Enzymes involved in the bioconversion of ester-based prodrugs

Fabrication of a carboxylesterases-activated near-infrared fluorescence probe for assisting hepatocellular carcinoma surgery in mice and clinical blood serum testing

Carboxylesterases (CES) is a family of hydrolases, which are mainly localized in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytosol in cells and can catalyze the hydrolysis of carboxylic esters to generate acids and alcohols. The changes of CES level are closely related to the liver disease, such as early onset liver injury induced diabetes and advanced liver cancer. Herein, a new activatable near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent probe PCES (Probe of Carboxylesterases) for imaging CES was rationally designed. The probe can not only specifically sense CES in buffer solution with a 49-fold fluorescence enhancement at 780 nm and a 2.5 mU/mL detection limit, but also can sensitively visualize CES changes with low cytotoxicity and good biocompatibility in living cells. Applying this agent, the fluctuation of CES levels was monitored under high glucose stimulation. The mechanism of ferroptosis in diabetes mellitus has also been preliminarily explored. Besides, PCES was utilized for imaging CES of hepatocellular carcinoma and effectively assisting the tumor surgical operation in vivo. In addition, the practical serum samples were detected from clinical patients suffered diabetes and liver cancer with the help of probe PCES, demonstrating the differentiated CES levels. With the favorable characteristics of fluorescence sensing and practicability of imaging CES in living cells, mice, and clinical serum samples, PCES can help the better understanding for the relationships of liver diseases with CES and has the potential as a useful agent for the diagnosis and treatment of clinical liver diseases.

Development of mass spectrometric methods for determination of desoxycorticosterone pivalate and its esterase product in canine serum

Hypoadrenocorticism is a serious condition in dogs that results from autoimmune adrenalitis and depletion of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Affected dogs respond well to glucocorticoid supplementation and treatment with the synthetic mineralocorticoid desoxycorticosterone pivalate (DOCP). DOCP injected once monthly resolves serum Na/K abnormalities and normalizes water balance, but therapy is expensive. Cost abatement involves prolongation of the 30-day dosage interval or decreasing the 2.2 mg/kg dosage. These approaches are not based on DOCP pharmacokinetics. A full assessment of the practicality of either approach would benefit from understanding drug pharmacokinetics, requiring measurement of DOCP and its esterase product desoxycorticosterone (DOC) in canine serum while avoiding toxic endpoints from overdosing. Mass spectrometric methods were developed including gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry of DOCP and DOC-methoxime trimethylsilyl derivatives, an approach sensitive to 2 ng/mL. Greater sensitivity was desired, so liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with ESI+ ionization was investigated. Supported liquid extraction was devised for serum with recoveries ∼100%. The LC-MS/MS method was validated for linearity, precision, accuracy and limits of detection (0.029 and 0.019 ng/mL for DOC and DOCP, respectively). A pilot experiment with DOCP-treated hypoadrenocorticism dogs over one-month revealed DOC baseline values as 0.183+/-0.090 ng/mL, which increased to the 1.0 - 2.2 ng/mL range. DOCP was not visible in any samples suggesting 100% conversion. Halving the dosage to 1.1 mg/kg still showed clear increases over the DOC baseline. MS fragmentation involved ring cleavages, dehydrations and double-charged fragments. The methodology was robust and suitable for studying DOC/DOCP pharmacokinetics in future studies of hypoadrenocorticism dogs.

Prodrugs and their activation mechanisms for brain drug delivery

Prodrugs are masked drugs that first become pharmacologically active after undergoing a structural change in vivo. They are designed to improve physicochemical/biopharmaceutical drug properties and increase site specificity. The prodrug approach is important when developing brain-targeting drugs due to the presence of the brain barriers that seriously limit the brain entry of highly polar, multifunctional drug entities. While several excellent reviews summarize the structural modifications facilitating transport across the brain barriers, a summary of mechanisms used for the activation of the prodrug in the brain is missing. Given the high need for innovative discoveries in brain drug development, we here review the most important tools being developed since 2000 for CNS prodrug activation.

Emerging Role of Noncovalent Interactions and Disulfide Bond Formation in the Cellular Uptake of Small Molecules and Proteins

Intracellular delivery of proteins and small molecules is an important barrier in the development of strategies to deliver functional proteins and therapeutics into the cells to realize their full potential in biotechnology, biomedicine, cell-based therapies, and gene editing protein systems. Most of the intracellular protein delivery strategies involve the conjugation of cell penetrating peptides to enable the permeability of plasma membrane of mammalian cells to allow proteins to enter cytosol. The conjugations of small molecules such as (p-methylphenyl) glycine, pyrenebutyrate and cysteines are used for the same purpose. Molecular level interactions are governed mostly by ionic (cationic/anionic), covalent and noncovalent interactions with various molecular entities of glycocalyx matrix on plasma membrane lipid bilayer. Although the role of noncovalent interactions in cellular uptake is not fully understood, several recent advances have focused on the noncovalent interaction-based strategies of intracellular delivery of small molecules and proteins into mammalian cells. These are achieved by simple modification of protein surfaces with chemical moieties which can form noncovalent interactions other than hydrogen bonding. In this review, we describe the recent advances and the mechanistic aspects of intracellular delivery and role of noncovalent interactions in the cellular uptake of proteins and small molecules.

Characterizing the Hepatic Metabolic Pathway of Ketone Ester and Subsequent Metabolites Using Human and Rat Liver Fractions

Although exogenous ketogenic dietary supplements continue to grow in popularity, their pharmacokinetic properties have not been adequately studied, thus hindering their optimal use and benefits. Here, the metabolic characteristics of one such supplement (Veech ketone mono-ester ((R)-3-hydroxybutyl(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate) (KE)) were studied along with its metabolite- (R)-1,3-butanediol ((R)-1,3-BD), both of which are precursors and undergo metabolic conversion to (R)-beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB). The metabolism of aldol (an aldehyde intermediate between the conversion of (R)-1,3-BD to (R)-BHB was also evaluated, as it is frequently not considered in any scientific discussion. The metabolic parameters were calculated using pooled human (mixed gender) and pooled rat (male and female) liver fractions. These were later used to estimate the hepatic extraction ratio and the hepatic clearance of these molecules. KE showed rapid and non-saturable clearance in human and rat liver fractions, even at concentrations as high as 15,000 μM. In the case of (R)-1,3-BD, there was saturable metabolism in rats and humans with Km and Vmax values of 8,000 μM and 27.1 nmol/min/mg of protein (humans), 19,300 μM and 113.5 nmol/min/mg of protein (male rats), and 11,910 μM and 75.8 nmol/min/mg of protein (female rats). The metabolism of aldol showed rapid and non-saturable hepatic clearance in human liver fractions.

Polybasic nanogels for intracellular co-delivery of paclitaxel and carboplatin: a novel approach to ovarian cancer therapy

Ovarian cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in women, with limited progress in treatments despite decades of research. Common treatment protocols rely on surgical removal of tumors and chemotherapy drugs, such as paclitaxel and carboplatin, which are capable of reaching cancer cells throughout the body. However, the effectiveness of these drugs is often limited due to toxic reactions in patients, nonspecific drug distribution affecting healthy cells, and the development of treatment resistance. In this study, we introduce a polybasic nanogel system composed of poly(diethylaminoethyl methacrylate-co-cyclohexyl methacrylate)-g-poly(ethylene glycol) designed for the targeted co-delivery of paclitaxel and carboplatin directly to ovarian cancer cells. These nanogel systems can respond to the cellular microenvironment to achieve controlled, on-demand drug release, reducing off-target effects and enhancing therapeutic uptake. Additionally, we investigated nanoparticle degradation and controlled drug release as a function of various crosslinkers, including tetraethylene glycol dimethacrylate, bis(2-methacryloyl)oxyethyl disulfide, poly(lactic acid)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(lactic acid)dimethacrylate, and polycaprolactone dimethacrylate. Our results, using OVCAR-3 human ovarian cancer cells, demonstrated that this dual-delivery system outperformed free drugs in inducing cancer cell death, representing a promising advance in the field of nanoparticle-based therapies for ovarian cancer. By loading two chemotherapeutic agents into a single, environmentally responsive particle, this approach shows the potential to overcome common resistance mechanisms and achieve more effective tumor suppression. In summary, by delivering chemotherapy more precisely, it may be possible to enhance therapeutic outcomes while minimizing toxicity and nonspecific drug distribution, ultimately improving patient quality of life.

Generation of a selective senolytic platform using a micelle-encapsulated Sudan Black B conjugated analog

The emerging field of senolytics is centered on eliminating senescent cells to block their contribution to the progression of age-related diseases, including cancer, and to facilitate healthy aging. Enhancing the selectivity of senolytic treatments toward senescent cells stands to reduce the adverse effects associated with existing senolytic interventions. Taking advantage of lipofuscin accumulation in senescent cells, we describe here the development of a highly efficient senolytic platform consisting of a lipofuscin-binding domain scaffold, which can be conjugated with a senolytic drug via an ester bond. As a proof of concept, we present the generation of GL392, a senolytic compound that carries a dasatinib senolytic moiety. Encapsulation of the GL392 compound in a micelle nanocarrier (termed mGL392) allows for both in vitro and in vivo (in mice) selective elimination of senescent cells via targeted release of the senolytic agent with minimal systemic toxicity. Our findings suggest that this platform could be used to enhance targeting of senotherapeutics toward senescent cells.

Pharmacokinetic Evaluation of Neutral Sphinghomyelinase2 (nSMase2) Inhibitor Prodrugs in Mice and Dogs

Background: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can carry pathological cargo, contributing to disease progression. The enzyme neutral sphingomyelinase 2 (nSMase2) plays a critical role in EV biogenesis, making it a promising therapeutic target. Our lab previously identified a potent and selective inhibitor of nSMase2, named DPTIP (IC50 = 30 nM). Although promising, DPTIP exhibits poor pharmacokinetics (PKs) with a low oral bioavailability (%F < 5), and a short half-life (t1/2 ≤ 0.5 h). To address these limitations, we previously developed DPTIP prodrugs by masking its phenolic hydroxyl group, demonstrating improved plasma exposure in mice. Recognizing that species-specific metabolic differences can influence prodrug PK, we expanded our studies to evaluate selected prodrugs in both mice and dogs. Methods: The scaleup of selected prodrugs was completed and two additional valine- ester based prodrugs were synthesized. Mice were dosed prodrugs via peroral route (10 mg/kg equivalent). For dog studies DPTIP was dosed via intravenous (1 mg/kg) or peroral route (2 mg/kg) and prodrugs were given peroral at a dose 2 mg/kg DPTIP equivalent. Plasma samples were collected at predetermined points and analyzed using developed LC/MS-MS methods. Results: In mice, several of the tested prodrugs showed similar or improved plasma exposures compared to DPTIP. However, in dog studies, the double valine ester prodrug 9, showed significant improvement with an almost two-fold increase in DPTIP plasma exposure (AUC0-t = 1352 vs. 701 pmol·h/mL), enhancing oral bioavailability from 8.9% to 17.3%. Conclusions: These findings identify prodrug 9 as a promising candidate for further evaluation and underscore the critical role of species-specific differences in prodrug PKs.

Esterase-responsive nanoparticles (ERN): A targeted approach for drug/gene delivery exploits

Nanoparticles are being developed to enhance drug delivery to cancer tumors, leveraging advantages such as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. However, traditional nanoparticles often face challenges with low specificity for cancer cells, leading to inefficient delivery and unwanted side effects. Esterase-responsive nanoparticles offer a maximum targeted approach to tumor cells because they release their therapeutic payload at the tumor site under the influence of esterase activity. This review explores the role of esterase-responsive nanoparticles in drug and gene delivery, examines esterase prodrug therapy, and discusses prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targets esterase-responsive nanoparticles in prostate cancer treatment. Additionally, we reviewed the current research progress and future potential of esterase-responsive nanoparticles in enhancing drug and gene delivery.

Multi-site esterification: a tunable, reversible strategy to tailor therapeutic peptides for delivery

Peptides are naturally potent and selective therapeutics with massive potential; however, low cell membrane permeability limits their clinical implementation, particularly for hydrophilic, anionic peptides with intracellular targets. To overcome this limitation, esterification of anionic carboxylic acids on therapeutic peptides can simultaneously increase hydrophobicity and net charge to facilitate cell internalization, whereafter installed esters can be cleaved hydrolytically to restore activity. To date, however, most esterified therapeutics contain either a single esterification site or multiple esters randomly incorporated on multiple sites. This investigation provides molecular engineering insight into how the number and position of esters installed onto the therapeutic peptide α carboxyl terminus 11 (αCT11, RPRPDDLEI) with 4 esterification sites affect hydrophobicity and the hydrolysis process that reverts the peptide to its original form. After installing methyl esters onto αCT11 using Fischer esterification, we isolated 5 distinct products and used 2D nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography, and mass spectrometry to determine which residues were esterified in each and the resulting increase in hydrophobicity. We found esterifying the C-terminal isoleucine to impart the largest increase in hydrophobicity. Monitoring ester hydrolysis showed the C-terminal isoleucine ester to be the most hydrolytically stable, followed by the glutamic acid, whereas esters on aspartic acids hydrolyze rapidly. LC-MS revealed the formation of transient intramolecular aspartimides prior to hydrolysis to carboxylic acids. In vitro proof-of-concept experiments showed esterifying αCT11 to increase cell migration into a scratch, highlighting the potential of multi-site esterification as a tunable, reversible strategy to enable the delivery of therapeutic peptides.

Fluorescent probes for investigating the internalisation and action of bioorthogonal ruthenium catalysts within Gram-positive bacteria

Bioorthogonal reactions are extremely useful for the chemical modification of biomolecules, and are already well studied in mammalian cells. In contrast, very little attention has been given to the feasibility of such reactions in bacteria. Herein we report modified coumarin dyes for monitoring the internalisation and activity of bioorthogonal catalysts in the Gram-positive bacterial species Bacillus subtilis. Two fluorophores based on 7-aminocoumarin were synthesised and characterised to establish their luminescence properties. The introduction of an allyl carbamate (R2N-COOR') group onto the nitrogen atom of two 7-aminocoumarin derivatives with different solubility led to decreased fluorescence emission intensities and remarkable blue-shifts of the emission maxima. Importantly, this allyl carbamate group could be uncaged by the bioorthogonal, organometallic ruthenium catalyst investigated in this work, to yield the fluorescent product under biologically-relevant conditions. The internalisation of this catalyst was confirmed and quantified by ICP-OES analysis. Investigation of the bacterial cytoplasm and extracellular fractions separately, following incubation of the bacteria with the two caged dyes, facilitated their localisation, as well as that of their uncaged form by catalyst addition. In fact, significant differences were observed, as only the more lipophilic dye was located inside the cells and importantly remained there, seemingly avoiding efflux mechanisms. However, the uncaged form of this dye is not retained, and was found predominantly in the extracellular space. Finally, a range of siderophore-conjugated derivatives of the catalyst were investigated for the same transformations. Even though uptake was observed, albeit less significant than for the non-conjugated version, the fact that similar intracellular reaction rates were observed regardless of the iron content of the medium supports the notion that their uptake is independent of the iron transporters utilised by Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis cells.

Mammalian Esterase Activity: Implications for Peptide Prodrugs

As a traceless, bioreversible modification, the esterification of carboxyl groups in peptides and proteins has the potential to increase their clinical utility. An impediment is the lack of strategies to quantify esterase-catalyzed hydrolysis rates for esters in esterified biologics. We have developed a continuous Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay for esterase activity based on a peptidic substrate and a protease, Glu-C, that cleaves a glutamyl peptide bond only if the glutamyl side chain is a free acid. Using pig liver esterase (PLE) and human carboxylesterases, we validated the assay with substrates containing simple esters (e.g., ethyl) and esters designed to be released by self-immolation upon quinone methide elimination. We found that simple esters were not cleaved by esterases, likely for steric reasons. To account for the relatively low rate of quinone methide elimination, we extended the mathematics of the traditional Michaelis-Menten model to conclude with a first-order intermediate decay step. By exploring two regimes of our substrate → intermediate → product (SIP) model, we evaluated the rate constants for the PLE-catalyzed cleavage of an ester on a glutamyl side chain (kcat/KM = 1.63 × 103 M-1 s-1) and subsequent spontaneous quinone methide elimination to regenerate the unmodified peptide (kI = 0.00325 s-1; t1/2 = 3.55 min). The detection of esterase activity was also feasible in the human intestinal S9 fraction. Our assay and SIP model increase the understanding of the release kinetics of esterified biologics and facilitate the rational design of efficacious peptide prodrugs.

Modeling on in vivo disposition and cellular transportation of RNA lipid nanoparticles via quantum mechanics/physiologically-based pharmacokinetic approaches

The lipid nanoparticle (LNP) has been so far proven as a strongly effective delivery system for mRNA and siRNA. However, the mechanisms of LNP's distribution, metabolism, and elimination are complicated, while the transportation and pharmacokinetics (PK) of LNP are just sparsely investigated and simply described. This study aimed to build a model for the transportation of RNA-LNP in Hela cells, rats, mice, and humans by physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) and quantum mechanics (QM) models with integrated multi-source data. LNPs with different ionizable lipids, particle sizes, and doses were modeled and compared by recognizing their critical parameters dominating PK. Some interesting results were found by the models. For example, the metabolism of ionizable lipids was first limited by the LNP disassembly rate instead of the hydrolyzation of ionizable lipids; the ability of RNA release from endosomes for three ionizable lipids was quantitively derived and can predict the probability of RNA release. Moreover, the biodegradability of three ionizable lipids was estimated by the QM method and the is generally consistent with the result of PBPK result. In summary, the transportation model of RNA LNP among various species for the first time was successfully constructed. Various in vitro and in vivo pieces of evidence were integrated through QM/PBPK multi-level modeling. The resulting new understandings are related to biodegradability, safety, and RNA release ability which are highly concerned issues of the formulation. This would benefit the design and research of RNA-LNP in the future.

The pro-drug C13 activates AMPK by two distinct mechanisms

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a sensor of cellular energy status that is expressed in almost all eukaryotic cells. In the canonical activation mechanism, it is activated by increases in AMP:ATP and ADP:ATP ratios that signify declining cellular energy status. Once activated, AMPK phosphorylates numerous targets that promote catabolic pathways generating ATP, while inhibiting anabolic and other processes that consume ATP, thus acting to restore energy homeostasis. Pharmacological agents that activate AMPK have been useful in identifying downstream targets and have potential as drugs for treatment of metabolic disorders such as Type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. One such agent is C13, a pro-drug with a phosphonate bis(isobutyryloxymethyl) ester moiety, with the isobutyryloxymethyl groups increasing membrane permeability. Following cellular uptake, C13 is cleaved to release C2, an AMP analogue and potent AMPK activator that is specific for complexes containing the α1 (but not the α2) catalytic subunit isoform. This has previously been assumed to be the sole mechanism by which C13 activates AMPK, with potential roles for the isobutyryloxymethyl groups being ignored. We now report that, following cleavage from C13, these protective groups are metabolized to formaldehyde, an agent that inhibits mitochondrial function and increases cellular AMP:ATP ratios, thus providing additional AMPK activation by the canonical mechanism.

Enzyme-responsive liposomes for controlled drug release

Compared to other nanovectors, liposomes exhibit unique advantages, such as good biosafety and high drug-loading capacity. However, slow drug release from conventional liposomes makes most payloads unavailable, restricting the therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, in the last ∼20 years, enzyme-responsive liposomes have been extensively investigated, which liberate drugs under the stimulation of enzymes overexpressed at disease sites. In this review, we elaborate on the research progress on enzyme-responsive liposomes. The involved enzymes mainly include phospholipases, particularly phospholipase A2, matrix metalloproteinases, cathepsins, and esterases. These enzymes can cleave ester bonds or specific peptide sequences incorporated in the liposomes for controlled drug release by disrupting the primary structure of liposomes, detaching protective polyethylene glycol shells, or activating liposome-associated prodrugs. Despite decades of efforts, there are still a lack marketed products of enzyme-responsive liposomes. Therefore, more efforts should be made to improve the safety and effectiveness of enzyme-responsive liposomes and address the issues associated with production scale-up.

Therapeutic resurgence of 6-diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine (DON) through tissue-targeted prodrugs

The recognition that rapidly proliferating cancer cells rely heavily on glutamine for their survival and growth has renewed interest in the development of glutamine antagonists for cancer therapy. Glutamine plays a pivotal role as a carbon source for synthesizing lipids and metabolites through the TCA cycle, as well as a nitrogen source for synthesis of amino acid and nucleotides. Numerous studies have explored the significance of glutamine metabolism in cancer, providing a robust rationale for targeting this metabolic pathway in cancer treatment. The glutamine antagonist 6-diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine (DON) has been explored as an anticancer therapeutic for nearly six decades. Initial investigations revealed remarkable efficacy in preclinical studies and promising outcomes in early clinical trials. However, further advancement of DON was hindered due to dose-limiting gastrointestinal (GI) toxicities as the GI system is highly dependent on glutamine for regulating growth and repair. In an effort to repurpose DON and mitigate gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity concerns, prodrug strategies were utilized. These strategies aimed to enhance the delivery of DON to specific target tissues, such as tumors and the central nervous system (CNS), while sparing DON delivery to normal tissues, particularly the GI tract. When administered at low daily doses, optimized for metabolic inhibition, these prodrugs exhibit remarkable effectiveness without inducing significant toxicity to normal tissues. This approach holds promise for overcoming past challenges associated with DON, offering an avenue for its successful utilization in cancer treatment.

Improving drug delivery to the brain: the prodrug approach

INTRODUCTION

The prodrug approach has been thought to be a simple solution to improve brain drug delivery for decades. Nevertheless, it still comes as a surprise that there is relatively little success in the field. The best example anti-parkinsonian drug levodopa has been serendipitously discovered to be a transporter-utilizing brain-delivered prodrug rather than a rationally developed one.

AREAS COVERED

The lack of success can mainly be explained by the insufficient understanding of the role of membrane proteins that can facilitate drug delivery at dynamic barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier (BBB), but also by the sparse knowledge of prodrug bioconverting enzymes in the brain. This review summarizes the current status of the prodrug attempts that have been developed in the past to improve brain drug delivery.

EXPERT OPINION

With the expandingly improved analytical and computational technologies, it is anticipated that enhanced brain drug delivery will be eventually achieved for most of the central nervous system (CNS) acting drugs. However, this requires that carrier-mediated (pro)drug delivery methods are implemented in the very early phases of the drug development processes and not as a last step to survive a problematic investigational drug candidate.

Prodrugs as empowering tools in drug discovery and development: recent strategic applications of drug delivery solutions to mitigate challenges associated with lead compounds and drug candidates

The delivery of a drug to a specific organ or tissue at an efficacious concentration is the pharmacokinetic (PK) hallmark of promoting effective pharmacological action at a target site with an acceptable safety profile. Sub-optimal pharmaceutical or ADME profiles of drug candidates, which can often be a function of inherently poor physicochemical properties, pose significant challenges to drug discovery and development teams and may contribute to high compound attrition rates. Medicinal chemists have exploited prodrugs as an informed strategy to productively enhance the profiles of new chemical entities by optimizing the physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, and pharmacokinetic properties as well as selectively delivering a molecule to the site of action as a means of addressing a range of limitations. While discovery scientists have traditionally employed prodrugs to improve solubility and membrane permeability, the growing sophistication of prodrug technologies has enabled a significant expansion of their scope and applications as an empowering tool to mitigate a broad range of drug delivery challenges. Prodrugs have emerged as successful solutions to resolve non-linear exposure, inadequate exposure to support toxicological studies, pH-dependent absorption, high pill burden, formulation challenges, lack of feasibility of developing solid and liquid dosage forms, first-pass metabolism, high dosing frequency translating to reduced patient compliance and poor site-specific drug delivery. During the period 2012-2022, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved 50 prodrugs, which amounts to 13% of approved small molecule drugs, reflecting both the importance and success of implementing prodrug approaches in the pursuit of developing safe and effective drugs to address unmet medical needs.

Developing an adult stem cell derived microphysiological intestinal system for predicting oral prodrug bioconversion and permeability in humans

Microphysiological systems (MPS) incorporating human intestinal organoids have shown the potential to faithfully model intestinal biology with the promise to accelerate development of oral prodrugs. We hypothesized that an MPS model incorporating flow, shear stress, and vasculature could provide more reliable measures of prodrug bioconversion and permeability. Following construction of jejunal and duodenal organoid MPS derived from 3 donors, we determined the area under the concentration-time (AUC) curve for the active drug in the vascular channel and characterized the enzymology of prodrug bioconversion. Fosamprenavir underwent phosphatase mediated hydrolysis to amprenavir while dabigatran etexilate (DABE) exhibited proper CES2- and, as anticipated, not CES1-mediated de-esterification, followed by permeation of amprenavir to the vascular channel. When experiments were conducted in the presence of bio-converting enzyme inhibitors (orthovanadate for alkaline phosphatase; bis(p-nitrophenyl)phosphate for carboxylesterase), the AUC of the active drug decreased accordingly in the vascular channel. In addition to functional analysis, the MPS was characterized through imaging and proteomic analysis. Imaging revealed proper expression and localization of epithelial, endothelial, tight junction and catalytic enzyme markers. Global proteomic analysis was used to analyze the MPS model and 3 comparator sources: an organoid-based transwell model (which was also evaluated for function), Matrigel embedded organoids and finally jejunal and duodenal cadaver tissues collected from 3 donors. Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) of global proteomic data demonstrated that all organoid-based models exhibited strong similarity and were distinct from tissues. Intestinal organoids in the MPS model exhibited strong similarity to human tissue for key epithelial markers via HCA. Quantitative proteomic analysis showed higher expression of key prodrug converting and drug metabolizing enzymes in MPS-derived organoids compared to tissues, organoids in Matrigel, and organoids on transwells. When comparing organoids from MPS and transwells, expression of intestinal alkaline phosphatase (ALPI), carboxylesterase (CES)2, cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and sucrase isomaltase (SI) was 2.97-, 1.2-, 11.3-, and 27.7-fold higher for duodenum and 7.7-, 4.6-, 18.1-, and 112.2-fold higher for jejunum organoids in MPS, respectively. The MPS approach can provide a more physiological system than enzymes, organoids, and organoids on transwells for pharmacokinetic analysis of prodrugs that account for 10% of all commercial medicines.

Synthesis and Antiviral Activity of Novel β-D-N4-Hydroxycytidine Ester Prodrugs as Potential Compounds for the Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 and Other Human Coronaviruses

The spread of COVID-19 infection continues due to the emergence of multiple transmissible and immune-evasive variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Although various vaccines have been developed and several drugs have been approved for the treatment of COVID-19, the development of new drugs to combat COVID-19 is still necessary. In this work, new 5'-O-ester derivatives of N4-hydroxycytidine based on carboxylic acids were developed and synthesized by Steglich esterification. The antiviral activity of the compounds was assessed in vitro-inhibiting the cytopathic effect of HCoV-229E, and three variants of SARS-CoV-2, on huh-7 and Vero E6 cells. Data have shown that most synthesized derivatives exhibit high activity against coronaviruses. In addition, the relationship between the chemical structure of the compounds and their antiviral effect has been established. The obtained results show that the most active compound was conjugate SN_22 based on 3-methyl phenoxyacetic acid. The results of this study indicate the potential advantage of the chemical strategies used to modify NHC as a promising avenue to be explored in vivo, which could lead to the development of drugs with improved pharmacological properties that potently inhibit SARS-CoV-2.

Drug and pro-drug substrates and pseudo-substrates of human butyrylcholinesterase

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is present in plasma and numerous cells and organs. Its physiological function(s) is(are) still unclear. However, this enzyme is of pharmacological and toxicological importance. It displays a broad specificity and is capable of hydrolyzing a wide range of substrates with turnovers differing by several orders of magnitude. Nowaday, these substrates include more than two dozen carboxyl-ester drugs, numerous acetylated prodrugs, and transition state analogues of acetylcholine. In addition, BChE displays a promiscuous hydrolytic activity toward amide bonds of arylacylamides, and slowly hydrolyzes carbamyl- and phosphoryl-esters. Certain pseudo-substrates like carbamates and organophosphates are major drugs of potential medical interest. The existence of a large genetic poly-allelism, affecting the catalytic properties of BChE is at the origin of clinical complications in the use of certain drugs catabolized by BChE. The number of drugs and prodrugs hydrolyzed by BChE is expected to increase in the future. However, very few quantitative data (Km, kcat) are available for most marketed drugs, and except for myorelaxants like succinylcholine and mivacurium, the impact of BChE genetic mutations on catalytic parameters has not been evaluated for most of these drugs.

Methylation and Demethylation of Emerging Contaminants Changed Bioaccumulation and Acute Toxicity in Daphnia magna

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in the environment undergo various transformations, leading to the formation of transformation products (TPs) with a modified ecological risk potential. Although the environmental significance of TPs is increasingly recognized, there has been relatively little research to understand the influences of such transformations on subsequent ecotoxicological safety. In this study, we used four pairs of CECs and their methylated or demethylated derivatives as examples to characterize changes in bioaccumulation and acute toxicity in Daphnia magna, as a result of methylation or demethylation. The experimental results were further compared to quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) predictions. The methylated counterpart in each pair generally showed greater acute toxicity in D. magna, which was attributed to their increased hydrophobicity. For example, the LC50 values of methylparaben (34.4 ± 4.3 mg L-1) and its demethylated product (225.6 ± 17.3 mg L-1) differed about eightfold in D. magna. The methylated derivative generally exhibited greater bioaccumulation than the demethylated counterpart. For instance, the bioaccumulation of methylated acetaminophen was about 33-fold greater than that of acetaminophen. In silico predictions via QSARs aligned well with the experimental results and suggested an increased persistence of the methylated forms. The study findings underline the consequences of simple changes in chemical structures induced by transformations such as methylation and demethylation and highlight the need to consider TPs to achieve a more holistic understanding of the environmental fate and risks of CECs.

Assessment of Purity, Stability, and Pharmacokinetics of NGP-1, a Novel Prodrug of GS441254 with Potential Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Activity, Using Liquid Chromatography

SARS-CoV-2 is a highly contagious and pathogenic virus that first appeared in late December 2019 and caused a global pandemic in a short period. The virus is a single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Coronaviridae family. Numerous treatments have been developed and tested in response to the pandemic, particularly antiviral drugs. Among them, GS441524 (GS441), a nucleoside antiviral drug, has demonstrated promising results in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2. Nevertheless, the limited oral bioavailability of GS441 restricts its application to patients with the virus. In this study, a novel prodrug of GS441 (NGP-1) with an isobutyl ester and cyclic carbonate structure was designed and synthesized. Its purity and the stability in different artificial digestive juices of NGP-1 was determined with HPLC-DAD methods. The pharmacokinetics of NGP-1 and GS441 were studied in rats via gavage administration. A new LC-MS/MS method was developed to quantitatively analyze GS441 in plasma samples. The results showed that the ka, Cmax, and MRT of converted GS441 from NGP-1 were 5.9, 3, and 2.5 times greater than those of GS441 alone. The Frel of NGP-1 was approximately four-fold that of GS441, with an AUC0-∞ of 9716.3 h·ng mL-1. As a prodrug of GS441, NGP-1 increased its lipophilicity, absorption, and bioavailability, indicating that it holds promise in improving the clinical efficacy of anti-SARS-CoV-2 medications.

PredPS: Attention-based graph neural network for predicting stability of compounds in human plasma

Stability of compounds in the human plasma is crucial for maintaining sufficient systemic drug exposure and considered an essential factor in the early stages of drug discovery and development. The rapid degradation of compounds in the plasma can result in poor in vivo efficacy. Currently, there are no open-source software programs for predicting human plasma stability. In this study, we developed an attention-based graph neural network, PredPS to predict the plasma stability of compounds in human plasma using in-house and open-source datasets. The PredPS outperformed the two machine learning and two deep learning algorithms that were used for comparison indicating its stability-predicting efficiency. PredPS achieved an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 90.1%, accuracy of 83.5%, sensitivity of 82.3%, and specificity of 84.6% when evaluated using 5-fold cross-validation. In the early stages of drug discovery, PredPS could be a helpful method for predicting the human plasma stability of compounds. Saving time and money can be accomplished by adopting an in silico-based plasma stability prediction model at the high-throughput screening stage. The source code for PredPS is available at https://bitbucket.org/krict-ai/predps and the PredPS web server is available at https://predps.netlify.app.

Hydrolytic Metabolism of Withangulatin A Mediated by Serum Albumin Instead of Common Esterases in Plasma

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The oral bioavailability of withangulatin A (WA) is low and may undergo first-pass metabolism because of the presence of two esters bonds. This study aimed to identify the hydrolysis behavior and mechanism of WA, thus enriching its structure-pharmacokinetic relationship.

METHODS

The in vivo pharmacokinetic studies of WA in rats were first investigated, followed by in vitro assays including metabolic stability, phenotyping identification and metabolic kinetics assays. After screening out the responsible enzymes with higher catalytic capacity, molecular docking study was performed to demonstrate the interaction mode between WA and metabolic enzymes. Then, metabolites in human serum albumin (HSA) were identified by LC-TOF-MS/MS.

RESULTS

In rats, the oral bioavailability of WA was only 2.83%. In vitro, WA was hydrolyzed in both rat and human plasma and could not be inhibited by selective esterase inhibitors. Physiologic concentration of HSA not recombinant human carboxylesterases (rhCES) could significantly hydrolyze WA, and it had a similar hydrolytic capacity with human plasma to WA. Furthermore, WA could stably bind to HSA by forming hydrogen bonds with Lys199 and Arg410, accompanied by the metabolic reaction of the lactone ring opening.

CONCLUSION

The study showed that WA underwent obvious hydrolysis in rat and human plasma, which implied a strong first-pass effect. Serum albumin rather than common esterases primarily contributed to the hydrolytic metabolism of WA in plasma.

An endoplasmic reticulum-specific ratiometric fluorescent probe for imaging esterase in living cells

Esterase is primarily distributed in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and often overexpressed in cancer cells. Therefore, the detection of esterase in ER is significant for monitoring the metabolic process of various esters and evaluating the efficacy of chemotherapeutic prodrugs. However, only few fluorescent probes can detect esterase in the ER due to the lack of ER-specificity. More seriously, these probes are often limited by low pearson's colocalization coefficient and one single wavelength emission. To solve those problems, an ER-specific ratiometric fluorescent probe (ER-EST) is designed for detecting esterase in living cells. The ER-EST shows a ratiometric and red-shifted emission (125 nm) from 435 to 560 nm after hydrolysis by esterase. The fluorescence intensity ratio of ER-EST displays quantitative response to the esterase activity (0-0.5 U/mL) with low detection limit of 1.8 × 10^-4 U/mL. Importantly, the ER-EST with good biocompatibility and excellent ER-targeted ability was successfully employed to ratiometric image the endogenous endoplasmic reticulum esterase in living cells.

Co-delivery of paclitaxel and etoposide prodrug by human serum albumin and PLGA nanoparticles: synergistic cytotoxicity in brain tumour cells

The aims of this study were to develop co-delivery systems of paclitaxel (PTX) and etoposide prodrug (4'-O-benzyloxycarbonyl-etoposide, ETP-cbz) based on non-cross-linked human serum albumin (HSA) and poly(lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles and to evaluate the synergistic potential of these drugs in vitro. The nanoformulations were prepared by the high-pressure homogenisation technique and characterised using DLS, TEM, SEM, AFM, HPLC, CZE, in-vitro release, and cytotoxicity in human and murine glioma cells. All nanoparticles had 90-150 nm in size and negative ζ-potentials. The Neuro2A cells were the most sensitive to both HSA- and PLGA-based co-delivery systems (IC₅₀ 0.024 µM and 0.053 µM, respectively). The drugs' synergistic effect (combination index < 0.9) was observed in the GL261 cells for both types of co-delivery formulations and in the Neuro2A cells for the HSA-based system. These nanodelivery systems may be useful to improve combination chemotherapy for brain tumour treatment. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the non-cross-linked HSA-based co-delivery nanosuspension which was prepared using nab™ technology.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of a series of potential prodrugs of a Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor

BTK has become a particularly attractive therapeutic target in autoimmune diseases and B-cell malignancies, making BTK inhibitors a valuable and important therapeutic option. We present the design, synthesis, and evaluation of a series of prodrugs of a BTK inhibitor with an insoluble 2,5-diaminopyrimidine structure. Tails containing different solubilizing groups were added to the parent molecule via an ester linkage. Prodrug 5a showed good aqueous solubility and could be efficiently converted to the parent in a human plasma stability study. The rational prodrug design was supported by molecular studies and a dramatically reduced BTK kinase-inhibitory potential. Taken together, the chemical, biological, and molecular studies suggest that prodrug derivatization of the 2,5-diaminopyrimidine scaffold could be a potential strategy for advancing this series of BTK inhibitors into the therapeutic arena.

Progress and prospects toward supramolecular bioactive ion transporters

The majority of cellular physiological processes depend on natural ion channels, which are pore-forming membrane-embedded proteins that let ions flow across the cell membranes selectively. This selective movement of ions across the membranes balances the osmolality within and outside the cell. However, mutations in the genes that encode essential membrane transport proteins or structural reorganisation of these proteins can cause life-threatening diseases like cystic fibrosis. Artificial ion transport systems have opened up a way to replace dysfunctional natural ion channels to cure such diseases through channel replacement therapy. Moreover, recent research has also demonstrated the ability of these systems to kill cancer cells, reigniting interest in the field among scientists. Our contributions to the recent progress in the design and development of artificial chloride ion transporters and their effect on biological systems have been discussed in this review. This review would provide current vistas and future directions toward the development of novel ion transporters with improved biocompatibility and desired anti-cancer properties. Additionally, it strongly emphasises stimuli-responsive ion transport systems, which are crucial for obtaining target-specificity and may speed up the application of these systems in clinical therapeutics.

Well-Defined Bifunctional Dendrimer Bearing 54 Nitric Oxide-Releasing Moieties and 54 Ursodeoxycholic Acid Groups Presenting High Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Nitric oxide (NO) and ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) are endogenous molecules involved in physiological processes associated with inflammation. Since inflammatory processes are present in the mechanisms of many diseases, these molecules are important for the development of new drugs. Herein, we describe the synthesis of a well-defined bifunctional dendrimer with 108 termini bearing 54 NO-releasing groups and 54 UDCA units (Dendri-(NO/UDCA)₅₄). For comparison, a lower-generation dendrimer bearing 18 NO-releasing groups and 18 UDCA units (Dendri-(NO/UDCA)₁₈) was also synthesized. The anti-inflammatory activity of these dendrimers was evaluated, showing that the bifunctional dendrimers have an inverse correlation between concentration and anti-inflammatory activity, with an effect dramatically pronounced for Dendri-(NO/UDCA)₅₄ 20, which at just 0.25 nM inhibited 76.1% of IL-8 secretion. Data suggest that nanomolar concentrations of these dendrimers aid in releasing NO in a safe and controlled way. This bifunctional dendrimer has great potential as a drug against multifactorial diseases associated with inflammatory processes.

A Lock‐and‐Kill Anticancer Photoactivated Chemotherapy Agent †

Photosubstitutionally active ruthenium complexes show high potential as prodrugs for the photoactivated chemotherapy (PACT) treatment of tumors. One of the problems in PACT is that the localization of the ruthenium compound is hard to trace. Here, a ruthenium PACT prodrug, [Ru(3)(biq)(STF-31)](PF₆ )₂ (where 3 = 3-(([2,2':6',2″-ter- pyridin]-4'-yloxy)propyl-4-(pyren-1-yl)butanoate) and biq = 2,2'-biquinoline), has been prepared, in which a pyrene tracker is attached via an ester bond. The proximity between the fluorophore and the ruthenium center leads to fluorescence quenching. Upon intracellular hydrolysis of the ester linkage, however, the fluorescence of the pyrene moiety is recovered, thus demonstrating prodrug cellular uptake. Further light irradiation of this molecule liberates by photosubstitution STF-31, a known cytotoxic nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) inhibitor, as well as singlet oxygen via excitation of the free pyrene chromophore. The dark and light cytotoxicity of the prodrug, embedded in liposomes, as well as the appearance of blue emission upon uptake, were evaluated in A375 human skin melanoma cells. The cytotoxicity of the liposome-embedded prodrug was indeed increased by light irradiation. This work realizes an in vitro proof-of-concept of the lock-and-kill principle, which may ultimately be used to design strategies aimed at knowing where and when light irradiation should be realized in vivo.

Discovery of DRP-104, a tumor-targeted metabolic inhibitor prodrug

6-Diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine (DON) is a glutamine antagonist that suppresses cancer cell metabolism but concurrently enhances the metabolic fitness of tumor CD8+ T cells. DON showed promising efficacy in clinical trials; however, its development was halted by dose-limiting gastrointestinal (GI) toxicities. Given its clinical potential, we designed DON peptide prodrugs and found DRP-104 [isopropyl(S)-2-((S)-2-acetamido-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-propanamido)-6-diazo-5-oxo-hexanoate] that was preferentially bioactivated to DON in tumor while bioinactivated to an inert metabolite in GI tissues. In drug distribution studies, DRP-104 delivered a prodigious 11-fold greater exposure of DON to tumor versus GI tissues. DRP-104 affected multiple metabolic pathways in tumor, including decreased glutamine flux into the TCA cycle. In efficacy studies, both DRP-104 and DON caused complete tumor regression; however, DRP-104 had a markedly improved tolerability profile. DRP-104's effect was CD8+ T cell dependent and resulted in robust immunologic memory. DRP-104 represents a first-in-class prodrug with differential metabolism in target versus toxicity tissue. DRP-104 is now in clinical trials under the FDA Fast Track designation.

Acetylation Enhances the Anticancer Activity and Oral Bioavailability of 5-Demethyltangeretin

A kind of hydroxylated polymethoxyflavone (PMFs) existing in the citrus genus, 5-Demethyltangeretin (5-DTAN), has been reported to possess several bioactivities in vitro and in vivo. The aim of this study was to investigate whether acetylation could enhance the anticancer activity and oral bioavailability of 5-DTAN. PC-3 human prostate cancer cells were treated with tangeretin (TAN), 5-DTAN, and 5-acetylated TAN (5-ATAN), and the results showed that the cytotoxic effect 5-ATAN (IC50 value of 5.1 µM) on the cell viability of PC-3 cells was stronger than that of TAN (IC50 value of 17.2 µM) and 5-DTAN (IC50 value of 11.8 µM). Compared to 5-DTAN, 5-ATAN treatment caused a more pronounced DNA ladder, increased the sub-G1 phase population, and induced G2/M phase arrest in the cell cycle of PC-3 cells. We also found that 5-ATAN triggered the activation of caspase-3 and the progression of the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway in PC-3 cells, suggesting the induction of apoptosis. In a cell wound healing test, 5-ATAN dose-dependently reduced the cell migration, and the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) was decreased after 48 h of 5-ATAN treatment. Moreover, oral administration of 5-ATAN showed a significantly stronger inhibitory effect on tumor size and tumor weight in tumor-bearing nude mice than those of vehicle or the 5-DTAN group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, pharmacokinetic results showed that single-dose oral administration of 5-ATAN exhibited a higher maximum concentration (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC) of 5-DTAN in plasma than that of 5-DTAN. More extensive distribution of 5-DTAN to most tissues of mice was also observed in mice treated with 5-ATAN for 7 days. In conclusion, acetylation strongly enhances the anticancer activity and oral bioavailability of 5-DTAN and could be a promising strategy to promote the potential bioactivities of natural products.

Deciphering the species differences in CES1A-mediated hydrolytic metabolism by using a bioluminescence substrate

Carboxylesterases 1A (CES1A) is a key enzyme responsible for the hydrolytic metabolism of a great deal of endogenous and exogenous substrates bearing ester- or amide-bond(s). This study aimed to decipher the species difference in CES1A-mediated hydrolytic metabolism by using a newly developed bioluminescence CES1A sensor (termed NLMe) as the probe substrate, while the liver microsomes from six different mammalian species (human, cynomolgus monkey, dog, minipig, rat and mouse) were used as the enzyme sources. Metabolite profiling demonstrated that all tested liver microsomes from various species could catalyze NLMe hydrolysis, but significant difference in hydrolytic rate was observed. Kinetic plots of NLMe hydrolysis in liver microsomes from different species showed that the inherent clearance rates (C_lint) of NLMe in human liver microsomes (HLM), cynomolgus monkey liver microsomes (CyLM), and pig liver microsome (PLM) were comparable, while the C_lint values of NLMe in dog liver microsomes (DLM), mouse liver microsomes (MLM), and rat liver microsomes (RLM) were relatively small. Moreover, chemical inhibition assays showed that NLMe hydrolysis in all tested liver microsomes could be competently inhibited by BNPP (a potent broad-spectrum inhibitor of CES), but CUA (a selective inhibitor of human CES1A) only inhibited NLMe hydrolysis in human liver microsomes and dog liver microsomes. In summary, the species differences in CES1A-catalyzed NLMe hydrolysis were carefully investigated from the views of the similarities in metabolite profile, hydrolytic kinetics and inhibitor response. All these findings provide new insights into the species differences in CES1A-mediated hydrolytic metabolism and suggest that it is necessary for the pharmacologists to choose appropriate animal models to replace humans for evaluating the in vivo effects of CES1A inhibitors.

Design of self-assembling anti-epileptic drug for long-acting drug delivery in vivo

Valproic acid (VPA) has been extensively used for the treatment of seizures in epilepsy. The recommended VPA concentration in the blood is in the range of 50-100 μg mL^-1 and its therapeutic efficiency is well recognized. Since its therapeutic range is relatively narrow, strict scheduling of daily self-medication is required to optimize therapeutic outcomes and avoid adverse effects. To facilitate patient convenience in long-term and chronic therapies, the development of a sustained drug delivery system for VPA is a promising strategy. In this study, an enzyme-metabolizable block copolymer possessing a valproate ester, poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(vinyl valproate), was synthesized. The synthesized block copolymers formed stable nanoparticles (denoted Nano^VPA) by self-assembly under physiological conditions and released VPA via enzymatic hydrolysis. Nano^VPA showed improved pharmacokinetics compared to sodium valproate in vivo, and therapeutic efficacy in a pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced kindling mouse model after once-weekly administration.

Host-Guest Complexation by β-Cyclodextrin Enhances the Solubility of an Esterified Protein

The carboxyl groups of a protein can be esterified by reaction with a diazo compound, 2-diazo-2-(p-methylphenyl)-N,N-dimethylacetamide. This esterification enables the entry of the protein into the cytosol of a mammalian cell, where the nascent ester groups are hydrolyzed by endogenous esterases. The low aqueous solubility of the ensuing esterified protein is, however, a major practical challenge. Solubility screening revealed that β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) is an optimal solubilizing agent for esterified green fluorescent protein (est-GFP). Its addition can increase the recovery of est-GFP by 10-fold. α-CD, γ-CD, and cucurbit-7-uril are less effective excipients. ¹H NMR titration experiments revealed that β-CD encapsulates the hydrophobic tolyl group of ester conjugates with K_a = 321 M^-1. Combining l-arginine and sucrose with β-CD enables the nearly quantitative recovery of est-GFP. Thus, the insolubility of esterified proteins can be overcome with excipients.

A luciferase prosubstrate and a red bioluminescent calcium indicator for imaging neuronal activity in mice

Although fluorescent indicators have been broadly utilized for monitoring bioactivities, fluorescence imaging, when applied to mammals, is limited to superficial targets or requires invasive surgical procedures. Thus, there is emerging interest in developing bioluminescent indicators for noninvasive mammalian imaging. Bioluminescence imaging (BLI) of neuronal activity is highly desired but hindered by insufficient photons needed to digitalize fast brain activities. In this work, we develop a luciferase prosubstrate deliverable at an increased dose and activated in vivo by nonspecific esterase. We further engineer a bright, bioluminescent indicator with robust responsiveness to calcium ions (Ca2+) and appreciable emission above 600 nm. Integration of these advantageous components enables the imaging of the activity of neuronal ensembles in awake mice minimally invasively with excellent signal-to-background and subsecond temporal resolution. This study thus establishes a paradigm for studying brain function in health and disease.

Liposomal Form of 2,4-Dinitrophenol Lipophilic Derivatives as a Promising Therapeutic Agent for ATP Synthesis Inhibition

Mitochondrial uncoupler 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) is a promising antidiabetic and antiobesity agent. Its clinical use is limited by a narrow dynamic range and accumulation in non-target sensitive organs, which results in whole-body toxicity. A liposomal formulation could enable the mentioned drawbacks to be overcome and simplify the liver-targeted delivery and sustained release of 2,4-DNP. We synthesized 2,4-DNP esters with carboxylic acids of various lipophilic degrees using carboxylic acid chloride and then loaded them into liposomes. We demonstrated the effective increase in the entrapment of 2,4-DNP into liposomes when esters were used. Here, we examined the dependence of the sustained release of 2,4-DNP from liposomes on the lipid composition and LogPoct of the ester. We posit that the optimal chain length of the ester should be close to the palmitic acid and the lipid membrane should be composed of phospholipids with a certain phase transition point depending on the desired release rate. The increased effect of the ATP synthesis inhibition of the liposomal forms of caproic and palmitic acid esters compared to free molecules in liver hepatocytes was demonstrated. The liposomes' stability could well be responsible for this result. This work demonstrates promising possibilities for the liver-targeted delivery of the 2,4-DNP esters with carboxylic acids loaded into liposomes for ATP synthesis inhibition.

Chemico-biological aspects of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) to improve its stability, bioavailability and membrane permeability: Current status and future prospects

Natural products have been a bedrock for drug discovery for decades. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is one of the widely studied natural polyphenolic compounds derived from green tea. It is the key component believed to be responsible for the medicinal value of green tea. Significant studies implemented in in vitro, in cellulo, and in vivo models have suggested its anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, neuroprotective activities etc. Despite having such a wide array of therapeutic potential and promising results in preclinical studies, its applicability to humans has encountered with rather limited success largely due to the poor bioavailability, poor membrane permeability, rapid metabolic clearance and lack of stability of EGCG. Therefore, novel techniques are warranted to address those limitations so that EGCG or its modified analogs can be used in the clinical setup. This review comprehensively covers different strategies such as structural modifications, nano-carriers as efficient drug delivery systems, synergistic studies with other bioactivities to improve the chemico-biological aspects (e.g., stability, bioavailability, permeability, etc.) of EGCG for its enhanced pharmacokinetics and pharmacological properties, eventually enhancing its therapeutic potentials. We think this review article will serve as a strong platform with comprehensive literature on the development of novel techniques to improve the bioavailability of EGCG so that it can be translated to the clinical applications.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of orally active prodrugs and analogs of para-aminosalicylic acid (PAS)

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the world's most deadly infectious diseases resulting in nearly 1.3 million deaths annually and infecting nearly one-quarter of the population. para-Aminosalicylic acid (PAS), an important second-line agent for treating drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, has moderate bioavailability and rapid clearance that necessitate high daily doses of up to 12 g per day, which in turn causes severe gastrointestinal disturbances presumably by disruption of gut microbiota and host epithelial cells. We first synthesized a series of alkyl, acyloxy and alkyloxycarbonyloxyalkyl ester prodrugs to increase the oral bioavailability and thereby prevent intestinal accumulation as well as undesirable bioactivation by the gut microbiome to non-natural folate species that exhibit cytotoxicity. The pivoxyl prodrug of PAS was superior to all of the prodrugs examined and showed nearly quantitative absorption. While the conceptually simple prodrug approach improved the oral bioavailability of PAS, it did not address the intrinsic rapid clearance of PAS mediated by N-acetyltransferase-1 (NAT-1). Thus, we next modified the PAS scaffold to reduce NAT-1 catalyzed inactivation by introduction of groups to sterically block N-acetylation and fluorination of the aryl ring of PAS to attenuate N-acetylation by electronically deactivating the para-amino group. Among the mono-fluorinated analogs prepared, 5-fluoro-PAS, exhibited the best activity and an 11-fold decreased rate of inactivation by NAT-1 that translated to a 5-fold improved exposure as measured by area-under-the-curve (AUC) following oral dosing to CD-1 mice. The pivoxyl prodrug and fluorination at the 5-position of PAS address the primary limitations of PAS and have the potential to revitalize this second-line TB drug.

Evaluation of Two Novel Hydantoin Derivatives Using Reconstructed Human Skin Model EpiskinTM: Perspectives for Application as Potential Sunscreen Agents

This study aimed to assess two novel 5-arylideneimidazolidine-2,4-dione (hydantoin) derivatives (JH3 and JH10) demonstrating photoprotective activity using the reconstructed human skin model Episkin^TM. The skin permeability, irritation, and phototoxicity of the compounds was evaluated in vitro. Moreover, the in vitro genotoxicity and human metabolism of both compounds was studied. For skin permeation and irritation experiments, the test compounds were incorporated into a formulation. It was shown that JH3 and JH10 display no skin irritation and no phototoxicity. Both compounds did not markedly enhance the frequency of micronuclei in CHO-K1 cells in the micronucleus assay. Preliminary in vitro studies with liver microsomes demonstrated that hydrolysis appears to constitute their important metabolic pathway. Episkin^TM permeability experiments showed that JH3 permeability was lower than or close to currently used UV filters, whereas JH10 had the potential to permeate the skin. Therefore, a restriction of this compound permeability should be obtained by choosing the right vehicle or by optimizing it, which should be addressed in future studies.

Genetic Variants and Drug Efficacy in Tuberculosis: A Step toward Personalized Therapy

Tuberculosis (TB) continues to be a major infectious disease affecting individuals worldwide. Current TB treatment strategy recommends the standard short-course chemotherapy regimen containing first-line drug, i.e., isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol to treat patients suffering from drug-susceptible TB. Although Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causing agent, is susceptible to drugs, some patients do not respond to the treatment or treatment may result in serious adverse reactions. Many studies revealed that anti-TB drug-related toxicity is associated with genetic variations, and these variations may also influence attaining maximum drug concentration. Thus, inter-individual diversities play a characteristic role by influencing the genes involved in drug metabolism pathways. The development of pharmacogenomics could bring a revolution in the field of treatment, and the understanding of germline variants may give rise to optimized targeted treatments and refine the response to standard therapy. In this review, we briefly introduced the field of pharmacogenomics with the evolution in genetics and discussed the pharmacogenetic impact of genetic variations on genes involved in the activities, such as anti-TB drug transportation, metabolism, and gene regulation.

Development of Prodrugs for Treatment of Parkinson's Disease: New Inorganic Scaffolds for Blood-Brain Barrier Permeation

The treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) has not been consistently modified for more than 60 years. L-DOPA, the blood-brain barrier permeable precursor prodrug of dopamine, is to date the only effective therapy on the market. However, it is well known that prolonged treatment with L-DOPA leads to several side effects, which may affect the patient's life expectancy (i.e., the wearing-off phenomenon, on-off fluctuations, and dyskinesia). For this reason, modifications, and supplements to L-DOPA treatment have been and are being studied, which, however, have not yet resulted in a valid alternative to the cornerstone drug. This review aims to summarize the main formulations currently in use for PD treatment, explaining advantages and disadvantages for each class. The attention will be focused on the promising prodrug concept, aimed at finding a suitable L-DOPA substitute with improved pharmacokinetic behavior. In this respect, new potential candidates which show interesting properties for the intended scope, the so-called dicarba-closo-dodecaboranes(12) (carboranes), will be discussed. Carboranes are inorganic molecular icosahedral boron-carbon clusters with 12 vertices and 20 deltahedral faces. They have been extensively studied for applications in medicine as potential pharmacophores, reagents in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) and radiotherapy. Here, we discuss them as inorganic scaffolds for dopamine delivery at the central nervous system (CNS) level.

Esterification promotes the intracellular accumulation of roxadustat, an activator of hypoxia-inducible factors, to extend its effective duration

Kidney injury often causes anemia due to a lack of production of the erythroid growth factor erythropoietin (EPO) in the kidneys. Roxadustat is one of the first oral medicines inducing EPO production in patients with renal anemia by activating hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), which are activators of EPO gene expression. In this study, to develop prodrugs of roxadustat with improved permeability through cell membrane, we investigated the effects of 8 types of esterification on the pharmacokinetics and bioactivity of roxadustat using Hep3B hepatoma cells that HIF-dependently produce EPO. Mass spectrometry of cells incubated with the esterified roxadustat derivatives revealed that the designed compounds were deesterified after being taken up by cells and showed low cytotoxicity compared to the original compound. Esterification prolonged the effective duration of roxadustat with respect to EPO gene induction and HIF activation in cells transiently exposed to the compounds. In the kidneys and livers of mice, both of which are unique sites of EPO production, a majority of the methyl-esterified roxadustat was deesterified within 6 h after drug administration. The deesterified roxadustat derivative was continuously detectable in plasma and urine for at least 48 h after administration, while the administered compound became undetectable 24 h after administration. Additionally, we confirmed that methyl-esterified roxadustat activated erythropoiesis in mice by inducing Epo mRNA expression exclusively in renal interstitial cells, which have intrinsic EPO-producing potential. These data suggest that esterification could lead to the development of roxadustat prodrugs with improvements in cell membrane permeability, effective duration and cytotoxicity.

Synthesis of rutin derivatives to enhance lipid solubility and development of topical formulation with a validated analytical method

BACKGROUND

Rutin is available on the market as a topical formulation for the treatment of several conditions, such as internal bleeding, hemorrhoids, and varicose veins. However, these gels have low solubility and limited bioavailability due to their decreased lipid solubility.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to synthesize potentially novel lipophilic rutin prodrugs. The suggested library of these rutin prodrugs includes changing the solubility profile to facilitate rutin transport across biological barriers, thereby improving drug delivery through topical application.

METHODS

Six rutin derivatives were synthesized based on the ester prodrug strategy. The synthesized compounds were formulated as topical ointments, and their permeability via Franz diffusion was measured. An ultraviolet (UV) analytical method was developed in our laboratories to quantify rutin derivatives both as raw materials and in final dosage forms. The analytical method was then validated.

RESULT

The results of Franz diffusion analyses showed that transdermal permeability increased by 10_Fo.jpgl height=""d for decaacetylated rutin compared to the other esterified rutins. A simple analytical method for the analysis of the formulated rutin ester was developed and validated. Moreover, the formulated ointment of decaacetylated rutin in our research laboratory was found to be stable under stability accelerated conditions. Synthesis of potentially more lipophilic compounds would yield novel rutin prodrugs suitable for topical formulation.

CONCLUSION

This project provides a synthetic approach for many similar natural products. The research idea and strategy followed in this research project could be adapted by pharmaceutical and herbal establishments.

Handling unstable analytes: literature review and expert panel survey by Japan Bioanalysis Forum Discussion Group

Analyzing unstable small molecule drugs and metabolites in blood continues to be challenging for bioanalysis. Although scientific countermeasures such as immediate cooling, immediate freezing, addition of enzyme inhibitors, pH adjustment, dried blood spot or derivatization have been developed, selecting the best practices has become an issue in the pharmaceutical industry as the number of drugs with such problems is increasing, even for generic drugs. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive literature review and a questionnaire survey to determine a suitable practice for evaluating instability and implementing countermeasures. Three areas of focus, matrix selection, effect of hemolysis and selection of esterase inhibitors, are discussed.

Prodrugs of E-selectin Antagonists with Enhanced Pharmacokinetic Properties

Because of their large polar surface area, carbohydrates often exhibit insufficient pharmacokinetic properties. Specifically, the carboxylic acid function of the tetrasaccharide sialyl Lewis^x , a pharmacophore crucial for the formation of a salt bridge with selectins, prevents oral availability. A common approach is the transfer of carboxylic acid into ester prodrugs. Once the prodrug is either actively or passively absorbed, the active principle is released by hydrolysis. In the present study, ester prodrugs of selectin antagonists with aliphatic promoieties were synthesized and their potential for oral availability was investigated in vitro and in vivo. The addition of lipophilic ester moieties to overcome insufficient lipophilicity improved passive permeation into enterocytes, however at the same time supported efflux back to the small intestines as well as oxidation into non-hydrolysable metabolites. In summary, our examples demonstrate that different modifications of carbohydrates can result in opposing effects and have to be studied in their entirety.