases in maternal report of infant behavior due to effects from maternal distress may not be generalizable across cultures but may vary because of cultural norms for emotional experience and expectations for infant behavior. EA mothers' ratings of infant distress and soothability, but not fear, may be influenced by maternal distress.

Newborn amygdala connectivity and early emerging fear

Connectivity between the amygdala, insula (Amygdala-aI) and ventral medial prefrontal cortex (Amygdala-vmPFC) have been implicated in individual variability in fear and vulnerability to psychiatric disorders. However, it is currently unknown to what extent connectivity between these regions in the newborn period is relevant for the development of fear and other aspects of negative emotionality (NE), such as sadness. Here, we investigate newborn Am-Ins and Am-vmPFC resting state functional connectivity in relation to developmental trajectories of fear and sadness over the first two years of life using data from the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised (IBQ-R) and Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ) (N=62). Stronger newborn amygdala connectivity predicts higher fear and sadness at 6-months-of-age and less change from 6 to 24-months-of-age. Interestingly, Am-Ins connectivity was specifically relevant for fear and not sadness, while Am-vmPFC was associated only with sadness. Associations remained consistent after considering variation in maternal sensitivity and maternal postnatal depressive symptomology. Already by the time of birth, individual differences in amygdala connectivity are relevant for the expression of fear over the first two-years-of-life. Additionally, specificity is observed, such that connections relevant for fear development are distinct from those predicting sadness trajectories.

Effects of the INSIGHT Obesity Preventive Intervention on Reported and Observed Infant Temperament

OBJECTIVE

Infants higher on negative reactivity and lower on regulation, aspects of temperament, have increased obesity risk. Responsive parenting (RP) has been shown to impact the expression of temperament, including the developing ability to regulate negative emotions. The aim of this analysis was to test the effects of the INSIGHT study's RP intervention designed for the primary prevention of obesity on reported and observed infant negativity and regulation.

METHODS

The sample included 240 mother-infant dyads randomized 2 weeks after birth to the RP intervention or a safety control intervention. Both groups received 4 home visits during the infant's first year. In the RP group, nurses delivered RP guidance in domains of sleep, feeding, soothing, and interactive play. At 1 year, mother-reported temperament was measured by a survey, and a frustration task was used to observe temperament in the laboratory. Effects of the RP intervention were tested using general linear models.

RESULTS

The RP intervention reduced overall reported infant negativity, driven by lower distress to limitations (p < 0.05) and faster recovery from distress (p < 0.01) in the RP group versus controls. There were no intervention effects on reported regulation or observed negativity. The intervention did increase observed regulation, particularly the use of self-comforting strategies (p < 0.05) during the frustration task.

DISCUSSION

An RP intervention designed for early obesity prevention affected reported infant negativity and observed regulation, outcomes that have been linked with subsequent healthy development. Interventions grounded in an RP framework have the potential for widespread effects on child health and well-being.

Typologies of dyadic mother-infant emotion regulation following immunization

Mother-infant dyadic emotion regulation - the joint modulation of affective rhythms as interactive partners dynamically respond to each other across time - has been shown to promote social-emotional wellbeing both during and beyond infancy. Although contributions of dyadic regulation to self-regulatory development may particularly apparent during infant distress, studies have traditionally examined dyadic regulation in low-stress contexts. The present study addresses this gap by identifying distinct patterns of mother-infant dyadic emotion regulation following a highly distressing immunization procedure and then examining how these groups differed in mother and infant personality and temperament characteristics. Mother-infant dyads (N = 131) were videotaped during a routine immunization procedure, and infant crying and maternal soothing behaviors were subsequently coded. Cluster analysis was applied to trajectories of latent states representing each dyad's post-immunization behaviors. Results indicated five typologies of dyadic regulation following infant immunization. These typologies reflected the effectiveness with which the dyad worked together to soothe infant distress, as well as the specific maternal soothing behaviors employed. Differences in maternal personality and infant temperament among clusters indicated that both mothers and infants contributed to the dynamic regulatory process.

Infant temperament and parent use of food to soothe predict change in weight-for-length across infancy: early risk factors for childhood obesity

OBJECTIVES

Greater weight gain in infancy is a risk factor for childhood obesity. The present study examined the interaction between infant temperament and parent use of food to soothe infant distress (FTS) as predictors of weight gain across the first 2 years of life.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

A total of 160 mother-infant dyads were recruited into a longitudinal study. Infant temperament was assessed by parents through a questionnaire (surgency, negativity) and by observer ratings (surgency, irritability) during a laboratory visit when infants were 6 months old. Parents also completed a 3-day infant cry diary when their children were 6 months of age to assess when they used food in response to infant cry/fuss bouts. Infant weight/length was measured in the lab at 6 and 18 months. Multiple regressions were run to test the moderating effect of FTS on weight gain.

RESULTS

Significant interactions were revealed for both measures of surgency and parent FTS in predicting weight gain. Surgent infants whose parents had a greater tendency to use FTS had greater weight-for-length gain in 1 year than if their parents tended to use less FTS. The interaction between observer ratings of irritability and parent FTS was also significant but in an unexpected direction.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings point to the role of temperament, specifically surgency, in weight gain during infancy, but only if their parents used FTS. Surgency may have evoked this feeding practice that increased their health risk.

Interactive effects of parenting behavior and regulatory skills in toddlerhood on child weight outcomes

Objectives

There is limited research investigating whether maternal behaviors exhibited during non-feeding contexts play a role in the development of obesity, and whether this association varies based on children’s emerging regulatory skills. The objective of this study was to investigate interactions between maternal behaviors and toddler regulation predicting child BMI z-scores (BMIZ) at 4.5 years.

Subjects/Methods

Infant–mother dyads (n = 108) participated in laboratory visits when the child was 18 months and 4.5 years of age. Maternal interactive behaviors (i.e., positive responsiveness, gentle control) were coded from recordings of free play and clean-up tasks with their toddlers. Toddler regulation was assessed via an observational task, experimenter ratings, and parent ratings. Child and mother length/height and weight measurements were recorded and used to calculate child BMIZ and maternal BMI, respectively.

Results

After controlling for covariates, two significant interactions emerged between maternal behaviors and toddler regulation predicting BMIZ at 4.5 years. First, an interaction of positive responsiveness during free play and toddler regulation demonstrated that greater positive responsiveness significantly related to lower child BMIZ for toddlers with poor regulation. Second, an interaction of gentle control during clean-up and toddler regulation indicated that greater gentle control was associated with lower BMIZ for toddlers with lesser regulatory abilities, but higher BMIZ for well-regulated toddlers. No significant main effects emerged for maternal interactive behaviors or toddler regulation.

Conclusions

These results suggest that associations between maternal behaviors and child BMIZ may depend on toddlers’ emerging regulatory abilities. Maternal responsiveness during free play and gentle control during clean-up appear to protect against weight gain, especially for toddlers with lower regulatory abilities. However, greater levels of gentle control may have adverse effects on BMIZ for well-regulated toddlers. These results suggest that both parenting and toddler regulation, examined outside feeding contexts, may have important implications for child obesity.

Immune and neuroendocrine correlates of temperament in infancy

There is now a clear focus on incorporating, and integrating, multiple levels of analysis in developmental science. The current study adds to research in this area by including markers of the immune and neuroendocrine systems in a longitudinal study of temperament in infants. Observational and parent-reported ratings of infant temperament, serum markers of the innate immune system, and cortisol reactivity from repeated salivary collections were examined in a sample of 123 infants who were assessed at 6 months and again when they were, on average, 17 months old. Blood from venipuncture was collected for analyses of nine select innate immune cytokines; salivary cortisol collected prior to and 15 min and 30 min following a physical exam including blood draw was used as an index of neuroendocrine functioning. Analyses indicated fairly minimal significant associations between biological markers and temperament at 6 months. However, by 17 months of age, we found reliable and nonoverlapping associations between observed fearful temperament and biological markers of the immune and neuroendocrine systems. The findings provide some of the earliest evidence of robust biological correlates of fear behavior with the immune system, and identify possible immune and neuroendocrine mechanisms for understanding the origins of behavioral development.

The Infant Version of the Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (Lab-TAB): Measurement Properties and Implications for Concepts of Temperament

We describe large-sample research using the Infant Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (Lab-TAB; Goldsmith and Rothbart, 1996) in 1,076 infants at 6 and 12 months of age. The Lab-TAB was designed to assess temperament dimensions through a series of episodes that mimic everyday situations. Our goal is to provide guidelines for scoring Lab-TAB episodes to derive temperament composites. We also present a set of analyses examining mean differences and stability of temperament in early infancy, gender differences in infant temperament, as well as a validation of Lab-TAB episodes and composites with parent reported Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ; Rothbart, 1981) scales. In general, laboratory observed temperament was only modestly related to parent reported temperament. However, temperament measures were significantly stable across time and several gender differences that align with previous research emerged. In sum, the Lab-TAB usefully assesses individual differences in infant emotionality.

Positive Affectivity and Fear Trajectories in Infancy: Contributions of Mother-Child Interaction Factors

Fear and positive emotionality were considered in a growth modeling context. Mothers, primarily Caucasian (91.9%) and of middle socioeconomic status, participated in play interactions with infants at 4 months (N = 148). Infant fear and positive affectivity were evaluated at 6, 8, 10, and 12 months of age. A linear trajectory was superior in explaining growth for parent report and observation-based indicators of positive affectivity and parent report of fearfulness; a piecewise model explained the nonlinear growth of observation-based fear. Responsiveness in mother-infant interactions emerged as a significant predictor of the fear trajectory, with higher sensitivity predicting lower levels of observed fear. Reciprocity, tempo, emotional tone, and intensity of mother-infant interactions also made significant contributions to temperament development; however, analyses addressing these were exploratory.

Risk and protective factors for mental health problems in preschool-aged children: cross-sectional results of the BELLA preschool study

BACKGROUND

Mental health problems (MHPs) in preschoolers are precursors of mental disorders which have shown to be associated with suffering, functional impairment, exposure to stigma and discrimination, as well as enhanced risk of premature death. A better understanding of factors associated with MHPs in preschoolers can facilitate early identification of children at risk and inform prevention programs. This cross-sectional study investigated the association of risk and protective factors with MHPs within a German representative community sample.

METHODS

MHPs were assessed in a sample of 391 preschoolers aged 3-6 years using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The effects of parental MHPs, children's temperament, parental socioeconomic status (SES), social support and perceived self-competence on MHPs were assessed using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses that controlled for sociodemographic characteristics.

RESULTS

Overall, 18.2% of preschoolers were classified as 'borderline or abnormal' on the total difficulties score of the SDQ. Bivariate analyses showed that parental MHPs, children's difficult temperament, and parental low SES increased the likelihood, whereas high perceived parental competence decreased the likelihood of preschool MHPs. In the multivariate analyses, only difficult child temperament remained significantly associated with preschool MHPs when other variables were controlled.

CONCLUSIONS

The results underline the importance of children's difficult temperamental characteristics as a risk factor for mental health in preschoolers and suggest that these may also be an appropriate target for prevention of preschool MHPs. More research on specific aspects of preschool children's temperament, the socioeconomic environment and longitudinal studies on the effects of these in the development of preschool MHPs is needed.

Contextual influences on concordance between maternal report and laboratory observation of toddler fear

Emotion and temperament researchers have faced an enduring issue of how to best measure children's tendencies to express specific emotions. Inconsistencies between laboratory observation and parental report have made it challenging for researchers to determine the utility of these different forms of measurement. The current study examined the effect of laboratory episode characteristics (i.e., threat level of the episode, maternal involvement) on concordance between maternal report and laboratory observation of toddler fear. The sample included 111 mother-toddler dyads who participated in a laboratory assessment when toddlers were approximately 24 months old. Toddler fear was assessed both via maternal report and observation from a number of laboratory episodes that varied in their level of threat and whether mothers were free or constrained in their involvement in the task. Results indicated that maternal report related to the observed fear composites for low threat, but not high threat episodes. On the contrary, maternal involvement in the laboratory episodes did not moderate the relation between maternal report and laboratory observation of fear. These results suggest that the threat level of laboratory episodes designed to elicit fear, but not maternal involvement in these episodes, may be important to take into consideration when assessing their relation to maternal report of fear and fearful temperament. (PsycINFO Database Record

Maternal Lifetime Trauma Exposure, Prenatal Cortisol, and Infant Negative Affectivity

Little research has examined the impact of maternal lifetime trauma exposure on infant temperament. We examined associations between maternal trauma history and infant negative affectivity and modification by prenatal cortisol exposure in a sociodemographically diverse sample of mother-infant dyads. During pregnancy, mothers completed measures of lifetime trauma exposure and current stressors. Third-trimester cortisol output was assessed from maternal hair. When infants were 6 months old, mothers completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. In analyses that controlled for infant sex and maternal age, education, race/ethnicity, and stress during pregnancy, greater maternal trauma exposure was associated with increased infant distress to limitations and sadness. Higher and lower prenatal cortisol exposure modified the magnitude and direction of association between maternal trauma history and infant rate of recovery from arousal. The association between maternal trauma history and infant distress to limitations was somewhat stronger among infants exposed to higher levels of prenatal cortisol. The analyses suggested that maternal lifetime trauma exposure is associated with several domains of infant negative affectivity independently of maternal stress exposures during pregnancy and that some of these associations may be modified by prenatal cortisol exposure. The findings have implications for understanding the intergenerational impact of trauma exposure on child developmental outcomes.

Intervention Effectiveness of The Incredible Years: New Insights Into Sociodemographic and Intervention-Based Moderators

We tested the effectiveness of the preventive behavioral parent training (BPT) program, The Incredible Years (IY), and the independent effects of previously suggested sociodemographic and intervention-based moderator variables (i.e., initial severity of externalizing problem behavior, child gender, social economic status, family composition, and number of sessions parents attended), in a large-scale randomized controlled trial. Questionnaire and observation data from 387 parents and children ages 4-8 years (M_age= 6.21, SD = 1.33, 55.30% boys) across pretest, posttest, and 4-month follow-up were analyzed, using full intention-to-treat analyses and correcting for multiple testing. IY was successful in decreasing parent-reported child externalizing behavior (Cohen's d = 0.20 at posttest, d = 0.08 at follow-up), increasing parent-reported (d = 0.49, d = 0.45) and observed (d = 0.06, d = 0.02) positive parenting behavior, and decreasing parent-reported negative parenting behavior (d = 0.29, d = 0.25). No intervention effects were found for reported and observed child prosocial behavior, observed child externalizing behavior, and observed negative parenting behavior. Out of 40 tested moderation effects (i.e., 8 Outcomes × 5 Moderators), only three significant moderation effects appeared. Thus, no systematic evidence emerged for moderation of IY effects. The present multi-informant trial demonstrated that many previously suggested moderators might not be as potent in differentiating BPT effects as once thought.

Genetic and environmental contributions to the development of positive affect in infancy

We studied developmental changes in infant positive affect from 6 to 12 months of age, a time marked by increasing use of positive vocalizations, laughter, and social smiles. We estimated the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on observed and parent reported infant positive affect across development. Participants were drawn from a longitudinal twin study of infancy and toddlerhood (N = 536 twin pairs). Mothers and fathers reported on infant temperament and infants were videotaped during 2 observational tasks assessing positive affect. Parents also reported on their own affect and emotional expression within the family. Biometric models examined genetic and environmental influences that contribute to the developmental continuity of positive affect. Infant positive affect was associated with increased parent positive affect and family expressions of positive affect although not with family expressions of negative affect. In addition, the shared environment accounted for a large portion of variation in infant positive affect and continuity over time. These findings highlight the importance of the family environment in relation to infant positive emotional development. (PsycINFO Database Record

Relations of Positive and Negative Expressivity and Effortful Control to Kindergarteners' Student-Teacher Relationship, Academic Engagement, and Externalizing Problems at School

The current study examined the role of naturally-occurring negative and positive emotion expressivity in kindergarten and children's effortful control (EC) on their relationships with teachers, academic engagement, and problems behaviors in school. Further, the potential moderating role of EC on these important school outcomes was assessed. Emotion and engagement were observed at school. EC was assessed by multiple methods. Teachers reported on their student-teacher relationships and student's externalizing behaviors. Children's emotion expressivity and EC were related to engagement and relationships with teachers as well as behavioral problems at school. Children low in EC may be particularly vulnerable to the poor outcomes associated with relatively intense emotion expressivity as they struggle to manage their emotions and behaviors in the classroom.

Understanding and measuring parent use of food to soothe infant and toddler distress: A longitudinal study from 6 to 18 months of age

The present study examined the development of parent use of food to soothe infant distress by examining this feeding practice longitudinally when infants were 6, 12 and 18 months of age. Two measures of feeding to soothe were obtained: parent self-report and observations of food to soothe during each laboratory visit. Demographic and maternal predictors of food to soothe were examined as well as the outcome, infant weight gain. The findings showed that the two measures of food to soothe were unrelated but did reveal similar and unique relations with predictor variables such as parent feeding style and maternal self-efficacy. Only observations of the use of food to soothe were related to infant weight gain. The findings indicate that the two measures of food to soothe may be complementary and that observations of this feeding practice may capture certain relations that are not obtained through the use of self-report.

The epidemiology of observed temperament: Factor structure and demographic group differences

This study investigated the factor structure of observational indicators of children's temperament that were collected across the first three years of life in the Family Life Project (N=1205) sample. A four-factor model (activity level, fear, anger, regulation), which corresponded broadly to Rothbart's distinction between reactivity and regulation, provided an acceptable fit the observed data. Tests of measurement invariance demonstrated that a majority of the observational indicators exhibited comparable measurement properties for male vs. female, black vs. white, and poor vs. not-poor children, which improved the generalizability of these results. Unadjusted demographic group comparisons revealed small to moderate sized differences (Cohen ds=|.23-.42|) in temperamental reactivity and moderate to large sized differences (Cohen ds=-.64--.97) in regulation. Collectively, demographic variables explained more of the variation in regulation (R(2)=.25) than in reactivity (R(2)=.02-.06). Follow-up analyses demonstrated that race differences were substantially diminished in magnitude and better accounted for by poverty. These results help to validate the distinction between temperamental reactivity and regulation using observational indicators.

The structural and rank-order stability of temperament in young children based on a laboratory-observational measure

It is generally assumed that temperament traits exhibit structural and rank-order stability over time. Most of the research on structural and rank-order stability has relied on parent-report measures. The present study used an alternative approach, a laboratory-observational measure (Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery [Lab-TAB]), to examine the structural and rank-order stability of temperament traits in a community sample of young children (N = 447). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we found that a similar 5-factor structure consisting of the dimensions of positive affect (PA)/interest, sociability, dysphoria, fear/inhibition, and impulsivity versus constraint provided an adequate fit to the data at both age 3 and 6 years, suggesting good structural stability. Moreover, all 5 latent factors exhibited significant, albeit modest, rank-order stability from age 3 to 6. In addition, there were significant heterotypic associations of age-3 sociability with age-6 PA/interest, and age-3 impulsivity versus constraint with age-6 fear/inhibition.

Maternal borderline personality disorder symptoms and convergence between observed and reported infant negative emotional expressions

To date, the influence of maternal borderline personality disorder (BPD) on perceptions of infants' emotional expressions has not been examined. This study investigated the relation of maternal BPD symptoms to discrepancies between mother-reported and observed infant expressions of fear and anger. Emotional expressions in response to fear- and anger-eliciting stimuli were observed among 101 12- to 23-month-old infants of mothers with a range of BPD symptoms. Mothers also reported on their infants' past-month fear and anger expressions. Findings from polynomial regression analyses revealed that maternal BPD symptoms (particularly BPD interpersonal symptoms) are associated with greater convergence of mother-reported and observed infant anger expressions. Furthermore, although maternal BPD symptoms were not related to discrepancies between mother-reported and observed infant fear, findings did reveal a relation between maternal BPD symptoms and observed infant fear expressions, such that maternal BPD symptoms related to both low and high (vs. moderate) levels of fear expressions in the laboratory. Moreover, BPD behavioral symptoms in particular were associated with greater convergence of mother-reported and observed infant fear expressions. Overall, findings contribute to the literature on the impact of maternal BPD on parenting and infant outcomes, and highlight the relevance of maternal BPD symptoms to discrepancies between perceived and observed infant negative emotional expressions.