Tunisian radish extract (Raphanus sativus) enhances the antioxidant status and protects against oxidative stress induced by zearalenone in Balb/c mice

Individual and combined occurrences of the prevalent mycotoxins in commercial feline and canine food

Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin (T-2), and zearalenone (ZEN), can contaminate animal feeds and pose risks to animal health and production performance. These mycotoxins are commonly found in cereals and grains, with the increased use of cereals in pet food, there is a rising concern about mycotoxin contamination among pet owners. To address this, we analyzed imported brands of feline and canine food from the Chinese market produced in 2021-2022. Ninety-three samples were analyzed, comprising 45 feline food and 48 canine food samples. Among them, 14 were canned food and 79 were dry food. The results indicate that AFB1, DON, FBs, OTA, T-2, and ZEN occurred in 32.26%, 98.92%, 22.58%, 73.12%, 55.91%, and 7.53% of the samples, respectively. The most prevalent mycotoxin was DON, followed by OTA, T-2, AFB1, and FBs, whereas ZEN was less frequently detected. The mean concentrations of the six mycotoxins in pet feed samples were 3.17 μg/kg for AFB1, 0.65 mg/kg for DON, 2.15 mg/kg for FBs, 6.27 μg/kg for OTA, 20.00 μg/kg for T-2, and 30.00 μg/kg for ZEN. The levels of mycotoxins were generally below the limits of the Pet Feed Hygiene Regulations of China and the EU. Notably, a substantial majority of the pet food samples (88 out of 93) were contaminated by two or more mycotoxins. AFB1, FBs, OTA, and ZEN occurred slightly more often in feline food than in canine food. Except for OTA, the contamination rates for the other five mycotoxins in canned food were lower than those in dry food. Moreover, except for AFB1, the levels of the other five mycotoxins in canned foods were lower than those in dry foods. This study highlights the widespread contamination of pet foods with mycotoxins, which poses a significant risk to pets from continuous exposure to multiple mycotoxins.

Kefir mitigates renal damage caused by zearalenone in female wistar rats by reducing oxidative stress

The estrogen-like mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) was popularly occurred in several food and feeds, posing threats to human and animal health. ZEA induced renal toxicity and caused oxidative stress. In the current study, the protecting effect of kefir administration against ZEA-induced renal damage in rats was explored. Rats were divided into 4 groups, each consisting of 5 animals. For the initial 7 days, they were orally administered sterile milk (200 μL/day). Subsequently, during the second week, the groups were exposed to kefir (200 μL/day), ZEA (40 mg/kg b.w./day) and a combination of kefir and ZEA. The biochemical parameters, kidney histological changes and ZEA residue were assessed. Kefir supplementation enhanced the antioxidant enzymes in the kidney, such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities, which increased by 1.2, 4 and 20 folds, respectively, relative to the ZEA group. Remarkably, the concomitant administration kefir + ZEA suppressed ZEA residues in both serum and kidney. Additionally, serum levels of blood urea nitrogen, uric acid and renal malondialdehyde decreased by 22, 65 and 54%, respectively, in the kefir + ZEA group; while, the creatinine content increased by around 60%. Rats co-treated with kefir showed a normal kidney histological architecture contrary to tissues alterations mediated in the ZEA group. These results suggest that kefir may showed a protective effect on the kidneys, mitigating ZEA-induced acute toxicity in rats.

Pathological and biochemical evaluation of radish microgreen on diabetes and aflatoxicosis in rats

Diabetes mellitus type 2 remains one of the common diseases nowadays. Several risk factors can be implicated like increased environmental pollution. This study is aimed at evaluating the toxic effect of aflatoxin on diabetes mellitus and possible protection using natural food like radish microgreen (RM). Forty-eight male rats were randomly assigned to 8 groups: G1 control group, G2 RM group, G3 aflatoxin group, G4 aflatoxin-RM group, G5 diabetic group, G6 diabetic RM group, G7 diabetic-aflatoxin group, G8 diabetic, aflatoxin, RM group. Phytane and citronellyl tiglate were the main phytochemicals present in RM. The glucose and insulin levels were the worst in G5 and G7 groups. RM feeding restored glucose level to normal but did not alter insulin level. Insulin resistance was decreased, and insulin sensitivity was increased in groups fed RM. Liver and kidney function parameters and LDH activity were improved in groups fed RM. Histopathology of the pancreas and immunohistochemistry of insulin in pancreatic islets was improved in groups fed RM. In RM fed groups, the MDA content was decreased, whereas GSH content and antioxidant enzymes activity were increased. In conclusion, feeding RM in diabetic and/or aflatoxicated groups improved all evaluated parameters which could be due to its antioxidant potential.

Toxicity of zearalenone and its nutritional intervention by natural products

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a toxic secondary metabolite mainly produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium, and is often present in various food and feed ingredients such as corn and wheat. The structure of ZEN is similar to that of natural estrogen, and it can bind to estrogen receptors and has estrogenic activity. Therefore, it can cause endocrine-disrupting effects and promote the proliferation of estrogen receptor-positive cell lines. In addition, ZEN can cause oxidative damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and other hazards, resulting in systemic toxic effects, including reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity. In the past few decades, researchers have tried many ways to remove ZEN from food and feed, but it is still a challenge to eliminate it. In recent years, natural compounds have become of interest for their excellent protective effects on human health from food contaminants. Researchers have discovered that natural compounds often used as dietary supplements can effectively alleviate ZEN-induced systemic toxic effects. Most of the compounds mitigate ZEN-induced toxicity through antioxidant effects. In this article, the contamination of food and feed by ZEN and the various toxic effects and mechanisms of ZEN are reviewed, as well as the mitigation effects of natural compounds on ZEN-induced toxicity.

Effects of Zearalenone on Production Performance, Egg Quality, Ovarian Function and Gut Microbiota of Laying Hens

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a ubiquitous contaminant in poultry feed, since ZEN and its metabolites can interfere with estrogen function and affect the reproductive ability of animals. The estrogen-like effect of ZEN on mammal is widely reported, while little information is available, regarding the effect of relatively low dose of ZEN on estrogen function and production performance of laying hens, and the relationship between them. This work was aimed to investigate the effects of ZEN on the production performance, egg quality, ovarian function and gut microbiota of laying hens. A total of 96 Hy-line brown laying hens aged 25-week were randomly divided into 3 groups including basal diet group (BD group), basal diet supplemented with 250 μg/kg (250 μg/kg ZEN group) and 750 μg/kg (750 μg/kg ZEN group) ZEN group. Here, 750 μg/kg ZEN resulted in a significant increase in the feed conversion ratio (FCR) (g feed/g egg) (p < 0.05), a decrease in the egg production (p > 0.05), albumen height and Haugh unit (p > 0.05), compared to the BD group. The serum Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels significantly decreased in ZEN supplemented groups (p < 0.05). Serum Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Progesterone (P) levels in the 750 μg/kg ZEN group were significantly lower than those in the BD group (p < 0.05). 16S rRNA sequencing indicated that ZEN reduced cecum microbial diversity (p < 0.05) and altered gut microbiota composition. In contrast to 250 μg/kg ZEN, 750 μg/kg ZEN had more dramatic effects on the gut microbiota function. Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed negative correlations between the dominant bacteria of the 750 μg/kg ZEN group and the production performance, egg quality and ovarian function of hens. Overall, ZEN was shown to exert a detrimental effect on production performance, egg quality and ovarian function of laying hens in this study. Moreover, alterations in the composition and function of the gut microbiota induced by ZEN may be involved in the adverse effects of ZEN on laying hens.

Does probiotic Kefir reduce dyslipidemia, hematological disorders and oxidative stress induced by zearalenone toxicity in wistar rats?

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a toxic metabolite of the genus Fusarium, which causes hepatotoxicity and induces oxidative stress. Kefir is an important probiotic dairy-product showing important in vitro antioxidant potential. In this study, the effect of Kefir supplementation to mitigate ZEA toxicity in rats was investigated. Animals were divided into four groups of five rats each, which received sterile milk (200 μL/day) during the first week. Then, they were switched to Kefir (200 μL/day), ZEA (40 mg/kg b. w./day) and Kefir + ZEA for the second week. Hematological and biochemical parameters, as well as liver histological analysis were determined. Kefir administration prevented the changes occurred in the count of all blood cells, and improved the antioxidant enzymes in the liver, such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities that increased by 6, 4.5 and 1.3 folds, respectively, compared to ZEA group. Interestingly, the concurrent regimen Kefir + ZEA removed ZEA residues in the serum and liver. Furthermore, the Kefir + ZEA group showed a reduction in the levels of bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and hepatic malonaldehyde by ∼82, 54, 66, 50 and 36%, respectively, compared to the ZEA group. The histopathological analysis showed a normal liver histological architecture in Kefir + ZEA group, while degenerative changes were observed in ZEA group. These results suggest that Kefir as probiotic consortium may have a hepatoprotective effect against ZEA poisoning.

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Zearalenone caused oxidative stress and liver damage in rats.

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Zearalenone induced disruption of hematological and biochemical parameters.

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Kefir improved the antioxidant defense systems in rats subjected to Zearalenone.

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Kefir prevented Zearalenone-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.

Preventive effects of the antioxidant and antigenotoxic Achyrocline satureioides extract against zearalenone-induced mammal cytogenotoxicity and histological damage

Zearalenone (ZEN), a Fusarium’s mycotoxin, is immunotoxic, genotoxic, hepatonephrotoxic and, affects the reproductive system. ZEN induces toxic and genotoxic effects on humans and other animals. Achyrocline satureioides has several medicinal properties. Moreover, the aqueous extract of A. satureioides is a safe agent that exerts low cytotoxicity and no genotoxicity. This extract is a promissory candidate to counteract ZEN effects. The present study aimed to investigate the capacity of cold aqueous extract from A. satureioides to protect against ZEN multi-target toxicity in different experimental mammal models. Anticytotoxicity was evaluated by neutral red uptake and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium reduction assays. Comet assay and micronuclei test, oxidative stress (TBARs), and histopathological damage were evaluated in Balb/C mice. Anticytotoxic studies indicated that cold aqueous extract (100 and 300 μg/ml) protected from damage induced by ZEN (50 μg/ml) on Vero cells. In vivo studies indicated that ZEN (40 mg/kg body weight) induced an increase of genotoxicity: micronuclei (34 MNPCE/1000 PCE) and increase of damage (tail moment) in blood cells. Also, it increased lipid peroxidation in liver and kidneys and generated several histopathological alterations in both organs. Cold aqueous extract (100 mg/kg body weight) protected from genotoxicity induced by ZEN in both tests. Cold aqueous extract, also, reduced the lipid peroxidation and histopathological damage in liver and kidneys. In conclusion, the cold aqueous extract of A. satureioides that contains bioactive flavonoids prevents the multi-target toxicity induced by ZEN improving all the parameters evaluated in vitro and in vivo, which is a valuable and original finding in order to develop future treatments for human and veterinary medicine.

Hepatotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins: molecular mechanism, anti-hepatotoxic medicines and target prediction

Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi. The widespread contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins is a global food safety problem and a serious threat to people's health. Most food-borne mycotoxins have strong hepatotoxicity. However, no effective methods have been found to prevent or treat Mycotoxin- Induced Liver Injury (MILI) in clinical and animal husbandry. In this paper, the molecular mechanisms and potential anti-MILI medicines of six food-borne MILI are reviewed, and their targets are predicted by network toxicology, which provides a theoretical basis for further study of the toxicity mechanism of MILI and the development of effective strategies to manage MILI-related health problems in the future and accelerate the development of food safety.

Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Inhibitory Effect of Black Radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger) Extracts on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response in the Mouse Monocyte/Macrophage-Like Cell Line RAW 264.7

Black radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger), which is cultivated worldwide, is used in traditional medicine as it aids liver function, gastric secretion, gallbladder function, and gallstone mitigation. In this study, we examined the anti-inflammatory effects of black radish extract (BRE) on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and interleukin (IL)-6-mediated inflammatory responses in the RAW 264.7 cell lines. Our findings show that BRE significantly ameliorated LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) release and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and prostaglandin E2. The levels of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells were found to be suppressed by BRE. Further, BRE significantly suppressed the LPS-induced expression of mRNAs encoding COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in a concentration-dependent manner. BRE treatment significantly inhibited Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation in IL-6- and LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells. In addition, BRE decreased the levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases and c-Jun N-terminal kinase under the same conditions. Moreover, BRE induced high nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) levels and its target gene heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) in the absence of LPS. These data demonstrate that BRE may be beneficial for treating inflammation through selective immunomodulatory effects, which may be mediated by inhibition of the STAT3/JAK2 and activation of the NRF2/HO-1 signal transduction pathways.

Protective effect of resveratrol against toxicity induced by the mycotoxin, zearalenone in a rat model

Contamination of cereal crops with zearalenone (ZEA), a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, is a worldwide health concern. The study assessed the ameliorative potential of resveratrol (RSV), a potent antioxidant against ZEA induced toxicity in adult male Wistar rats. Rats (n = 40), with an average weight of 100-150 g were used for the exposure study for three weeks. The animals were divided into four groups (I to IV) each comprising 10 rats. Group I was kept as negative control and was administered normal saline. Group II and III were exposed to 2 mg/kg of the mycotoxin, ZEA administered intraperitoneally once every week. Group III was treated with resveratrol (RSV) orally (5 mg/kg) daily. Group IV was treated only with resveratrol (5 mg/kg/daily) as a positive control. The protective effect of resveratrol was evaluated on; biochemical variables, biomarkers of oxidative stress, markers of immunotoxicity, and DNA damage. The findings showed that exposure to ZEA elicited oxidative stress and modulated the antioxidant enzyme activities. A disarray in the lipid profile, parameters of the humoral and cellular immune response; serum cytokines and immunoglobulins was also observed. Further, COMET assay showed detectable DNA lesions. Taken together, RSV was efficacious in reducing and/or reversing the ZEA induced toxicity.

Isolation and characterization of the Bacillus cereus BC7 strain, which is capable of zearalenone removal and intestinal flora modulation in mice

Zearalenone (ZEN) causes serious diseases in both animals and humans and thereby leads to substantial economic losses. The elimination of ZEN contamination from food and feed is an important concern worldwide. This study aimed to screen a bacterium that can efficiently detoxify ZEN both in vitro and in vivo. A bacterium (designated BC7) with high ZEN-removing capability was isolated from mouldy contaminated feeds and characterized as Bacillus cereus based on biochemical and 16S rRNA sequencing analyses. BC7 could remove 100% and 89.31% of 10 mg/L ZEN in Luria-Bertani (LB) medium and simulated gastric fluid (GSF), respectively, within 24 h at 37 °C. The effects of BC7 on ZEN detoxification and on the intestinal flora were further evaluated using four groups of mice that were intragastrically administered normal saline, BC7 culture (CFU = 3.45 × 10⁸/mL), ZEN (10 mg/kg BW) or BC7 culture (CFU = 3.45 × 10⁸/mL) + ZEN (10 mg/kg BW) for 2 weeks. ZEN showed distinct reproductive and hepatic toxicity, as characterized by increased weights of the uterus and liver, altered levels of oestradiol (E2) and luteinizing hormone (LH), increased secretion of the liver injury biomarkers alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), and abnormal histological phenotypes for the uterus, ovary and liver. However, BC7 could significantly reduce all the above-mentioned adverse effects caused by ZEN with no harmful effect on the reproductive system and liver in mice. Moreover, the addition of BC7 could efficiently renormalize the ZEN-induced perturbation of the gut microbiota and significantly increase the abundance of Lactobacillus to maintain the health of the intestinal flora in mice. In conclusion, Bacillus cereus BC7 could be used as a potential feed additive to efficiently remove ZEN in vitro or in vivo and to normalize the disordered gut microbiota in mice.

The detoxification effect of vitamin C on zearalenone toxicity in piglets

Zearalenone (ZEN), one of the more virulent mycotoxins occurred in various cereals and feed during recent decades and made serious health hazards to plants, animals and humans. Vitamin C (Vc) has been shown to be an effective antidote to zearalenone. In this paper, the effects of diets containing zearalenone on the growth performance, genital organ and immunoglobulin of weaning piglets and the toxicity alleviation of vitamin C were studied. Piglets were weaned at 21 days of age and 32 healthy female hybrid weaning piglets (Duroc × Landrace × Large white) with a mean weight of 12.27 ± 0.30 kg were randomly selected. The thirty-two female weaning piglets were divided into four treatment groups according to body weight: control; basal diet + vitamin C (150 mg/kg); basal diet + 1.0 mg/kg ZEN; basal diet + 1 mg/kg ZEN+vitamin C (150 mg/kg). There were eight replicates in each group. The test period was twenty-eight days. The results demonstrated that dietary zearalenone could significantly increase the length, width and area of vulva (P < 0.05), the genital organ coefficient (P < 0.05), the level of IgA, IgG and IgM (P < 0.05), the level of BUN, CRE, AST and TBIL (P < 0.05), and significantly decrease the level of E2, PROG, LH and FSH (P < 0.05). However, the addition of 150 mg/kg vitamin C to dietary zearalenone prevented deformities in the vulva, decrease in immune response capacity, changes in serum biochemical indicators and disorders in hormones level of the piglets that received the diet containing only zearalenone. In conclusion, feeding ZEN of 1.0 mg/kg can result in a deleterious effect on piglets, which was totally or partly ameliorated by dietary supplementation of vitamin C at concentrations about 150 mg/kg diet. This study systematically investigated the inhibition mechanism of vitamin C on ZEN-induced reproductive toxicity, immunotoxicity and hematological toxicity of piglets, and which provided new ideas for reducing the harm of mycotoxins to the animals through means of nutrition regulation.

Hot water extracts of pressure-roasted dried radish attenuates hepatic oxidative stress via Nrf2 up-regulation in mice fed high-fat diet

This study investigated the effect of pressure-roasted dried radish (PRDR) against oxidative stress. To prepare PRDR extract, dried radish (DR) was pressure-roasted, boiled, and then freeze-dried. Mice fed a chow diet with oral administration of distilled water (DW) (normal group) or a high-fat diet with DW (control, CON group), DR (DR group, 237 mg/kg bw/day), or PRDR (PRDR group, 237 mg/kg bw/day) (n = 8 each group) for 12 weeks. Hepatic lipid peroxidation level in the DR and PRDR groups was lower than that in the CON group, whereas hepatic glutathione level in these groups was higher (p < 0.05). Hepatic expression of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 and its related antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, glutathione S-transferase, and peroxidases was the highest in the PRDR group (p < 0.05). It is apparent that radish attenuate oxidative stress and the process of pressure roasting might contribute positively to this effect.

The protective effect of resveratrol against cytotoxicity induced by mycotoxin, zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEA), a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin, is widely present in cereals and agricultural products.

Gene expression profile and toxic effects in human bronchial epithelial cells exposed to zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEA), a mycoestrogen produced by Fusarium fungal species, is mainly found in cereal crops such as maize, wheat and barley. Although ZEA has been reported to be present in air, little is known about the health risk or the molecular basis of action when lung cells are exposed to ZEA. As ZEA has a similar structure to estrogen, its potential risk as an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) has thus aroused both environmental and public health concerns. The purpose of this study is to identify the responses and underlying molecular changes that occur when human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells are exposed to ZEA. Differential gene expression profiles were identified in cells that were treated with 40 µM ZEA for 6 h and 24 h by high-throughput microarray analysis using Affymetrix Human Gene 2.0 GeneChip. The array results showed that after ZEA treatment, 262 genes at 6 h and 1073 genes at 24 h were invovled in the differential regulation. Pathway analysis revealed that diverse cellular processes were affected when lung cells were exposed to ZEA resulting in impaired response to DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, down-regulation of inflammatory responses and alterations of epigenetic marks. Results of further experiments indicated that 40 µM ZEA decreased cell viability, induced apoptosis and promoted reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in a time-dependent manner. Immuno-suppressive effects of ZEA were further revealed through the suppression of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8 and IL-1β). Interestingly, the level of global DNA methylation was markedly decreased after 24 h exposure to ZEA. Collectively, these observations suggested that a broad range of toxic effects are elicited by ZEA. Particularly, ROS may play a pivotal role in ZEA-induced cell death. These adverse effects observed in lung cells suggest that exposure to ZEA may increase susceptibility of lung cells to diseases and required further investigations.

Biochemical changes and oxidative stress induced by zearalenone in the liver of pregnant rats

The aim of the present research was to examine the toxic influence of different doses of zearalenone (ZEN) on the liver, especially oxidative stress induced by ZEN on the liver. A total of 48 pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into 4 treatments groups with 12 animals in each. The rats were fed with a normal diet treated with 0 mg/kg (control), 50 mg/kg (treatment 1), 100 mg/kg (treatment 2), or 150 mg/kg (treatment 3) ZEN in feed on gestation days (GDs) 0–7 and then all the rats were fed with a normal diet on GDs 8–20. The experimental period lasted 21 days. The results showed that exposure to ZEN induced increase in aspartate amino transferase, alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase activities and decrease in total protein and albumin content in a dose-dependent manner and also induce decrease in superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities and increase in malondialdehyde content in a dose-dependent manner in the serum and the liver. The increased transcription of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) was detected in the liver after exposure to ZEN. These results suggested that ZEN not only caused damage in the liver of pregnant rats in a dose-dependent manner but also induced the messenger RNA expression of CYP2E1 in the liver.

Toxic effects of zearalenone on oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines, biochemical and pathological changes induced by this toxin in the kidney of pregnant rats

An experiment was conducted to determine the toxic effects of zearalenone (ZEN) on oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines, biochemical and pathological changes in the kidney of pregnant rats, and to explore the possible mechanism in ZEN induced kidney damage. The rats were fed a normal diet treated with 0.3, 48.5, 97.6 or 146 mg/kg ZEN in feed on gestation days (GDs) 0 through 7, and then all the rats were fed with a normal diet on GDs 8 through 20. The results showed that ZEN induced kidney dysfunction, oxidative damage, pathological changes and increased mRNA and protein expression of TLR4 and inflammatory cytokines in kidney in dose-dependent manner. The results indicated that ZEN caused kidney damage of pregnant rats and TLR4-mediated inflammatory reactions signal pathway was one of the mechanisms of ZEN mediated toxicity in kidney.

Tunisian radish (Raphanus sativus) extract prevents cadmium-induced immunotoxic and biochemical alterations in rats

Cadmium (Cd), a known carcinogen and potent immunotoxicant in humans and animals, is dispersed throughout the environment as a result of pollution from a variety of sources. Tunisian radish (Raphanus sativus) extract (TRE) is a known anti-oxidant and free radical scavenger that has been shown to help alleviate immune system disorders, including some induced by environmental toxicants. The present study was undertaken to investigate potential protective effects of TRE against Cd-induced immunotoxicities (and general toxicities) in situ. Cadmium chloride (at 2.5 mg CdCl2/kg BW) and TRE (5, 10, or 15 mg/kg BW) were given (alone or in combination [actually, in sequence of Cd and then TRE]) to rats daily by oral gavage for 2 weeks. Results indicated that treatment with CdCl2 alone resulted in significant decreases in plasma levels of total protein, triglycerides, creatine kinase, creatinine, IgG and IgA, T-lymphocyte sub-types (CD4(+), CD3(+), CD56(+), and CD8(+)), and in thymic and hepatic indices (relative weights). In contrast, CdCl2 treatment caused significant increases in serum LDH, AST, and ALT, in the formation/release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 and TNFα), and in the relative weights of host spleen and kidneys. Rats treated with TRE alone had no discernable changes compared to the controls with regard to all test parameters. Combined treatment of CdCl2 and TRE-at any dose-resulted in a significant improvement of all test parameters compared to those seen with Cd alone. These results illustrated (and provided further support for a continuing belief in) the beneficial effects of TRE in reducing the harmful outcomes of commonly encountered toxicants (like Cd) on the immune system and on overall host health status.

Hepatic hyperplasia and damages induces by zearalenone Fusarium mycotoxins in BALB/c mice

CONTEXT: Zearalenone is a mycoestrogen and considered a mycotoxin. OBJECTIVE: To establish whether zearalenone produced hepatotoxicity via oral administration. METHODS: Zearalenone was orally administered at a dose of 50 mg, 100 mg and 200 mg ZEN/body weight/daily, respectively, for 14 days to three groups of BALB/c mice. Diagnostic modalities used to evaluate hepatic damage and impaired hepatic function pre- and post zearalenone administration included hepatic marker enzyme activity, pentobarbital sleeping time, cytochrome P-450 activities and histopathologic evaluation of liver. RESULTS: Significant histopathologic changes viz. sinusoidal congestion, cytoplasmic vacuolization, hepatocellular necrosis and neutrophil infiltration were observed after evaluating of liver section from each group after accumulated zearalenone exposure. Further, zearalenone exposure increased activities of alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase and lipid peroxides whereas activities of tissue glutathione and cytochrome P450 were decreased as compared to control mice. Zearalenone also increased the sleeping time and decreased sleeping latency after pentobarbital through intraperitoneal route as compared to control mice which indicates that the impairment of hepatic metabolizing enzymes by zearalenone. CONCLUSION: Zearalenone is a potential hepatotoxin by oral route.

Effects of purified zearalenone on growth performance, organ size, serum metabolites, and oxidative stress in postweaning gilts

Zearalenone (ZEA), an estrogenic mycotoxin, is produced mainly by Fusarium fungi. Previous studies indicated that acute ZEA exposure induced oxidative stress and damage in multiple organs. Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate the adverse effects of dietary ZEA (1.1 to 3.2 mg/kg of diet) on oxidative stress and organ damage in postweaning gilts. A total of 20 gilts (Landrace × Yorkshire × Duroc) weaned at d 21 with an average BW of 10.36 ± 1.21 kg was used in the study. Gilts were housed in a temperature-controlled room, divided into 4 treatments, and fed a basal diet only (control) or basal diet supplemented with purified ZEA at a dietary concentration of 1 (ZEA1), 2 (ZEA2), or 3 (ZEA3) mg/kg of diet for 18 d ad libitum. The actual ZEA contents (analyzed) were 0, 1.1 ± 0.02, 2.0 ± 0.01, and 3.2 ± 0.02 mg/kg for control, ZEA1, ZEA2, and ZEA3, respectively. Gilts fed different amounts of dietary ZEA grew similarly with no difference (P > 0.05) in feed intake. Vulva size increased linearly over the 18 d of feeding in gilts fed diets containing 1.1 mg of ZEA/kg or greater (P < 0.001). Relative weight of genital organs, liver, and kidney increased linearly (P < 0.05) in a ZEA-dose-dependent manner. Serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, γ-glutamate transferase, urea, and creatinine (P < 0.05), and malondialdehyde concentrations in both serum and liver (P < 0.001) were also increased linearly in a ZEA-dose-dependent manner. However, spleen relative weight (P = 0.002) and activities of total superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase (in both serum and liver (P < 0.05) were decreased linearly as dietary ZEA increased. Results showed that besides genital organs, the liver, kidney, and spleen may also be target tissues in young gilts fed diets containing 1.1 to 3.2 mg of ZEA/kg for 18 d. Increased key liver enzymes in the serum suggest progressive liver damage caused by feeding ZEA, and an increase in oxidative stress in gilts is another potential impact of ZEA toxicity in pigs.

In-vitro free radical scavenging, antiproliferative and anti-zearalenone cytotoxic effects of 4-(methylthio)-3-butenyl isothiocyanate from Tunisian Raphanus sativus

Objectives

The aim of this study was to investigate the antiradical and antioxidant properties of 4-(methylthio)-3-butenyl isothiocyanate (MTBITC) extracted from Raphanus sativus and to assess the effects of MTBITC on tumour cell growth, cytotoxicity induced by zearalenone, an oestrogenic mycotoxin, and modulation of the expression of the genes involved in these aspects of cell behaviour.

Methods

A murine leukaemia cell line (L1210) was grown in vitro and supplemented with MTBITC (2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 μm) for 48 h. Cell growth was evaluated by the MTT assay. The chemopreventive role of MTBITC on the cytotoxic effect of zearalenone in a Balb/c mice keratinocyte cell line (C5-O) was also evaluated. Apoptosis and lipid peroxidation were assessed, as well as the expression of genes involved following zearalenone treatment alone or in combination with MTBITC.

Key findings

MTBITC showed a significant ability to inhibit nitroblue tetrazolium reduction by superoxide radicals in a non-enzymatic superoxide generating system, to scavenge free radicals and to cause a decrease in L1210 cell growth. The C5-O cells treated with zearalenone alone showed a high frequency of apoptotic cells and lipid peroxidation, typical of oxidative stress generated by zearalenone. The cotreatment with MTBITC reduced the cytotoxicity of zearalenone and the subsequent gene expression analysis demonstrated that MTBITC decreased the expression of caspase 8, implicated in the physiological mechanism to eliminate injured or abnormal cells.

Conclusions

The results suggest that MTBITC was able to inhibit L1210 cell growth and counteract the zearalenone oxidative stress to C5-O cells through caspase 8 inhibition of apoptosis.

Zearalenone induces immunotoxicity in mice: possible protective effects of radish extract (Raphanus sativus)

Radish (Raphanus sativus) has been extensively studied for its preventive effects against different degenerative diseases. Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium spp and is frequently implicated in immunological disorders and occasionally in hyperoestrogenic syndromes contributing to the increased risk of cancer and other diseases. The aims of this study were, firstly, to quantitatively evaluate the Tunisian radish extract (TRE) for its total flavonoids, isothiocyanates and antioxidant activity and, secondly, to investigate the protective role of TRE against immune system disorders in Balb/c mice treated with ZEN for two weeks. The results indicated that mice treated with ZEN (40 mg kg−1) alone showed a significant decrease in lymphocytes of the total white blood cells, immunoglobulin profile (IgG and IgM), B cells, T-cell sub-types (CD3+, CD4+ and CD8+) and natural killer and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Mice treated with TRE (5, 10 or 15 mg kg−1) for 7 days before, during or after ZEN treatment, however, showed a significant improvement in lymphocyte, immunoglobulin profile, T-cell sub-types, B cells and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, treatment with the highest dose of TRE (15 mgkg−1) enhanced the release of tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β but the other parameters were comparable with those of the control. It could be concluded that TRE was effective in protecting against ZEN-induced immunological disorders. These results supported our hypothesis that TRE contains several compounds that are able to prevent or inhibit ZEN toxicity.

Raphanus sativus extract prevents and ameliorates zearalenone-induced peroxidative hepatic damage in Balb/c mice

Objectives

Raphanus sativus (radish) is a species of crucifer, which includes widely consumed vegetables, distributed in Asia, Africa and Europe. It is a rich source of bioactive molecules including anthocyanins, glucosinolates, isothiocyanates and other flavonoids, and miscellaneous phenolic substances. We have evaluated the hepatoprotection of R. sativus extract against zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin initiating hepatotoxicity in male Balb/c mice.

Methods

Animals were divided into seven treatment groups and treated orally each day for twenty eight days as follows: a control, an olive oil group, group I, group II, and group III treated with radish extract alone (5, 10 and 15 mg/kg, respectively), group IV treated with zearalenone (40 mg/kg), and group V treated with zearalenone plus the lowest dose of radish extract.

Key findings

Administration of zearalenone alone resulted in significant decreases in the levels of alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, alanine and aspartate aminotransferases in the liver, suggesting hepatic damage. Moreover, a marked increase in the level of lipid peroxide and concomitant decrease of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase, RNA and DNA concentrations were also observed in the liver tissue of zearalenone-treated mice. Co-treatment with R. sativus extract plus zearalenone succeeded in reversing the condition back to normal levels for all studied parameters.

Conclusions

By itself R. sativus extract did not show any toxic effects and could be considered as a potent hepatoprotectant.

Raphanus sativus extract protects against Zearalenone induced reproductive toxicity, oxidative stress and mutagenic alterations in male Balb/c mice

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by several species of Fusarium in cereals and agricultural products. It has been implicated in several mycotoxicosis in farm animals and in humans. There is unequivocal evidence of reproductive toxicity of ZEN in male mice although the mechanism of action is unknown. Several reports suggest that exposure to ZEN resulted in oxidative stress, genotoxicity and perturbation of reproductive parameters. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to evaluate the protective effects of aqueous extract of Raphanus sativus growing in Tunisia against ZEN-induced reproductive toxicity and oxidative stress. Fifty male Balb/c mice were divided into five groups and treated for 28 days as follows: the control group, olive oil-treated groups, another treated with ZEN (40 mg/kg b.w), the last one treated with R. sativus extract alone (15 mg/kg b.w) and the other with ZEN + R. sativus extract. Testis samples were collected for the epididymal sperm count, testosterone concentration, and MDA level, GPx, CAT and SOD activities. Blood samples were collected for different biochemical analyses. Also, RAPD-PCR method was performed to assess the antigenotoxic effect of the extract in germ cells. The results indicated that ZEN-induced toxicological effects in accordance to those reported in the literature: decreasing in the sperm number, testosterone level and antioxidant enzyme status. The RAPD-PCR analysis revealed an alteration in the DNA bands patterns between control and ZEN-treated mice. The extract alone, rich in many antioxidant compounds, was safe and succeeded in counteracting the oxidative stress and protect against the toxicity resulting from ZEN.

The antigenotoxic activities of cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) cladodes against the mycotoxin zearalenone in Balb/c mice: prevention of micronuclei, chromosome aberrations and DNA fragmentation

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a potent estrogenic metabolite. Evidence of its cytotoxicity and genotoxicity has recently emerged from several reports. This study was conducted to evaluate the ability of cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) cladodes to protect Balb/c mice against ZEN induced genotoxicity. To this end, the effect of a single dose of ZEN (40 mg/kg b.w.) alone and with extract of cactus cladodes (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg b.w.) was monitored by measuring: (i) micronuclei induction in bone marrow cells, (ii) chromosome aberrations mainly breaks and gaps in bone marrow cells also and finally and (iii) DNA fragmentation in liver and kidney. Our results clearly show that ZEN is genotoxic to Balb/c mice. It induces DNA damage as indicated by DNA fragmentation, micronuclei and chromosomal aberrations in bone marrow cells. It is of note that cactus cladodes extract assayed alone at high dose (100 mg/kg b.w.) was found completely safe and did not induce any genotoxic effects. The simultaneous administration of cactus cladodes extract with ZEN resulted in an efficient prevention of micronuclei (the number of PCE MN decreased from 71.3+/-6.1 for animals treated with Zen to 32.6+/-15.5 for animals treated with cactus cladodes), chromosomal aberrations frequency (the % of chromosomal aberrations decreased from 38.3+/-3.0 to 18.6+/-1.1) in bone marrow cells and of DNA fragmentation compared to the group treated with ZEN alone. It could be concluded that cactus cladodes extract was effective in the protection against ZEN genotoxicity. This could be relevant, particularly with the emergent demand for natural products which may neutralize the genotoxic effects of the multiple food contaminants.