Essential contribution of a chemokine, CCL3, and its receptor, CCR1, to hepatocellular carcinoma progression

Establishment of a Novel Anti-Mouse CCR1 Monoclonal Antibody C1Mab-6

C-C motif chemokine receptor 1 (CCR1/CD191) is a member of G-protein-coupled receptors and is expressed on myeloid cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages. Because the CCR1 signaling promotes tumor expansion in the tumor microenvironment (TME), the modification of TME is an effective strategy for cancer therapy. Although CCR1 is an attractive target for solid tumors and hematological malignancies, therapeutic agents for CCR1 have not been approved. Here, we established a novel anti-mouse CCR1 (mCCR1) monoclonal antibody (mAb), C1Mab-6 (rat IgG2b, kappa), using the Cell-Based Immunization and Screening method. Flow cytometry and Western blot analyses showed that C1Mab-6 recognizes mCCR1 specifically. The dissociation constant of C1Mab-6 for mCCR1-overexpressed Chinese hamster ovary-K1 was determined as 3.9 × 10-9 M, indicating that C1Mab-6 possesses a high affinity to mCCR1. These results suggest that C1Mab-6 could be a useful tool for targeting mCCR1 in preclinical mouse models.

Identification of biomarkers of hepatocellular carcinoma gene prognosis based on the immune-related lncRNA signature of transcriptome data

BACKGROUND

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are well established to have an important role in cancer. The goal of this research was to investigate the prognostic usefulness of putative immune-related lncRNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

METHODS

The developed lncRNA signature was validated using 343 HCC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and 81 samples from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). Cox regression and Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) analysis were used to analyze immune-related lncRNAs for HCC prognosis. Patients in the low-risk group survived substantially longer than those in the high-risk group (P < 0.05). The discovered signal might be a useful prognostic factor for predicting patient survival. Overall survival predicted some clinical net improvements, according to the nomogram. Numerous enrichment approaches (including gene set enrichment analysis) were utilized to investigate the underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

Drug metabolism, mTOR, and p53 signaling pathways were associated with high-risk groups. When the expression of lncRNA PRRT3-AS1 was silenced in HepG2 cells, the proliferation, migration, and invasion abilities of HepG2 cells were decreased, and apoptosis was enhanced. In the supernatant from HepG2 cells with PRRT3-AS1 knockdown, the anti-inflammatory factors IL-10 and TGF-1 were induced, whereas the pro-inflammatory factors IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 were reduced (P < 0.05). After PRRT3-AS1 knockdown, the protein expression of CD24, THY1, LYN, CD47, and TRAF2 in HepG2 cells was attenuated (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The discovery of five immune-related lncRNA signatures has significant therapeutic significance for predicting patient prognosis and directing personalized treatment for patients with HCC, which requires additional prospective confirmation.

Macrophage-Derived MMP-9 and MMP-2 are Closely Related to the Rupture of the Fibrous Capsule of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Leading to Tumor Invasion

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive tumor with a poor clinical prognosis. Rupture of the fibrous capsule (FC) is a very important clinical phenomenon in the invasion and metastasis of HCC. FC is mainly composed of type I collagen (COL1A1). However, it is not clear what caused the FC rupture. In this study, we aimed to determine whether the rupture of FC in HCC patients was related to macrophage-derived MMP-9 and MMP-2, and their clinical diagnostic value for FC rupture.

RESULTS

By performing immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence staining of ruptured FC and intact FC, the results showed that the ruptured area of FC aggregated a large number of macrophages with MMP-9 and MMP-2. Western blot analysis and Quantitative real-time PCR were used to assess the expression of MMP-9 and MMP-2 in the ruptured and relatively intact area of FC in ruptured FC patients, and the results revealed a significantly different expression of MMP-9 and MMP-2. ELISA experiments show that we could discriminate effectively between ruptured FC and intact FC by MMP-9 and MMP-2.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, macrophage-derived MMP-9 and MMP-2 were closely related to the rupture of the FC of HCC and subsequently led to the migration and invasion of the tumor cells through the ruptured area of FC to the para cancer. It is suggested that when performing surgical resection, it is necessary to expand the range of tumor resection for patients with ruptured FC and hence reduce the possibility of recurrence and metastasis in HCC patients.

Serum CXCL5 Detects Early Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Indicates Tumor Progression

Chemokines or chemotactic cytokines play a pivotal role in the immune pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Nevertheless, comprehensive cytokine profiling data across different etiologies of liver diseases are lacking. Chemokines might serve as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. In our study, we analyzed serum concentrations of 12 inflammation-related chemokines in a cohort of patients (n = 222) with cirrhosis of different etiologies and/or HCC. We compared 97 patients with cirrhosis and treatment-naïve HCC to the chemokine profile of 125 patients with cirrhosis but confirmed absence of HCC. Nine out of twelve chemokines were significantly elevated in sera of cirrhotic patients with HCC compared to HCC-free cirrhosis controls (CCL2, CCL11, CCL17, CCL20, CXCL1, CXCL5, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11). Among those, CXCL5, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 were significantly elevated in patients with early HCC according to the Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) stages 0/A compared to cirrhotic controls without HCC. In patients with HCC, CXCL5 serum levels were associated with tumor progression, and levels of CCL20 and CXCL8 with macrovascular invasion. Importantly, our study identified CXCL5, CXCL9, and CXCL10 as universal HCC markers, independent from underlying etiology of cirrhosis. In conclusion, regardless of the underlying liver disease, patients with cirrhosis share an HCC-specific chemokine profile. CXCL5 may serve as a diagnostic biomarker in cirrhotic patients for early HCC detection as well as for tumor progression.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Development in Mammalian Embryos

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are situated at the top of the adult hematopoietic hierarchy in mammals and give rise to the majority of blood cells throughout life. Recently, with the advance of multiple single-cell technologies, researchers have unprecedentedly deciphered the cellular and molecular evolution, the lineage relationships, and the regulatory mechanisms underlying HSC emergence in mammals. In this review, we describe the precise vascular origin of HSCs in mouse and human embryos, emphasizing the conservation in the unambiguous arterial characteristics of the HSC-primed hemogenic endothelial cells (HECs). Serving as the immediate progeny of some HECs, functional pre-HSCs of mouse embryos can now be isolated at single-cell level using defined surface marker combinations. Heterogeneity regrading cell cycle status or lineage differentiation bias within HECs, pre-HSCs, or emerging HSCs in mouse embryos has been figured out. Several epigenetic regulatory mechanisms of HSC generation, including long noncoding RNA, DNA methylation modification, RNA splicing, and layered epigenetic modifications, have also been recently uncovered. In addition to that of HSCs, the cellular and molecular events underlying the development of multiple hematopoietic progenitors in human embryos/fetus have been unraveled with the use of series of single-cell technologies. Specifically, yolk sac-derived myeloid-biased progenitors have been identified as the earliest multipotent hematopoietic progenitors in human embryo, serving as an important origin of fetal liver monocyte-derived macrophages. Moreover, the development of multiple hematopoietic lineages in human embryos such as T and B lymphocytes, innate lymphoid cells, as well as myeloid cells like monocytes, macrophages, erythrocytes, and megakaryocytes has also been depicted and reviewed here.

CCL3-CCR5 axis promotes cell migration and invasion of colon adenocarcinoma via Akt signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Infiltration of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) can promote tumorigenesis and development. C-C motif chemokine ligand 3 (CCL3) was reported to be derived from TAMs and tumor cells and facilitate the progression of several cancers. Nevertheless, whether CCL3 can be derived from TAMs and tumor cells of colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) is unclarified.

METHODS

Peripheral blood monocytes-derived macrophages were polarized by the conditioned medium from COAD cells to establish TAM-like macrophages (TAM1/2). RT-qPCR and western blotting were used for detection of expression levels of CCL3 and its receptors C-C motif chemokine receptor 1 (CCR1) and CCR5 in TAM1/2 and COAD cells. Immunofluorescence staining was utilized for evaluating CCL3, CD163 and CCR5 expression. The Akt signaling pathway-associated protein levels were measured by western blotting. Transwell assays were used for assessing cell migration and invasiveness.

RESULTS

CCL3 displayed a high level in TAMs and cancer cells of COAD. CCL3 activated the Akt signaling pathway by binding to CCR5. CCL3-CCR5 axis facilitated COAD cell migration and invasiveness by activating the Akt signaling. CCL3 derived from both TAMs and cancer cells contributed to the malignant behaviors of COAD cells. High expression of CCL3/CCR5 was closely associated with poor prognoses of COAD patients.

CONCLUSION

CCL3-CCR5 interaction promotes cell migration and invasiveness, and functions as a prognostic biomarker for COAD.

Role of chemokines in HPV-induced cancers

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause cancers of the uterine cervix, oropharynx, anus, and vulvovaginal tract. Low-risk HPVs, such as HPV6 and 11, can also cause benign mucosal lesions including genital warts, and in patients with recurrent respiratory papillomatosis, lesions in the larynx, and on occasion, in the lungs. However, both high and less tumorigenic HPVs share a striking commonality in manipulating both innate and adaptive immune responses in HPV- infected keratinocytes, the natural host for HPV infection. In addition, immune/inflammatory cell infiltration into the tumor microenvironment influences cancer growth and prognosis, and this process is tightly regulated by different chemokines. Chemokines are small proteins and exert their biological effects by binding with G protein-coupled chemokine receptors (GPCRs) that are found on the surfaces of select target cells. Chemokines are not only involved in the establishment of a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment and organ-directed metastases but also involved in disease progression through enhancing tumor cell growth and proliferation. Therefore, having a solid grasp on chemokines and immune checkpoint modulators can help in the treatment of these cancers. In this review, we discuss the recent advances on the expression patterns and regulation of the main chemokines found in HPV-induced cancers, and their effects on both immune and non-immune cells in these lesions. Importantly, we also present the current knowledge of therapeutic interventions on the expression of specific chemokine and their receptors that have been shown to influence the development and progression of HPV-induced cancers.

Different Effects of Different Lactobacillus acidophilus Strains on DSS-Induced Colitis

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a worldwide chronic intestinal inflammatory immune-related disease. In this study, mice with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis were used to evaluate the effect of Lactobacillus acidophilus on colitis. The results revealed that L. acidophilus CCFM137 and FAHWH11L56 show potential for relieving colitis symptoms, while L. acidophilus FGSYC48L79 did not show a protective effect. Moreover, L. acidophilus NCFM and FAHWH11L56 showed similar effects on various indicators of DSS-induced colitis, increasing the IL-10 and IL-17 in the colon, and modifying the CCL2/CCR2 axis and CCL3/CCR1 axis. For L. acidophilus CCFM137, its effects on colitis were different from the above two strains. Moreover, L. acidophilus FGSYC48L79 had negative effects on colitis by increasing the abundance of harmful bacteria in the gut microbiota and may promote the signaling of chemokines and their receptors. This may be related to its special genome compared to the other strains.

Phosphoinositide species and filamentous actin formation mediate engulfment by senescent tumor cells

Cancer cells survive chemotherapy and cause lethal relapse by entering a senescent state that facilitates expression of many phagocytosis/macrophage-related genes that engender a novel cannibalism phenotype. We used biosensors and live-cell imaging to reveal the basic steps and mechanisms of engulfment by senescent human and mouse tumor cells. We show filamentous actin in predator cells was localized to the prey cell throughout the process of engulfment. Biosensors to various phosphoinositide (PI) species revealed increased concentration and distinct localization of predator PI(4) P and PI(4,5)P2 at the prey cell during early stages of engulfment, followed by a transient burst of PI(3) P before and following internalization. PIK3C2B, the kinase responsible for generating PI(3)P, was required for complete engulfment. Inhibition or knockdown of Clathrin, known to associate with PIK3C2B and PI(4,5)P2, severely impaired engulfment. In sum, our data reveal the most fundamental cellular processes of senescent cell engulfment, including the precise localizations and dynamics of actin and PI species throughout the entire process.

Chemokines in Primary Liver Cancer

The liver is responsible for extremely important functions in the human body. In the liver’s structure, we distinguish between connective tissue (stroma) and parenchyma, the latter of which is formed from the basic structural and functional units of the liver—hepatocytes. There are many factors, that negatively affect the liver cells, contributing to their damage. This may lead to fibrosis, liver failure and, in consequence, primary liver cancer, which is the sixth most commonly diagnosed malignancy and the fourth leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Chemokines are a large family of secreted proteins. Their main role is to direct the recruitment and migration of cells to sites of inflammation or injury. Some authors suggest that these proteins might play a potential role in the development of many malignancies, including primary liver cancer. The aim of this study was to evaluate and summarize the knowledge regarding liver diseases, especially primary liver cancer (HCC) and the participation of chemokines in the development of this malignancy. Chemokines involved in the initiation of this type of tumor belong mainly to the CC and CXC chemokines. Their significant role in the course of hepatocellular carcinoma proves their usefulness in detecting and monitoring the course and treatment in patients with this disease.

Mapping the developing human immune system across organs

Single-cell genomics studies have decoded the immune-cell composition of several human prenatal organs but were limited in understanding the developing immune system as a distributed network across tissues. We profiled nine prenatal tissues combining single-cell RNA sequencing, antigen-receptor sequencing, and spatial transcriptomics to reconstruct the developing human immune system. This revealed the late acquisition of immune effector functions by myeloid and lymphoid cell subsets and the maturation of monocytes and T cells prior to peripheral tissue seeding. Moreover, we uncovered system-wide blood and immune cell development beyond primary hematopoietic organs, characterized human prenatal B1 cells, and shed light on the origin of unconventional T cells. Our atlas provides both valuable data resources and biological insights that will facilitate cell engineering, regenerative medicine, and disease understanding.

The bromodomain and extra-terminal domain degrader MZ1 exhibits preclinical anti-tumoral activity in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the activated B cell-like type

Aim

Bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET) proteins are epigenetic readers that play a fundamental role in transcription regulation. Preclinical and early clinical evidence sustain BET targeting as an anti-cancer approach. BET degraders are chimeric compounds comprising of a BET inhibitor, which allows the binding to BET bromodomains, linked to a small molecule, binder for an E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, triggering BET proteins degradation via the proteasome. These degraders, called proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), can exhibit greater target specificity compared to BET inhibitors and overcome some of their limitations, such as the upregulation of the BET proteins themselves. Here are presented data on the anti-tumor activity and the mechanism of action of the BET degrader MZ1 in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) of the activated B-cell like (ABC, ABC DLBCL), using a BET inhibitor as a comparison.

Methods

Established lymphoma cell lines were exposed for 72 h to increasing doses of the compounds. Cell proliferation was evaluated by using an 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide (MTT) assay. Fluorescent-Activated Cell Sorter (FACS) analysis was performed to measure apoptotic activation and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to study the transcriptional changes induced by the compounds.

Results

MZ1, and not its negative control epimer cisMZ1, was very active with a median half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 49 nmol/L. MZ1 was more in vitro active than the BET inhibitor birabresib (OTX015). Importantly, MZ1 induced cell death in all the ABC DLBCL cell lines, while the BET inhibitor was cytotoxic only in a fraction of them. BET degrader and inhibitor shared partially similar changes at transcriptome level but the MZ1 effect was stronger and overlapped with that caused cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) inhibition.

Conclusions

The BET degrader MZ1 had strong cytotoxic activity in all the ABC DLBCL cell lines that were tested, and, at least in vitro, it elicited more profound effects than BET inhibitors, and encourages further investigations.

CC Chemokines in a Tumor: A Review of Pro-Cancer and Anti-Cancer Properties of Receptors CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10 Ligands

CC chemokines (or β-chemokines) are 28 chemotactic cytokines with an N-terminal CC domain that play an important role in immune system cells, such as CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ lymphocytes, dendritic cells, eosinophils, macrophages, monocytes, and NK cells, as well in neoplasia. In this review, we discuss human CC motif chemokine ligands: CCL1, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL18, CCL19, CCL20, CCL21, CCL25, CCL27, and CCL28 (CC motif chemokine receptor CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10 ligands). We present their functioning in human physiology and in neoplasia, including their role in the proliferation, apoptosis resistance, drug resistance, migration, and invasion of cancer cells. We discuss the significance of chemokine receptors in organ-specific metastasis, as well as the influence of each chemokine on the recruitment of various cells to the tumor niche, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF), Kupffer cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), osteoclasts, tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL), and regulatory T cells (T_reg). Finally, we show how the effect of the chemokines on vascular endothelial cells and lymphatic endothelial cells leads to angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis.

MiR-944/CISH mediated inflammation via STAT3 is involved in oral cancer malignance by cigarette smoking

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Down-regulation of CISH in OSCC tissues and cell lines.

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CISH mediates cellular functions through STAT3 inhibition.

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MiR-944 regulates cellular functions through direct binding of CISH.

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Cigarette smoking-mediated miR-944/CISH/STAT3 axis plays a role in oral carcinogenesis.

The cytokine-inducible Src homology 2-containing protein (CISH) is an endogenous suppressors of signal transduction and activator of transcription (STAT) and acts as a key negative regulator of inflammatory cytokine responses. Downregulation of CISH has been reported to associate with increased activation of STAT and enhanced inflammatory pathways. However, whether microRNAs (miRNAs) play a crucial role in CISH/STAT regulation in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains unknown. The expression of CISH on OSCC patients was determine by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry. Specific targeting by miRNAs was determined by software prediction, luciferase reporter assay, and correlation with target protein expression. The functions of miR-944 and CISH were accessed by transwell migration and invasion analyses using gain- and loss-of-function approaches. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and qRT-PCR were used to evaluate the pro-inflammation cytokines expression under the miR-944, CISH, NNK or combinations treatment. We found that the CISH protein, which modulates STAT3 activity, as a direct target of miR-944. CISH protein was significantly down-regulated in OSCC patients and cell lines and its level was inversely correlated with miR-944 expression. The miR-944-induced STAT3 phosphorylation, pro-inflammation cytokines secretion, migration and invasion were abolished by CISH restoration, suggesting that the oncogenic activity of miR-944 is CISH dependent. Furthermore, tobacco extract (NNK) may contribute to miR-944 induction and STAT3 activation. Antagomir-mediated inactivation of miR-944 prevented the NNK-induced STAT3 phosphorylation and pro-inflammation cytokines secretion. Altogether, these data demonstrate that NNK-induced miR944 expression plays an important role in CISH/STAT3-mediated inflammatory response and activation of tumor malignancy.

BH3 mimetics selectively eliminate chemotherapy-induced senescent cells and improve response in TP53 wild-type breast cancer

TP53 wild-type breast tumors rarely undergo a complete pathological response after chemotherapy treatment. These patients have an extremely poor survival rate and studies show these tumors preferentially undergo senescence instead of apoptosis. These senescent cells persist after chemotherapy and secrete cytokines and chemokines comprising the senescence associated secretory phenotype, which promotes survival, proliferation, and metastasis. We hypothesized that eliminating senescent tumor cells would improve chemotherapy response and extend survival. Previous studies have shown "senolytic" agents selectively kill senescent normal cells, but their efficacy in killing chemotherapy-induced senescent cancer cells is unknown. We show that ABT-263, a BH3 mimetic that targets antiapoptotic proteins BCL2/BCL-XL/BCL-W, had no effect on proliferating cells, but rapidly and selectively induced apoptosis in a subset of chemotherapy-treated cancer cells, though sensitivity required days to develop. Low NOXA expression conferred resistance to ABT-263 in some cells, necessitating additional MCL1 inhibition. Gene editing confirmed breast cancer cells relied on BCL-XL or BCL-XL/MCL1 for survival in senescence. In a mouse model of breast cancer, ABT-263 treatment following chemotherapy led to apoptosis, greater tumor regression, and longer survival. Our results reveal cancer cells that have survived chemotherapy by entering senescence can be eliminated using BH3 mimetic drugs that target BCL-XL or BCL-XL/MCL1. These drugs could help minimize residual disease and extend survival in breast cancer patients that otherwise have a poor prognosis and are most in need of improved therapies.

CCL3-CCR5 axis contributes to progression of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma by promoting cell migration and invasion via Akt and ERK pathways

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) contribute to the progression and mortality of various malignancies. We reported that high numbers of infiltrating TAMs were significantly associated with tumor progression and poor prognosis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). In our previous investigation of TAMs' actions in ESCC, we compared gene expression profiles between peripheral blood monocyte (PBMo)-derived macrophages and TAM-like macrophages stimulated with conditioned media of ESCC cell lines. Among the upregulated genes in the TAM-like macrophages, we focused on CC chemokine ligand 3 (CCL3), which was reported to contribute to tumor progression in several malignancies. Herein, we observed that not only TAMs but also ESCC cell lines expressed CCL3. A CCL3 receptor, CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) was expressed in the ESCC cell lines. Treating the ESCC cell lines with recombinant human (rh)CCL3 induced the phosphorylations of Akt and ERK, which were suppressed by CCR5 knockdown. Migration and invasion of ESCC cells were promoted by treatment with rhCCL3 and co-culture with TAMs. TAMs/rhCCL3-promoted cell migration and invasion were suppressed by inhibition of the CCL3-CCR5 axis, PI3K/Akt, and MEK/ERK pathways. Treatment with rhCCL3 upregulated MMP2 and VEGFA expressions in ESCC cell lines. Our immunohistochemical analysis of 68 resected ESCC cases showed that high expression of CCL3 and/or CCR5 in ESCC tissues was associated with poor prognosis. High CCR5 expression was associated with deeper invasion, presence of vascular invasion, higher pathological stage, higher numbers of infiltrating CD204⁺ TAMs, and higher microvascular density. High expression of both CCL3 and CCR5 was an independent prognostic factor for disease-free survival. These results suggest that CCL3 derived from both TAMs and cancer cells contributes to the progression and poor prognosis of ESCC by promoting cell migration and invasion via the binding of CCR5 and the phosphorylations of Akt and ERK. The CCL3-CCR5 axis could become the target of new therapies against ESCC.

Extensive serum biomarker analysis in patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma

Lung cancer is a common malignant disease, nearly 2.09 million new patients occurred last year. Approximately 85% of the patients are classified as non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). It is therefore important to identify new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for the early detection of this disease. The presented study identifies biomarkers in the serum of NSCLC patients. The expression of 274 cytokines was measured by a novel antibody array methodology and ELISA was applied to validate the array results. The levels of MIP-1 α, IL-8, MIP-1 β, Resistin, GDF-15, HGF, CA125, FLRG, VCAM-1, DKK-3, sTNF-R1, CTACK, Acrp30, CXCL-16 and LYVE-1 were significantly higher in serum from NSCLC patients, while the level of TIMP-2 and IGFBP-6 were lower. More importantly, the validation supported the result of the antibody array. The result of the antibody array indicates that these cytokines might be novel auxiliary biomarkers in the diagnosis and prognosis of NSCLC.

C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 15 May Be a Useful Biomarker for Predicting the Prognosis of Patients with Chronic Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis

BACKGROUND

Chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis (CHP) is characterized by lymphocytic inflammation and progressive fibrosis of the lung caused by a variety of inhaled antigens. Due to the difficulty of accurately diagnosing CHP, and the poor prognosis associated with the condition, a novel clinical biomarker is urgently needed.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the usefulness of C-C motif chemokine ligand 15 (CCL15), which had been demonstrated to highly express in the lungs of CHP patients, as a clinical biomarker for CHP.

METHOD

Immunohistochemical investigations were performed on lung tissue from CHP patients, and CCL15 levels in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were measured via the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemistry investigations revealed high CCL15 expression in the lungs of CHP patients. Serum CCL15 levels in CHP patients (29.1 ± 2.1 μg/mL) were significantly higher than those of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients (19.7 ± 1.3 μg/mL, p = 0.01) and healthy subjects (19.5 ± 1.7 μg/mL, p = 0.003). When BALF CCL15 level was divided by BALF albumin (Alb) level (BALF CCL15/Alb), it was significantly inversely correlated with forced vital capacity (β = -0.47, p = 0.0006), percentage of predicted carbon monoxide diffusion capacity of the lung (β = -0.41, p = 0.0048), and BALF lymphocyte count (β = -0.34, p = 0.01) in CHP patients. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards analysis revealed that high BALF CCL15/Alb and poor prognosis were statistically significantly independently correlated in CHP patients (HR 1.1, 95% CI 1.03-1.18, p = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

The results of the current study suggest that CCL15 may be a useful prognostic biomarker for CHP. CCL15 was highly expressed in the lung tissue of CHP patients, and BALF CCL15/Alb was significantly associated with CHP prognosis.

CKLF1 Enhances Inflammation-Mediated Carcinogenesis and Prevents Doxorubicin-Induced Apoptosis via IL6/STAT3 Signaling in HCC

PURPOSE

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), one of the most common and deadliest malignancies worldwide, has a poor prognosis, owing to its high potential for vascular invasion and metastasis and the lack of biomarkers for early diagnosis. Thus, it must be a crucial factor for investigating therapeutic strategies for HCC to identify the functional molecular targets. Here, we reported a novel chemokine, CKLF1, that might act as a pivotal modulator in the invasion and metastasis of HCC and could serve as an attractive target for cancer therapy.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Bioinformatics analysis, PCR, Western blotting, and IHC were performed to detect the expression of CKLF1 in HCC. The function of CKLF1 was demonstrated by a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. Pharmacologic treatment, flow cytometry, and Western blotting were carried out to demonstrate the potential mechanisms of CKLF1.

RESULTS

We proved that CKLF1 was overexpressed in HCC tissues and was related to tumor stage, vascular invasion, and patient survival. Then, functional assays showed that CKLF1 promoted hepatocellular carcinogenesis and metastatic potential. Finally, the IL6/STAT3 signaling pathway was involved in the mechanistic investigation. The results demonstrated that CKLF1 enhanced the progression of HCC and prevented doxorubicin-induced apoptosis through activating the IL6/STAT3 pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

These data showed that CKLF1 inhibited apoptosis and promoted malignant transformation through the IL6/STAT3 pathway, and ultimately enhanced the development and metastasis of HCC. Thus, our work revealed that CKLF1 was a significant prognostic factor of HCC and might be a potential molecular therapeutic target for HCC.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma Is Associated With Gut Microbiota Profile and Inflammation in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

The gut-liver axis plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which is the third leading cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. However, the link between gut microbiota and hepatocarcinogenesis remains to be clarified. The aim of this study was to explore what features of the gut microbiota are associated with HCC in patients with cirrhosis and NAFLD. A consecutive series of patients with NAFLD-related cirrhosis and HCC (group 1, 21 patients), NAFLD-related cirrhosis without HCC (group 2, 20 patients), and healthy controls (group 3, 20 patients) was studied for gut microbiota profile, intestinal permeability, inflammatory status, and circulating mononuclear cells. We finally constructed a model depicting the most relevant correlations among these features, possibly involved in hepatocarcinogenesis. Patients with HCC showed increased levels of fecal calprotectin, while intestinal permeability was similar to patients with cirrhosis but without HCC. Plasma levels of interleukin 8 (IL8), IL13, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL) 3, CCL4, and CCL5 were higher in the HCC group and associated with an activated status of circulating monocytes. The fecal microbiota of the whole group of patients with cirrhosis showed higher abundance of Enterobacteriaceae and Streptococcus and a reduction in Akkermansia. Bacteroides and Ruminococcaceae were increased in the HCC group, while Bifidobacterium was reduced. Akkermansia and Bifidobacterium were inversely correlated with calprotectin concentration, which in turn was associated with humoral and cellular inflammatory markers. A similar behavior was also observed for Bacteroides. Conclusion: Our results suggest that in patients with cirrhosis and NAFLD the gut microbiota profile and systemic inflammation are significantly correlated and can concur in the process of hepatocarcinogenesis.

C-C chemokine receptor type 1 mediates osteopontin-promoted metastasis in hepatocellular carcinoma

In the hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) microenvironment, chemokine receptors play a critical role in tumorigenesis and metastasis. Our previous studies have found that osteopontin (OPN) is a promoter for HCC metastasis. However, the role of chemokine receptors in OPN-induced HCC metastasis remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that OPN is dramatically elevated in HCC tissues with metastasis and that high expression of OPN correlates with poorer overall survival and higher recurrence rate. OPN upregulates chemokine receptor expression, migration, invasion and pulmonary metastasis in HCC. We find that C-C chemokine receptor type 1 (CCR1) and C-X-C chemokine receptor type 6 (CXCR6) are the most upregulated chemokine receptors induced by OPN. CCR1 knockdown results in reduction of migration, invasion and pulmonary metastasis induced by OPN in vitro and in vivo, whereas CXCR6 knockdown does not reverse OPN-promoted migration and invasion. Moreover, OPN upregulates the expression of CCR1 through activating phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) in HCC cells. Furthermore, blockade of OPN-CCR1 axis with CCR1 antagonist significantly restrains the promoting effects of OPN on HCC progression and metastasis. In human HCC tissues, OPN expression shows significantly positive correlation with CCR1 expression, and the patients with high levels of both OPN and CCR1 have the most dismal prognosis. Collectively, our results indicate that the OPN-CCR1 axis in HCC is important for accelerating tumor metastasis and that CCR1 is a potential therapeutic target for controlling metastasis in HCC patients with high OPN.

A novel multi-target RNAi adenovirus inhibits hepatoma cell proliferation, migration, and induction of angiogenesis

The pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a multi-step process involving many genes. Consequently, single gene targeting therapy has limited efficacy, making combination therapy targeting multiple genes a necessity. Based on our previous findings, we constructed a single vector mediating simultaneous expression of multiple short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) against human vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2), chemokine C-C motif receptor 1 (CCR1), and epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), three genes closely related to HCC progression that act through separate pathways. The shRNA vector efficiently downregulated the mRNA and protein of all three molecules in Huh7 hepatoma cells. The vector also inhibited cell proliferation and migration and reduced angiogenesis. Furthermore, this shRNA vector can be recombined into adenovirus, a gene therapy vector, for better in vivo application. It thus offers a potentially effective future gene therapy approach to treating human liver cancer.

Biomarkers distinguish HBeAg seroconverted from non-converted individuals in chronic hepatitis B patients treated with a therapeutic vaccine

Cytokine assays of host immune responses to vaccination can indicate vaccine efficacy. Here we tested the hypothesis that assays of the cytokine status of infected individuals prior to therapeutic vaccination might provide a guide to vaccine therapeutic efficacy. If so, cytokine analysis might be used to select appropriate patients for therapeutic vaccination. Data were obtained from a panel of 14 cytokine/chemokine assays that were done during a phase III clinical trial of HBsAg-HBIG therapeutic vaccine (YIC) treatment of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients. Summarized assay results were compared between patients who responded by HBeAg-seroconversion and non-responders. Though no single cytokine or chemokine showed clear correlation with responsiveness, by bio-mathematical analysis with Boolean modelling, the combined results revealed that plasma IL-10, IL-33 and MIP-1α together correlated best with responsiveness. However, the difference between HBeAg seroconverted and non-converted YIC-treated CHB patients was maximized when results of all 14 cytokine/chemokine assays were included and showed a sensitivity around 0.59, and a specificity of 0.8. It suggested that the combined analysis of these elements may be useful to screen appropriate CHB patients for therapeutic vaccination with YIC.

Relevance of CCL3/CCR5 axis in oral carcinogenesis

The chemokine CCL3 is a chemotactic cytokine crucial for inflammatory cell recruitment in homeostatic and pathological conditions. CCL3 might stimulate cancer progression by promoting leukocyte accumulation, angiogenesis and tumour growth. The expression of CCL3 and its receptors CCR1 and CCR5 was demonstrated in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), but their role was not defined. Here, the functions of CCL3 were assessed using a model of chemically induced tongue carcinogenesis with 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4NQO). Lineages of OSCC were used to analyse the effects of CCL3 in vitro. The 4NQO-induced lesions exhibited increased expression of CCL3, CCR1 and CCR5. CCL3^-/- and CCR5^-/- mice presented reduced incidence of tongue tumours compared to wild-type (WT) and CCR1^-/- mice. Consistently, attenuated cytomorphological atypia and reduced cell proliferation were observed in lesions of CCL3^-/- and CCR5^-/- mice. OSCC from CCL3^-/- mice exhibited lower infiltration of eosinophils and reduced expression of Egf, Fgf1, Tgf-β1, Vegfa, Vegfb, Itga-4, Vtn, Mmp-1a, Mmp-2 and Mmp-9 than WT mice. In vitro, CCL3 induced invasion and production of CCL5, IL-6, MMP -2, -8, -9. Blockage of CCL3 in vitro using α-CCL3 or Evasin-1 (a CCL3-binding protein) impaired tumour cell invasion. In conclusion, CCL3/CCR5 axis has pro-tumourigenic effects in oral carcinogenesis. The induction of inflammatory and angiogenic pathways and eosinophils recruitment appear to be the underlying mechanism explaining these effects. These data reveal potential protective effects of CCL3 blockade in oral cancer.

Functional role of CCL5/RANTES for HCC progression during chronic liver disease

BACKGROUND & AIMS

During liver inflammation, triggering fibrogenesis and carcinogenesis immune cells play a pivotal role. In the present study we investigated the role of CCL5 in human and in murine models of chronic liver inflammation leading to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development.

METHODS

CCL5 expression and its receptors were studied in well-defined patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) and in two murine inflammation based HCC models. The role of CCL5 in inflammation, fibrosis, tumor initiation and progression was analyzed in different cell populations of NEMO^Δhepa/CCL5^-/- animals and after bone marrow transplantation (BMT). For therapeutic intervention Evasin-4 was injected for 24h or 8weeks.

RESULTS

In CLD patients, CCL5 and its receptor CCR5 are overexpressed - an observation confirmed in the Mdr2^-/- and NEMO^Δhepa model. CCL5 deletion in NEMO^Δhepa mice diminished hepatocyte apoptosis, compensatory proliferation and fibrogenesis due to reduced immune cell infiltration. Especially, CD45⁺/Ly6G⁺ granulocytes, CD45⁺/CD11b⁺/Gr1.1⁺/F4/80⁺ pro-inflammatory monocytes, CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells were decreased. One year old NEMO^Δhepa/CCL5^-/- mice displayed smaller and less malignant tumors, characterized by reduced proliferative capacity and less pronounced angiogenesis. We identified hematopoietic cells as the main source of CCL5, while CCL5 deficiency did not sensitise NEMO^Δhepa hepatocytes towards TNFα induced apoptosis. Finally, therapeutic intervention with Evasin-4 over a period of 8weeks ameliorated liver disease progression.

CONCLUSION

We identified an important role of CCL5 in human and functionally in mice with disease progression, especially HCC development. A novel approach to inhibit CCL5 in vivo thus appears encouraging for patients with CLD.

LAY SUMMARY

Our present study identifies the essential role of the chemoattractive cytokine CCL5 for liver disease progression and especially hepatocellular carcinoma development in men and mice. Finally, the inhibition of CCL5 appears to be encouraging for therapy of human chronic liver disease.

The Regulation of Cellular Functions by the p53 Protein: Cellular Senescence

Transformed cells have properties that allow them to survive and proliferate inappropriately. These characteristics often arise as a result of mutations caused by DNA damage. p53 suppresses transformation by removing the proliferative or survival capacity of cells with DNA damage or inappropriate cell-cycle progression. Cellular senescence, marked by morphological and gene expression changes, is a critical component of p53-mediated tumor suppression. In response to stress, p53 can facilitate an arrest and senescence program in cells exposed to stresses such as DNA damage and oncogene activation, preventing transformation. Senescent cells are evident in precancerous adenoma-type lesions, whereas proliferating, malignant tumors have bypassed senescence, either by p53 mutation or inactivation of the p53 pathway by other means. Tumors that have retained wild-type p53 often show a p53-mediated senescence response to chemotherapy. This response is actually detrimental in some tumor types, as senescent cells can drive relapse by persisting and producing cytokines and chemokines through an acquired secretory phenotype.

SASP: Tumor Suppressor or Promoter? Yes!

Cellular senescence is a permanent growth arrest in cells with damage or stress that could lead to transformation. Some tumor cells also undergo senescence in response to chemotherapy. Senescent cells secrete cytokines and other factors of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) that contribute to tumor suppression by enforcing arrest and recruiting immune cells that remove these damaged or oncogene-expressing cells from organisms. However, some cells can develop a SASP comprising factors that are immunosuppressive and protumorigenic by paracrine mechanisms. Likewise, the SASP in treated cancers can either contribute to durable responses or drive relapse. Here, we discuss the studies that have demonstrated a complex and often conflicting role for the SASP in tumorigenesis and treatment response.

Mouse models of liver cancer: Progress and recommendations

To clarify the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and investigate the effects of potential therapies, a number of mouse models have been developed. Subcutaneous xenograft models are widely used in the past decades. Yet, with the advent of in vivo imaging technology, investigators are more and more concerned with the orthotopic models nowadays. Genetically engineered mouse models (GEM) have greatly facilitated studies of gene function in HCC development. Recently, GEM of miR-122 and miR-221 provided new approaches for better understanding of the in vivo functions of microRNA in hepatocarcinogenesis. Chemically induced liver tumors in animals share many of the morphological, histogenic, and biochemical features of human HCC. Yet, the complicated and obscure genomic alternation restricts their applications. In this review, we highlight both the frequently used mouse models and some emerging ones with emphasis on their merits or defects, and give advises for investigators to chose a “best-fit” animal model in HCC research.

Tumor suppressive actions of the nuclear receptor corepressor 1

Nuclear Receptor Corepressor 1 (NCoR) is an important transcriptional regulator that interacts with nuclear receptors and other transcription factors. Recent results have shown the presence of inactivating mutations or deletions of the NCoR gene in human tumors. NCoR has a strong tumor suppressor activity, inhibiting invasion, metastasis formation and tumor growth in xenograft mouse models. These changes are associated to transcriptional inhibition of genes linked to bad prognosis and increased metastasis in cancer patients. NCoR loss causes a long-term repression of NCoR gene transcription, suggesting that NCoR deficiency in the cancer cell could be propagated playing a role in tumor progression in the absence of NCoR gene mutations. The thyroid hormone receptor TRβ increases NCoR expression and this induction is essential in mediating the anti-metastatic and tumor suppressive actions of the receptor. Since metastasis is the main cause of cancer-related deaths, these results define NCoR as a potential target for cancer therapy.

Autoregulatory loop of nuclear corepressor 1 expression controls invasion, tumor growth, and metastasis

Nuclear corepressor 1 (NCoR) associates with nuclear receptors and other transcription factors leading to transcriptional repression. We show here that NCoR depletion enhances cancer cell invasion and increases tumor growth and metastatic potential in nude mice. These changes are related to repressed transcription of genes associated with increased metastasis and poor prognosis in patients. Strikingly, transient NCoR silencing leads to heterochromatinization and stable silencing of the NCoR gene, suggesting that NCoR loss can be propagated, contributing to tumor progression even in the absence of NCoR gene mutations. Down-regulation of the thyroid hormone receptor β1 (TRβ) appears to be associated with cancer onset and progression. We found that expression of TRβ increases NCoR levels and that this induction is essential in mediating inhibition of tumor growth and metastasis by this receptor. Moreover, NCoR is down-regulated in human hepatocarcinomas and in the more aggressive breast cancer tumors, and its expression correlates positively with that of TRβ. These data provide a molecular basis for the anticancer actions of this corepressor and identify NCoR as a potential molecular target for development of novel cancer therapies.

Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis: Involvement of the Telomerase and Proinflammatory Mediators

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis or NASH is an excessive accumulation of fat in hepatocytes accompanied by inflammation and hepatic injury. Proinflammatory molecules such as IL-17, CCL20, S100A8, S100A9, and S100A8/A9 have been shown to be implicated in many types of cancer. Telomerase activity has been found to be associated with chronic inflammation and cancer. NASH can progress to fibrosis then cirrhosis and finally to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Our objective is to try to find a relation between inflammation and the progression of NASH into HCC. We found that there was a significant elevation in the telomerase activity, detected by real-time PCR, between NASH and fibrotic NASH in the liver biopsies of patients. The expression of S100A8, S100A9, S100A8/A9, CCL20, and IL-17, detected by ELISA, is significantly increased in NASH patients with fibrosis in comparison with controls. But, in NASH patients, S100A9, S100A8/A9, and IL-17 only are significantly elevated in comparison with controls. The same, on the mRNA level, expression of IL-17, detected by RT-PCR, is significantly elevated in NASH patients in comparison with controls. Therefore, there is a direct link between the expression of IL-17, CCL20, telomerase, S100A8, and S100A9 in the fibrotic condition and the progression towards cancer.

Knockdown of SOX18 inhibits the proliferation, migration and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignancies in the world. Recent studies have demonstrated that SOX18 is highly expressed in various types of cancer. In the present study, we found that SOX18 mRNA was overexpressed in HCC compared with non-tumorous tissues. We aimed to explore the effects of SOX18 siRNA on the proliferation, invasion and migration of two HCC cell lines, MHCC97H and HepG2, which overexpress SOX18. We found that SOX18 siRNA significantly inhibited the proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase. Results of the Transwell assay showed that the migration and invasion of the HCC cells were markedly impaired in the SOX18-knockdown cells. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) showed that KEGG focal adhesion and chemokine signaling pathways were correlated with SOX18 expression. Furthermore, the mRNA and protein levels of RhoA, PDGFB, IGF1R, CCL2, CCL3 and CCL5 were decreased in the SOX18-knockdown cells. Importantly, we demonstrated that upregulation of SOX18 was associated with a poor outcome in HCC patients. These results indicate that SOX18 may serve as a prognostic factor and a promising therapeutic strategy for HCC.

Role of chemokine pathways in hepatobiliary cancer

Persistent hepatic inflammation resulting from hepatitis B or C virus infections (HBV or HCV, respectively), obesity-associated non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) or alcohol abuse is a hallmark feature of chronic liver diseases and appears to be an essential prerequisite of hepatocarcinogenesis. The inflammatory processes in the liver are regulated by various chemokines, which orchestrate the interaction between parenchymal liver cells, Kupffer cells (resident macrophages), hepatic stellate cells (HSC), endothelial cells, and infiltrating immune cells. In consequence, these cellular interactions result in the re-modeling of the hepatic microenvironment toward a pro-inflammatory, pro-fibrotic, pro-angiogenic and thus pre-neoplastic milieu. Once developed, liver neoplasms provoke pro- and anti-tumor immune responses that are also critically regulated through differential activation of chemokine pathways. With respect to hepatobiliary cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), gallbladder cancer and cholangiocellular carcinoma (cholangiocarcinoma), together belonging to the highest causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide, this review article will give an overview of chemokine pathways involved in both the establishment of a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment as well as the development and progression of hepatobiliary cancer. Pharmaceutical targeting of chemokine pathways is a promising approach to treat or even prevent hepatobiliary cancer.

Chemokines and their receptors play important roles in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma

The chemokine system consists of four different subclasses with over 50 chemokines and 19 receptors. Their functions in the immune system have been well elucidated and research during the last decades unveils their new roles in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The chemokines and their receptors in the microenvironment influence the development of HCC by several aspects including: inflammation, effects on immune cells, angiogenesis, and direct effects on HCC cells. Regarding these aspects, pre-clinical research by targeting the chemokine system has yielded promising data, and these findings bring us new clues in the chemokine-based therapies for HCC.

Phase II trial of bortezomib plus doxorubicin in hepatocellular carcinoma (E6202): a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group

PURPOSE

To evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of bortezomib in combination with doxorubicin in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma, and to correlate pharmacodynamic markers of proteasome inhibition with response and survival.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

This phase II, open-label, multicenter study examined the efficacy of bortezomib (1.3 mg/m(2) IV on d1, 4, 8, 11) and doxorubicin (15 mg/m(2) IV on d1, 8) in 21-day cycles. The primary endpoint was objective response rate.

RESULTS

Best responses in 38 treated patients were 1 partial response (2.6 %), 10 (26.3 %) stable disease, and 17 (44.7 %) progressive disease; 10 patients were unevaluable. Median PFS was 2.2 months. Median OS was 6.1 months. The most common grade 3 to 4 toxicities were hypertension, glucose intolerance, ascites, ALT elevation, hyperglycemia and thrombosis/embolism. Worse PFS was seen in patients with elevated IL-6, IL-8, MIP-1α and EMSA for NF-κB at the start of treatment. Worse OS was seen in patients with elevated IL-8 and VEGF at the start of treatment. Patients had improved OS if a change in the natural log of serum MIP-1α/CCL3 was seen after treatment. RANTES/CCL5 levels decreased significantly with treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of doxorubicin and bortezomib was well-tolerated in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma, but the primary endpoint was not met. Exploratory analyses of markers of proteasome inhibition suggest a possible prognostic and predictive role and should be explored further in tumor types for which bortezomib is efficacious.

Roles for chemokines in liver disease

Sustained hepatic inflammation is an important factor in progression of chronic liver diseases, including hepatitis C or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Liver inflammation is regulated by chemokines, which regulate the migration and activities of hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, hepatic stellate cells, endothelial cells, and circulating immune cells. However, the effects of the different chemokines and their receptors vary during pathogenesis of different liver diseases. During development of chronic viral hepatitis, CCL5 and CXCL10 regulate the cytopathic versus antiviral immune responses of T cells and natural killer cells. During development of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, CCL2 and its receptor are up-regulated in the liver, where they promote macrophage accumulation, inflammation, fibrosis, and steatosis, as well as in adipose tissue. CCL2 signaling thereby links hepatic and systemic inflammation related to metabolic disorders and insulin resistance. Several chemokine signaling pathways also promote hepatic fibrosis. Recent studies have shown that other chemokines and immune cells have anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic activities. Chemokines and their receptors can also contribute to the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma, promoting proliferation of cancer cells, the inflammatory microenvironment of the tumor, evasion of the immune response, and angiogenesis. We review the roles of different chemokines in the pathogenesis of liver diseases and their potential use as biomarkers or therapeutic targets.

The role of chemoattractant receptors in shaping the tumor microenvironment

Chemoattractant receptors are a family of seven transmembrane G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) initially found to mediate the chemotaxis and activation of immune cells. During the past decades, the functions of these GPCRs have been discovered to not only regulate leukocyte trafficking and promote immune responses, but also play important roles in homeostasis, development, angiogenesis, and tumor progression. Accumulating evidence indicates that chemoattractant GPCRs and their ligands promote the progression of malignant tumors based on their capacity to orchestrate the infiltration of the tumor microenvironment by immune cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and mesenchymal cells. This facilitates the interaction of tumor cells with host cells, tumor cells with tumor cells, and host cells with host cells to provide a basis for the expansion of established tumors and development of distant metastasis. In addition, many malignant tumors of the nonhematopoietic origin express multiple chemoattractant GPCRs that increase the invasiveness and metastasis of tumor cells. Therefore, GPCRs and their ligands constitute targets for the development of novel antitumor therapeutics.

The role of chemokines in hepatitis C virus-mediated liver disease

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global health problem affecting more than 170 million people. A chronic HCV infection is associated with liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. To enable viral persistence, HCV has developed mechanisms to modulate both innate and adaptive immunity. The recruitment of antiviral immune cells in the liver is mainly dependent on the release of specific chemokines. Thus, the modulation of their expression could represent an efficient viral escape mechanism to hamper specific immune cell migration to the liver during the acute phase of the infection. HCV-mediated changes in hepatic immune cell chemotaxis during the chronic phase of the infection are significantly affecting antiviral immunity and tissue damage and thus influence survival of both the host and the virus. This review summarizes our current understanding of the HCV-mediated modulation of chemokine expression and of its impact on the development of liver disease. A profound knowledge of the strategies used by HCV to interfere with the host's immune response and the pro-fibrotic and pro-carcinogenic activities of HCV is essential to be able to design effective immunotherapies against HCV and HCV-mediated liver diseases.

Control of both myeloid cell infiltration and angiogenesis by CCR1 promotes liver cancer metastasis development in mice

Expression of the CC chemokine receptor 1 (CCR1) by tumor cells has been associated with protumoral activity; however, its role in nontumoral cells during tumor development remains elusive. Here, we investigated the role of CCR1 deletion on stromal and hematopoietic cells in a liver metastasis tumor model. Metastasis development was strongly impaired in CCR1-deficient mice compared to control mice and was associated with reduced liver monocyte infiltration. To decipher the role of myeloid cells, sublethally irradiated mice were reconstituted with CCR1-deficient bone marrow (BM) and showed better survival rates than the control reconstituted mice. These results point toward the involvement of CCR1 myeloid cell infiltration in the promotion of tumor burden. In addition, survival rates were extended in CCR1-deficient mice receiving either control or CCR1-deficient BM, indicating that host CCR1 expression on nonhematopoietic cells also supports tumor growth. Finally, we found defective tumor-induced neoangiogenesis (in vitro and in vivo) in CCR1-deficient mice. Overall, our results indicate that CCR1 expression by both hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cells favors tumor aggressiveness. We propose CCR1 as a potential therapeutical target for liver metastasis therapy.

Dissimilar cytokine patterns in different human liver and colon cancer cell lines

An accurate and simultaneous estimate of cellular levels of a large cytokine number is very useful to obtain information about an organ dysfunction leading to cancer because through the understanding of the evolution of cytokine patterns we can recognize and predict the disease progression. Cancer cell lines are commonly used to study the cancer microenvironment, to analyze their chemosensitivity and carcinogenesis as well as to test in vitro the effect of molecules, such as drugs or anti-oxidants, on the inflammation status and its progression. We noted that various cell lines commonly used as a model for studies on liver and colon cancer possess different patterns of cytokines. This aspect may generate data not comparable in laboratories using different cell lines; thus, to investigate the origin of these abnormalities we compared the cell lines HepG2 and Huh7, and HT-29 and HCT-116, for liver and colon cancer, respectively. In this context we have evaluated and compared the levels of cytokines, chemokines and growth factors in the supernatants of these cellular lines. Our aim was to identify what cytokines were significantly different correlating similarities and differences to the specific inflammation status of each cellular model of cancer.

The role of macrophage class a scavenger receptors in a laser-induced murine choroidal neovascularization model

PURPOSE

Laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a widely used model to mimic many features of CNV resulting from wet AMD. Macrophages have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AMD. Class A scavenger receptors, scavenger receptor-A (SR-A) and macrophage receptor with collagenous domain (MARCO), are expressed on macrophages and are associated with macrophage function. The goal of this study is to examine the role of macrophage scavenger receptors in immune cell recruitment and the formation of CNV.

METHODS

Laser photocoagulation was performed in wild-type and knockout mice with deletion of SR-A (SR-A(-/-)), MARCO (MARCO(-/-)), or both SR-A and MARCO double knockout (DKO). Immune cell recruitment at different time points and CNV lesions at 14 days after laser treatment were evaluated through immunostaining and confocal microscopy. Microarray analysis was performed in eyes 1 day after laser injury.

RESULTS

Wild-type eyes showed higher chemokine/receptor expression compared with knockout eyes after laser injury. Scavenger receptor deficiency markedly impaired the recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages to CNV lesions at 1- and 3-days post laser injury, respectively. Significantly reduced CNV volumes were found in the eyes from scavenger receptor knockout mice compared with wild-type mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The deficiency of scavenger receptors impairs the formation of CNV and immune cell recruitment. Our findings suggest a potential role for scavenger receptors in contributing to CNV formation and inflammation in AMD.

The role of chemokines in acute and chronic hepatitis C infection

Hepatitis C imposes a significant burden on global healthcare. Chronic infection is associated with progressive inflammation of the liver which typically manifests in cirrhosis, organ failure and cancer. By virtue of elaborate evasion strategies, hepatitis C virus (HCV) succeeds as a persistent human virus. It has an extraordinary capacity to subvert the immune response enabling it to establish chronic infections and associated liver disease. Chemokines are low molecular weight chemotactic peptides that mediate the recruitment of inflammatory cells into tissues and back into the lymphatics and peripheral blood. Thus, they are central to the temporal and spatial distribution of effector and regulatory immune cells. The interactions between chemokines and their cognate receptors help shape the immune response and therefore, have a major influence on the outcome of infection. However, chemokines represent a target for modulation by viruses including the HCV. HCV is known to modulate chemokine expression in vitro and may therefore enable its survival by subverting the immune response in vivo through altered leukocyte chemotaxis resulting in impaired viral clearance and the establishment of chronic low-grade inflammation. In this review, the roles of chemokines in acute and chronic HCV infection are described with a particular emphasis placed on chemokine modulation as a means of immune subversion. We provide an in depth discussion of the part played by chemokines in mediating hepatic fibrosis while addressing the potential applications for these chemoattractants in prognostic medicine.

Vascular endothelial growth factor expression and inhibition in uveal melanoma cell lines

Background:

Uveal melanoma (UM) is a disease that affects approximately five people per million in the United States. This disease metastasises predominantly to the liver, and treatment options following the clinical detection of these sequelae are limited. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) is the primary activator of tumour angiogenesis and functions by binding to VEGF-Receptor 2 (VEGF-R2) and is often required for tumour growth beyond 2–3 mm. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression of VEGF-A and the primary VEGF-R2 in three UM cell lines. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of VEGF-A inhibition on receptor activation and production of other cytokines. Finally, the effects of VEGF-A inhibition on the proliferation, migration, and invasion in the cell lines were ascertained.

Materials:

Three UM cell lines (92.1, OCM-1, and UW-1) were incubated with and without the addition of 100 μg/mL of bevacizumab. VEGF-A expression under both conditions was determined by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and phosphorylated VEGF-R2 expression was determined using western blot. The effects of VEGF-A inhibition on 20 cytokines (IL-1a, IL-2, IL-5, IL-8, IL-12p70, GM-CSF, IFNy, CCL3, MMP-9, TNF-a, IL-1b, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-13, GRO, MCP-1, MIP-1b, and RANTES) were determined using a multiplex sandwich ELISA. Proliferation rates before and after treatment were evaluated via sulforhodamine B assay, and migration and invasion assays implementing the Boyden chamber technique, the latter with artificial extracellular matrix, were used to assess their respective abilities. The Student’s t-test was used to compare changes in cytokine expression following VEGF-A inhibition. Analysis of variance was used to compare changes in the functional abilities of three uveal melanoma cell lines following VEGF-A inhibition. A P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results:

All three cell lines produced copious amounts of VEGF-A in culture (92.1, 11785.5 ± 231.8 pg/μL; OCM-1, 4608.0 ± 324.0 pg/μL; UW-1, 8309.3 ± 634.5 pg/μL), which was reduced to undetectable levels following the administration of bevacizumab (P< 0.05). Similarly, detectable phosphorylated VEGF-R2 was present in all cells, which was reduced significantly in all cell lines following bevacizumab treatment (107525.2 ± 8602.0 versus 1024.5 ± 98.2, 46587.3 ± 4192.9 versus 12821.1 ± 1666.7, and 60394.3 ± 4026.4 versus 6908.2 ± 607.2; 92.1, OCM-1, and UW-1, respectively; P< 0.05). Of the cytokines investigated, only MMP-9 and CCL3 were ubiquitously altered across all three cell lines following bevacizumab treatment; they were upregulated (CCL3: 1072.50 ± 18.77 pg/mL versus 1281.00 ± 72.34 pg/mL; 22.5 ± 7.85 pg/mL versus 62.00 ± 9.16 pg/mL; 20.33 ± 6.35 pg/mL versus 35.00 ± 6.22 pg/mL; control versus bevacizumab; MMP-9: 25.50 ± 5.47 pg/mL versus 88.25 ± 13.38 pg/mL; 19.75 ± 4.14 pg/mL versus 45.25 ± 8.36 pg/mL; 3.25 ± 1.09 pg/mL versus 19.25 ± 3.77 pg/mL; control versus bevacizumab; 92.1, OCM-1, and UW-1, respectively; P< 0.05). Bevacizumab significantly reduced the proliferation of one cell line (92.1: 0.405 ± 0.012 versus 0.509 ± 0.033; bevacizumab versus control; values OD; P< 0.05), the migration of two cell lines (92.1: 0.071 ± 0.003 versus 0.115 ± 0.003; OCM-1: 0.049 ± 0.005 versus 0.117 ± 0.014; bevacizumab versus control; values OD; P< 0.05), and did not significantly affect invasion.

Conclusion:

Despite the significant reduction in phosphorylated VEGF-R2 levels, bevacizumab did not have a dramatic impact on the functional abilities of the three UM cell lines studied. Our results indicate that compensatory mechanisms, such as the upregulation of MMP-9 and CCL-3, following bevacizumab administration may mitigate its effects on these abilities.

CXCR6 upregulation contributes to a proinflammatory tumor microenvironment that drives metastasis and poor patient outcomes in hepatocellular carcinoma

CXC chemokines and their cognate receptors have been implicated widely in cancer pathogenesis. In this study, we report a critical causal relationship between CXCR6 expression and tumorigenesis in the setting of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Among the CXC chemokine receptors, only CXCR6 was detected in all the hepatoma cell lines studied. Moreover, in HCC tissue, CXCR6 expression was significantly higher than in noncancerous liver tissues. Reduction of CXCR6 or its ligand CXCL16 in cancer cells reduced cell invasion in vitro and tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastases in vivo. Importantly, loss of CXCR6 led to reduced Gr-1+ neutrophil infiltration and decreased neoangiogenesis in hepatoma xenografts via inhibition of proinflammatory cytokine production. Clinically, high expression of CXCR6 was an independent predictor of increased recurrence and poor survival in HCCs. Human HCC samples expressing high levels of CXCR6 also contained an increased number of CD66b+ neutrophils and microvessels, and the combination of CXCR6 and neutrophils was a superior predictor of recurrence and survival than either marker used alone. Together, our findings suggest that elevated expression of CXCR6 promotes HCC invasiveness and a protumor inflammatory environment and is associated with poor patient outcome. These results support the concept that inhibition of the CXCR6-CXCL16 pathway may improve prognosis after HCC treatment.

p53-mediated senescence impairs the apoptotic response to chemotherapy and clinical outcome in breast cancer

Studies on the role of TP53 mutation in breast cancer response to chemotherapy are conflicting. Here, we show that, contrary to dogma, MMTV-Wnt1 mammary tumors with mutant p53 exhibited a superior clinical response compared to tumors with wild-type p53. Doxorubicin-treated p53 mutant tumors failed to arrest proliferation, leading to abnormal mitoses and cell death, whereas p53 wild-type tumors arrested, avoiding mitotic catastrophe. Senescent tumor cells persisted, secreting senescence-associated cytokines exhibiting autocrine/paracrine activity and mitogenic potential. Wild-type p53 still mediated arrest and inhibited drug response even in the context of heterozygous p53 point mutations or absence of p21. Thus, we show that wild-type p53 activity hinders chemotherapy response and demonstrate the need to reassess the paradigm for p53 in cancer therapy.

Early induction of cytokines/cytokine receptors and Cox2, and activation of NF-κB in 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide-induced murine oral cancer model

The purpose of this study was to identify the genes induced early in murine oral carcinogenesis. Murine tongue tumors induced by the carcinogen, 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4-NQO), and paired non-tumor tissues were subjected to microarray analysis. Hierarchical clustering of upregulated genes in the tumor tissues revealed an association of induced genes with inflammation. Cytokines/cytokine receptors induced early were subsequently identified, clearly indicating their involvement in oral carcinogenesis. Hierarchical clustering also showed that cytokine-mediated inflammation was possibly linked with Mapk6. Cox2 exhibited the greatest extent (9-18 fold) of induction in the microarray data, and its early induction was observed in a 2h painting experiment by RT-PCR. MetaCore analysis showed that overexpressed Cox2 may interact with p53 and transcriptionally inhibit expression of several downstream genes. A painting experiment in transgenic mice also demonstrated that NF-κB activates early independently of Cox2 induction. MetaCore analysis revealed the most striking metabolic alterations in tumor tissues, especially in lipid metabolism resulting from the reduction of Pparα and Rxrg. Reduced expression of Mapk12 was noted, and MetaCore analysis established its relationship with decreased efficiency of Pparα phosphorylation. In conclusion, in addition to cytokines/cytokine receptors, the early induction of Cox2 and NF-κB activation is involved in murine oral carcinogenesis.

Disparate molecular, histopathology, and clinical factors in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma racial groups

OBJECTIVE

There is a lack of consensus regarding the causes of the differences in the higher incidence of and the mortality from head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) in African Americans (AA) versus Caucasian Americans (CA). We examined a comprehensive array of risk factors influencing health and disease in an access-to-care, racially diverse, primary HNSCC cohort.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Primary care academic health care system.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The cohort of 673 patients comprised 391 CA and 282 AA (42%). Risk variables included demographic, histopathology, and clinical/epidemiologic factors. Tumor DNA was interrogated for loss and gain of 113 genes with known involvement in HNSCC/cancer. Logistic regression for univariate analysis was followed by multivariate modeling with determination of model predictability (c-index).

RESULTS

Of the 39 univariate differences between AA and CA, multivariate modeling (c-index = 0.81) retained 7 differences (P < .05). AA were less likely to be married and more likely to have tumor lymphocytic response, undergo radiation treatment, and smoke. Insurance type was a significant predictor of race. AA were more likely to have Medicaid, Medicare, and other HMO types. AA tumors were more likely to have loss of CDKN2A and gain of SCYA3 versus CA.

CONCLUSIONS

Multivariate modeling indicated significant differences between AA and CA HNSCC for histopathology, treatment, smoking, marital status, type of insurance, and tumor gene copy number alterations. Our data reiterate that for HNSCC, as in the case of other complex diseases, tumor genetics or biology is only one of many potential contributors to differences among racial groups.