Neuroprotective effects of antioxidants in the management of neurodegenerative disorders: A literature review

Food and Food Waste Antioxidants: Could They Be a Potent Defence against Parkinson's Disease?

Oxidative stress, an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and endogenous antioxidants, plays an important role in the development of neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's. The human brain is vulnerable to oxidative stress because of the high rate of oxygen that it needs and the high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are substrates of lipid peroxidation. Natural antioxidants inhibit oxidation and reduce oxidative stress, preventing cancer, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, in the literature, it is reported that antioxidants, due to their possible neuroprotective activity, may offer an interesting option for better symptom management, even Parkinson's disease (PD). Natural antioxidants are usually found in several foods, such as fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and oil, and in food wastes, such as seeds, peels, leaves, and skin. They can help the system of endogenous antioxidants, protect or repair cellular components from oxidative stress, and even halt lipid, protein, and DNA damage to neurons. This review will examine the extent of knowledge from the last ten years, about the neuroprotective potential effect of natural antioxidants present in food and food by-products, in in vivo and in vitro PD models. Additionally, this study will demonstrate that the pool of dietary antioxidants may be an important tool in the prevention of PD and an opportunity for cost savings in the public health area.

Evaluation of the neuroprotective effect of quercetin against damage caused by gamma radiation

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Radiation therapy is a routine clinical practice that has been used for a long time in the treatment of cancer patients. The most important dose-limiting organ in patients receiving radiotherapy for various conditions is the brain. The mechanisms underlying brain and pituitary gland damage caused by radiation are largely unknown. It is of great importance to use radioprotective agents to protect against damage. This study aims to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of quercetin in experimental radiation-induced brain and pituitary gland damage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 60 adult male Wistar-albino rats were randomly divided into six groups (control, sham, radiation, quercetin, radiation + quercetin, and quercetin + radiation groups, with ten rats in each group). Quercetin was given to rats by oral gavage at 50 mg/kg/day. A whole-body single dose of 10 Gy radiation was applied to the rats. Tissue samples belonging to the groups were compared after excision. Histopathological changes in the brain tissue and pituitary gland were examined with hematoxylin-tissue samples in the groups and compared histologically and immunohistochemically.

RESULTS

The histopathological examination of the brain and anterior pituitary gland sections showed marked damage in the radiation-treated rats, while the quercetin-administered groups showed normal tissue architecture. While neuropeptid Y immunoreactivity was increased, synaptophysin immunoreactivity was decreased in the brains of radiation-treated rats. However, when neuropeptide Y and synaptophysin expression were assessed in the anterior pituitary gland, there was no significant difference between the groups.

CONCLUSION

Consequently, quercetin may be a potential pharmacological agent in modulating radiation-induced damage in rats. However, extra experimental and preclinical studies are needed to confirm our findings before they can be used clinically.

Acrylamide toxicity in aquatic animals and its mitigation approaches: an updated overview

Acrylamide (ACR) is widely applied in various industrial activities, as well as in the water purification process. Furthermore, ACR is synthesized naturally in some starchy grains exposed to high temperatures for an extended time during the cooking process. Because of its widespread industrial usage, ACR might be released into water stream sources. Also, ACR poses a high risk of contaminated surface and ground-water resources due to its high solubility and mobility in water. Furthermore, animal studies have indicated that ACR exposure may cause cancer (in many organs such as lung, prostate, uterus, and pancreas), genetic damage (in both somatic and germ cells), and severe effects on reproduction and development. Recently, numerous studies have shown that ACR has a mild acute cytotoxic impact on aquatic species, particularly during early life stages. Besides, wide-spectrum usage of ACR in many industrial activities presented higher environmental risks as well as major hazards to consumer health. This literature was designed to include all potential and accessible reports on ACR toxicity related with aquatic species. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews were applied to evaluate the risk effects of ACR on aquatic organisms, the ACR sub-lethal concentration in the ecosystem, and the possible protective benefits of various feed additives against ACR toxicity in fish. The major findings are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The primary aim of this literature was to specify the hazards of ACR toxicity related with fish welfare and possible suggested strategies to reduce its risks.

Identification of bolegrevilol B and C as novel antioxidant compounds in Suillus grevillei mushroom

Suillus grevillei is a popular species of mushroom available worldwide. In this study, we isolated compounds, bolegrevilol B and bolegrevilol C, from the mushroom and observed their potent lipid peroxidation-inhibiting activity. The structures of bolegrevilol B and bolegrevilol C were elucidated as 3-geranylgeranyl-1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene and 3-geranylgeranyl-1,2-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzene, respectively, through high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (-) and 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance analyses. Bolegrevilol B and C inhibited lipid peroxidation and exhibited IC50 values of 2.0 ± 0.29 µm and 1.0 ± 0.13 µm, respectively. Furthermore, bolegrevilol B and C demonstrated potent neuroprotective activities in neuronal hybridoma N18-RE-105 cells against L-glutamate toxicity (EC50 of 1.8 ± 1.7 n m and 7.2 ± 6.9 n m, respectively). Bolegrevilol B was found in nature for the first time, and, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the antioxidant activities of bolegrevilol B and C.

Curcumin neuroprotective effects in Parkinson disease during pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Young onset Parkinson disease (YOPD) accounts for about 10% of PD patients, with the onset of symptoms between the ages of 21 and 40. At this age, the probability of pregnancy is high and there is a concern that the disease affects the fetuses. Therefore, in the present study, the effects of rotenone-induced PD on female mice as well as their fetuses and curcumin supplementation on the cerebral tissue of both female mice and their resulted fetuses were studied.

METHODS

The rotenone was injected subcutaneously to induce PD model of female mice. The different concentrations of curcumin were administrated every day i.p. for 3 weeks and the rotarod test was done on day 1 and 19. Cell viability was measured by MTT test and apoptosis and necrosis of cells were evaluate using flow cytometry technique. After primer design, the expressions of bax, bcl-2, miR-211 and circRNA 0001518 genes were measured using RT-PCR technique.

RESULTS

Curcumin administration were improved cerebral cell viability of both female PD mice and resulted fetuses by preventing cell apoptosis and necrosis. bax, miR-211 and circRNA 0001518 were downregulated and bcl-2 overexpressed in cerebral neurons of PD mice and their fetuses.

CONCLUSION

PD induction in mice affects their fetal brain, and curcumin can partially reduce the negative effects of PD on fetal brain cells by overexpressing bcl-2 and decreasing bax expression genes.

Cucurbitacin B: A review of its pharmacology, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics

Cucurbitacin B (CuB, C₃₂H₄₆O₈), the most abundant and active member of cucurbitacins, which are highly oxidized tetracyclic triterpenoids. Cucurbitacins are widely distributed in a variety of plants and mainly isolated from plants in the Cucurbitaceae family. CuB is mostly obtained from the pedicel of Cucumis melo L. Modern pharmacological studies have confirmed that CuB has a broad range of pharmacological activities, with significant therapeutic effects on a variety of diseases including inflammatory diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes mellitus, and cancers. In this study the PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases were searched from 1986 to 2022. After inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, 98 out of 2484 articles were selected for a systematic review to comprehensively summarize the pharmacological activity, toxicity, and pharmacokinetic properties of CuB. The results showed that CuB exhibits potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and anti-cancer activities mainly via regulating various signaling pathways, such as the Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (JAK/STAT3), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2/antioxidant responsive element (Nrf2/ARE), nuclear factor (NF)-κB, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, cancerous inhibitor of protein phosphatase-2A/protein phosphatase-2A (CIP2A/PP2A), Wnt, focal adhesion kinase (FAK), Notch, and Hippo-Yes-associated protein (YAP) pathways. Studies of its toxicity and pharmacokinetic properties showed that CuB has non-specific toxicity and low bioavailability. In addition, derivatives and clinical applications of CuB are discussed in this paper.

Untargeted Metabolomic Approach of Curcuma longa to Neurodegenerative Phytocarrier System Based on Silver Nanoparticles

Curcuma is one of the most famous medicinal and tropical aromatic plants. Its health benefits have been appreciated and exploited in traditional Asian medicine since ancient times. Various studies have investigated its complex chemical composition and demonstrated the remarkable therapeutic properties of curcuma's phytoconstituents. Oxidative stress is a decisive driving factor triggering numerous pathologies (neurodegenerative, psychiatric and cardiovascular diseases; diabetes; tumors, etc.). Numerous recent studies have focused on the use of natural compounds and nanomaterials as innovative molecular targeting agents as effective therapeutic strategies. In this study, we report, for the first time, the development of a simple target phytocarrier system that capitalizes on the bioactive properties of curcuma and AgNPs. The complete metabolic profile of curcuma was determined based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-QTOF-MS). A total of 80 metabolites were identified under mass spectra (MS)-positive mode from 10 secondary metabolite categories: terpenoids, amino acids, diarylheptanoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, steroids, fatty acids, coumarins, alkaloids and miscellaneous. In addition, the biological activity of each class of metabolites was discussed. A comprehensive characterization (FT-IR, UV-Vis, DLS, SEM, TEM, EDS, zeta potential and XRD) was performed to study the morphostructural properties of this new phytocarrier system. Antioxidant activity of the new phytocarrier system was evaluated using a combination of in vitro methods (total phenolic assay, 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay and cyclic voltammetric method (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) electrochemical assay)). Antioxidants assays showed that the phytocarrier system exhibits superior antioxidant properties to those of its components, i.e., curcuma or citrate-coated-AgNPs. These data confirm the potential to enhance relevant theoretical knowledge in the area of innovative antioxidant agents, with potential application in neurodegenerative therapeutic strategies.

An Overview of Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation, and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Oxidative stress has been linked with a variety of diseases, being involved in the debut and/or progress of several neurodegenerative disorders. This review intends to summarize some of the findings that correlate the overproduction of reactive oxygen species with the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Oxidative stress was also noted to modify the inflammatory response. Even though oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are two totally different pathological events, they are linked and affect one another. Nonetheless, there are still several mechanisms that need to be understood regarding the onset and the progress of neurodegenerative diseases in order to develop efficient therapies. As antioxidants are a means to alter oxidative stress and slow down the symptoms of these neurodegenerative diseases, the most common antioxidants, enzymatic as well as non-enzymatic, have been mentioned in this paper as therapeutic options for the discussed disorders.

The medicinal chemistry of mitochondrial dysfunction: a critical overview of efforts to modulate mitochondrial health

Mitochondria are subcellular organelles that perform a variety of critical biological functions, including ATP production and acting as hubs of immune and apoptotic signalling. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been extensively linked to the pathology of multiple neurodegenerative disorders, resulting in significant investment from the drug discovery community. Despite extensive efforts, there remains no disease modifying therapies for neurodegenerative disorders. This manuscript aims to review the compounds historically used to modulate the mitochondrial network through the lens of modern medicinal chemistry, and to offer a perspective on the evidence that relevant exposure was achieved in a representative model and that exposure was likely to result in target binding and engagement of pharmacology. We hope this manuscript will aid the community in identifying those targets and mechanisms which have been convincingly (in)validated with high quality chemical matter, and those for which an opportunity exists to explore in greater depth.

Antioxidant p-terphenyl compounds in the mushroom Boletopsis leucomelas (PERS.) FAYOD and how they change via cooking

Antioxidant compounds in the mushroom Boletopsis leucomelas (PERS.) FAYOD were isolated using chromatographic methods, and their structures were determined via detailed analyses using high-resolution atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. We identified five known p-terphenyl compounds (Bl-I, Bl-II, Bl-III, cycloleucomelon-leukopentaacetat, and Bl-IV) and one p-terphenyl new compound (Bl-VI); we determined the complete structure of cycloleucomelon-leukopentaacetat in this study. All these compounds possess potent lipid peroxidation-inhibiting activities. We further investigated changes in their chemical structures and antioxidant activities by applying heat (grilling, boiling, and microwave heating), and proved the production of two known p-terphenyl compounds (BI-V and boletopsin A) and one new p-terphenyl compound (BI-VII) via deacetylation of the original p-terphenyl compounds for the first time. We also found that DPPH radical scavenging activity was enhanced upon moderate heat cooking (boiling and microwave heating) due to changes in p-terphenyl compounds.

Lanostane Triterpenoid Metabolites from a Penares sp. Marine Sponge Protect Neuro-2a Cells against Paraquat Neurotoxicity

The results of an investigation of the protective effects of five lanostane triterpenoids: 3β-acetoxy-7β,8β-epoxy-5α-lanost-24-en-30,9α-olide (1), 3β-hydroxy-7β,8β-epoxy-5α-lanost-24-en- 30,9α-olide (2), 29-nor-penasterone (3), penasterone (4), and acetylpenasterol (5), from a marine sponge, Penares sp., against paraquat-induced neuroblastoma Neuro-2a cell damage, are described. The influence of all compounds on viability of the Neuro-2a cells treated with paraquat (PQ) was studied with MTT and fluorescein diacetate assays as well as propidium iodide straining. 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity of the compounds as well as their influence on reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and mitochondrial membrane potential in PQ-treated neuronal cells were analyzed. Finally, the effect of the compounds on intracellular level of heat shock protein 70 kDa (Hsp70) and neurite outgrowth in PQ-treated Neuro-2a cells were studied. Studied triterpenoids demonstrated protective effects against PQ-induced neurotoxicity associated with the ability to reduce ROS intracellular level and diminish mitochondrial dysfunction. Acetylpenasterol (5), as a more promising neuroprotective compound, significantly increased the viability of Neuro-2a cells incubated with PQ as well as decreased intracellular ROS level in these cells. Moreover, acetylpenasterol induced Hsp70 expression in PQ-treated cells. It was also shown to inhibit PQ-induced neurite loss and recovered the number of neurite-bearing cells. The relationship between neuroprotective activity of the investigated compounds 1–5 and their chemical structure was also discussed.

Regulation of Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Damage in the Pathogenesis of Schizophrenia

The biochemical integrity of the brain is paramount to the function of the central nervous system, and oxidative stress is a key contributor to cerebral biochemical impairment. Oxidative stress, which occurs when an imbalance arises between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the efficacy of the antioxidant defense mechanism, is believed to play a role in the pathophysiology of various brain disorders. One such disorder, schizophrenia, not only causes lifelong disability but also induces severe emotional distress; however, because of its onset in early adolescence or adulthood and its progressive development, consuming natural antioxidant products may help regulate the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Therefore, elucidating the functions of ROS and dietary antioxidants in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia could help formulate improved therapeutic strategies for its prevention and treatment. This review focuses specifically on the roles of ROS and oxidative damage in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, as well as the effects of nutrition, antipsychotic use, cognitive therapies, and quality of life on patients with schizophrenia. By improving our understanding of the effects of various nutrients on schizophrenia, it may become possible to develop nutritional strategies and supplements to treat the disorder, alleviate its symptoms, and facilitate long-term recovery.

Effects of intra-dentate gyrus microinjection of myokine irisin on long-term potentiation in male rats

OBJECTIVE

Induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) increases the storage capacity of synapses in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). Irisin is a myokine generated from FNDC5 (a gene precursor) during exercise.

METHODS

Although intra-cornu ammonis 1 administration of irisin fortifies LTP in mice with Alzheimer's disease, the effects of intra-DG injection of irisin on the LTP in rats remains to be elucidated in vivo. In this study, male Wistar rats were randomly divided into a control group (saline), irisin (0.5, 1, and 1.5 μg/rat), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).

RESULTS

After treatment, the population spike (PS) amplitude and slope of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) were measured in the DG of rats in vivo. Moreover, following completion of the experiments, the stimulating and recording sites in the hippocampus were confirmed histologically from brain sections. Furthermore, biochemical assays like malondialdehyde (MDA), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and total oxidant status (TOS) were evaluated (the antioxidant markers were analyzed in the plasma).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that all doses of irisin (0.5, 1, 1.5 μg/rat) caused an increase in the EPSP slope and PS amplitude when compared with the control group. In addition, the results obtained showed that irisin decreased TOS and MDA levels while increasing TAC levels as a marker of lipid peroxidation in plasma. The present report provides direct evidence that irisin affects the activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in the dentate gyrus.

Neuroprotective Effects of Phlorotannin-Rich Extract from Brown Seaweed Ecklonia cava on Neuronal PC-12 and SH-SY5Y Cells with Oxidative Stress

Neurodegenerative disorders in the elderly are characterized by gradual loss of memory and cognitive function. Oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species is associated with progressive neuronal cell damage and death in Alzheimer's disease, one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders. An edible brown seaweed, Ecklonia cava, contains a variety of biologically active compounds such as phlorotannins. In this study, we comparatively evaluated the total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, and neuroprotective effects of the phlorotannin-rich extract from E. cava (PEEC). The total phenolic content of PEEC and dieckol was 810.8 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g and 996.6 mg GAE/g, respectively. Antioxidant capacity of PEEC was 1,233.8 mg vitamin C equivalents (VCE)/g and 392.1 mg VCE/g determined using ABTS and DPPH assays, respectively, while those of dieckol were 2,238.4 mg VCE/g and 817.7 mg VCE/g. High-performance liquid chromatography results revealed 48.08 ± 0.67 mg dieckol/g of PEEC. PEEC had neuroprotective effects in pheochromocytoma (PC-12) and human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells against H₂O₂- and AAPH-induced oxidative damage, partly due to reduced intracellular oxidative stress. PEEC treatment inhibited acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, these findings suggest that PEEC is a good source of antioxidants and neuroprotective materials.

Harmine Acts as an Indirect Inhibitor of Intracellular Protein Aggregation

Protein aggregation and oxidative stress are two pathological hallmarks of a number of protein misfolding diseases, including Huntington's disease (HD). Whether protein aggregation precedes elevation of oxidative stress or follows it remains ambiguous. We have investigated the role of harmine, a beta-carboline alkaloid, in aggregation of a mutant huntingtin fragment (103Q-htt) in a yeast model of HD. We observed that harmine was able to decrease intracellular aggregation of 103Q-htt, and this reduction was higher than that observed with trehalose, a conventional protein stabilizer. The presence of harmine also decreased prion formation. Decreased protein aggregation was accompanied by reduction in oxidative stress. However, harmine had no effect on aggregation of the mutant huntingtin fragment in vitro. Thus, based on experimental data, we conclude that the antioxidant harmine lowers aggregation-induced elevation in oxidative stress, which slows down intracellular protein aggregation.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of 1,2,4-triazole derivatives as potential neuroprotectant against ischemic brain injury

A series of 1,2,4-triazole derivatives 1-14 was synthesized to investigate their neuroprotective effects and mechanisms of action. Compounds 5-11 noticeably protected PC12 cells from the cytotoxicity of H2O2 or sodium nitroprusside (SNP). Compound 11 was the most effective derivative. Compound 11 chelated Fe (II) iron, scavenged reactive oxygen species (ROS), and restored the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Moreover, it enhanced the activity of the antioxidant defense system by increasing the serum level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and promoting the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Compound 11 caused certain improvements in behavior, the cerebral infarction area, and serum levels of biochemical indicators (TNF-α, IL-1β, SOD and MDA) in a rat MCAO model. The lethal dose (LD50) of compound 11 in mice receiving intraperitoneal injections was greater than 400 mg/kg. Meanwhile, pharmacokinetic experiments revealed high bioavailability of this compound after both oral and intravenous administration (F = 60.76%, CL = 0.014 mg/kg/h) and a longer half-life (4.26 and 5.11 h after oral and intravenous administration, respectively). Based on these findings, compound 11 may be a promising neuroprotectant for the treatment of ischemic stroke.

Antioxidant Therapies for Neuroprotection-A Review

Although moderate concentrations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are crucial for various physiological processes within the human body, their overproduction leads to oxidative stress, defined as the imbalance between the production and accumulation of ROS and the ability of the body to neutralize and eliminate them. In the brain, oxidative stress exhibits significant effects, due to its increased metabolical activity and limited cellular regeneration. Thus, oxidative stress is a major factor in the progressive loss of neurons structures and functions, leading to the development of severe neurodegenerative disorders. In this context, recent years have witnessed tremendous advancements in the field of antioxidant therapies, with a special emphasis for neuroprotection. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the oxidative stress and antioxidant defense mechanisms and to present the most recent studies on antioxidant therapies for neuroprotection.

Frailty, Cognitive Decline, Neurodegenerative Diseases and Nutrition Interventions

Currently the human population is aging faster. This leads to higher dependency rates and the transformation of health and social care to adapt to this aged population. Among the changes developed by this population is frailty. It is defined as a clinically detectable syndrome, related to the aging of multiple physiological systems, which prompts a situation of vulnerability. The etiology of frailty seems to be multifactorial and its pathophysiology is influenced by the interaction of numerous factors. Morley et al. propose four main mechanisms triggering the frailty: atherosclerosis, sarcopenia, cognitive deterioration and malnutrition, with their respective metabolic alterations. Malnutrition is associated with cognitive impairment or functional loss, but it is also known that an inadequate nutritional status predisposes to cognitive frailty. Additionally, nutritional factors that may influence vascular risk factors will potentially have an effect on dementia decline among patients with cognitive frailty. This review aims to describe the nutritional factors that have been researched so far which may lead to the development of frailty, and especially cognitive decline.

Aqueous extracts of se-enriched Auricularia auricular attenuates D-galactose-induced cognitive deficits, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation via suppressing RAGE/MAPK/NF-κB pathway

Aging is a natural process that accompanied with progressive cognitive deficits and functional decline in organisms. Selenium (Se), an essential trace element, exhibits antioxidative and anti-inflammatory abilities. Here, our study aimed to investigate the protective effects of aqueous extracts of Se-enriched Auricularia auricular (AESAA) on aging mice induced by d-galactose (D-gal) and explore its potential mechanism. d-gal was administered (100 mg/kg) subcutaneously for 12 weeks to establish an aging mouse model. Morris water maze (MWM) test was conducted to assess the cognitive deficits of mice. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT) activities and malondialdehyde (MDA) level in hippocampus were measured to evaluate oxidative stress. The contents of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in hippocampus were determined by ELISA method. Further, hippocampal levels of RAGE, p-Erk, p-JNK, p-P38 and p-NF-κB were detected by western blot and the RAGE expression was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. We found that AESAA supplementation significantly decreased d-gal-induced cognitive deficits, as evidenced by better performance in the MWM test. Furthermore, AESAA treatment attenuated oxidative stress and decreased the contents of pro-inflammatory cytokines in hippocampus. Importantly, AESAA inhibited the up-regulation of RAGE, p-Erk, p-JNK, p-P38 in the hippocampus of d-gal treated mice. Moreover, the results also indicated that AESAA inhibited p-NF-κB and p-IκBα expression. In conclusion, our findings suggest that AESAA effectively decreases cognitive impairment, alleviates oxidative damage and neuroinflammation in mice through s RAGE/MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway, which provides a potential therapy for delaying the aging process.