Intramuscular Administration of Paliperidone Palmitate Extended-Release Injectable Microsuspension Induces a Subclinical Inflammatory Reaction Modulating the Pharmacokinetics in Rats

In vivo deposition of poorly soluble drugs

Administered drug molecules, whether dissolved or solubilized, have the potential to precipitate and accumulate as solid forms in tissues and cells within the body. This phase transition can significantly impact the pharmacokinetics of treatment. It is thus crucial to gain an understanding of how drug solubility/permeability, drug formulations and routes of administration affect in vivo behaviors of drug deposition. This review examines literature reports on the drug deposition in tissues and cells of poorly water-soluble drugs, as well as underlying physical mechanisms that lead to precipitation. Our work particularly highlights drug deposition in macrophages and the subcellular fate of precipitated drugs. We also propose a tissue permeability-based classification framework to evaluate precipitation potentials of poorly soluble drugs in major organs and tissues. The impact on pharmacokinetics is further discussed and needs to be considered in developing drug delivery systems. Finally, bioimaging techniques that are used to examine aggregated states and the intracellular trafficking of absorbed drugs are summarized.

Development of a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model to simulate the pharmacokinetics of intramuscular antiretroviral drugs

There is growing interest in the use of long-acting (LA) injectable drugs to improve treatment adherence. However, their long elimination half-life complicates the conduct of clinical trials. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling is a mathematical tool that allows to simulate unknown clinical scenarios for LA formulations. Thus, this work aimed to develop and verify a mechanistic intramuscular PBPK model. The framework describing the release of a LA drug from the depot was developed by including both the physiology of the injection site and the physicochemical properties of the drug. The framework was coded in Matlab® 2020a and implemented in our existing PBPK model for the verification step using clinical data for LA cabotegravir, rilpivirine, and paliperidone. The model was considered verified when the simulations were within twofold of observed data. Furthermore, a local sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess the impact of various factors relevant for the drug release from the depot on pharmacokinetics. The PBPK model was successfully verified since all predictions were within twofold of observed clinical data. Peak concentration, area under the concentration-time curve, and trough concentration were sensitive to media viscosity, drug solubility, drug density, and diffusion layer thickness. Additionally, inflammation was shown to impact the drug release from the depot. The developed framework correctly described the release and the drug disposition of LA formulations upon intramuscular administration. It can be implemented in PBPK models to address pharmacological questions related to the use of LA formulations.

Development of Mechanistic In Vitro-In Vivo Extrapolation to Support Bioequivalence Assessment of Long-Acting Injectables

Long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations provide sustained drug release over an extended period ranging from weeks to several months to improve efficacy, safety, and compliance. Nevertheless, many challenges arise in the development and regulatory assessment of LAI drug products due to a limited understanding of the tissue response to injected particles (e.g., inflammation) impacting in vivo performance. Mechanism-based in silico methods may support the understanding of LAI-physiology interactions. The objectives of this study were as follows: (1) to use a mechanistic modeling approach to delineate the in vivo performance of DepoSubQ Provera® and formulation variants in preclinical species; (2) to predict human exposure based on the knowledge gained from the animal model. The PBPK model evaluated different elements involved in LAI administration and showed that (1) the effective in vivo particle size is potentially larger than the measured in vitro particle size, which could be due to particle aggregation at the injection site, and (2) local inflammation is a key process at the injection site that results in a transient increase in depot volume. This work highlights how a mechanistic modeling approach can identify critical physiological events and product attributes that may affect the in vivo performance of LAIs.

Long acting tariquidar loaded stearic acid-modified hydroxyapatite enhances brain penetration and antitumor effect of temozolomide

Temozolomide (TMZ) is the first line chemotherapy for glioblastoma (GBM) treatment, but the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expressed in blood-brain barrier (BBB) will pump out TMZ from the brain leading to decreased TMZ concentration. Tariquidar (TQD), a selective and potent P-gp inhibitor, may be suitable for combination therapy to increase concentration of TMZ in brain. Hydroxyapatite (HAP) is a biodegradable material with sustained release characteristics, and stearic acid surface-modified HAP (SA-HAP) can increase hydrophobicity to facilitate TQD loading. TQD-loaded stearic acid surface-modified HAP (SA-HAP-TQD) was prepared with optimal size and high TQD loading efficiency, and in vitro release and cellular uptake of SA-HAP-TQD showed that SA-HAP-TQD were taken up into lysosome and continuously released TQD from macrophages. In vivo studies have found that over 70 % of SA-HAP was degraded and 80 % of TQD was released from SA-HAP-TQD 28 days after administration. SA-HAP-TQD could increase brain penetration of TMZ, but it would not enhance adverse effects of TMZ in healthy mice. SA-HAP-TQD and TMZ combination had longer median survival than TMZ single therapy in GL261 orthotopic model. These results suggest that SA-HAP-TQD has sustained release characteristics and are potential for improving antitumor effect with TMZ treatment.

Hyaluronidase impacts exposures of long-acting injectable paliperidone palmitate in rodent models

A significant challenge in the development of long-acting injectable drug formulations, especially for anti-infective agents, is delivering an efficacious dose within a tolerable injection volume. Co-administration of the extracellular matrix-degrading enzyme hyaluronidase can increase maximum tolerable injection volumes but is untested for this benefit with long-acting injectable formulations. One concern is that hyaluronidase could potentially alter the tissue response surrounding an injection depot, a response known to be important for drug release kinetics of long-acting injectable formulations. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate the impact of co-administration of hyaluronidase on the drug release kinetics, pharmacokinetic profiles, and injection site histopathology of the long-acting injectable paliperidone palmitate for up to four weeks following intramuscular injection in mouse and rat models. In both species, co-administration of hyaluronidase increased paliperidone plasma exposures the first week after injection but did not negate the overall long-acting release nature of the formulation. Hyaluronidase-associated modification of the injection site depot was observed in mice but not in rats. These findings suggest that further investigation of hyaluronidase with long-acting injectable agents is warranted.

Biodegradable Long-Acting Injectables: Platform Technology and Industrial Challenges

Long-acting injectables have been used to benefit patients with chronic diseases. So far, several biodegradable long-acting platform technologies including drug-loaded polymeric microparticles, implants (preformed and in situ forming), oil-based solutions, and aqueous suspension have been established. In this chapter, we summarize all the marketed technology platforms and discuss their challenges regarding development including but not limited to controlling drug release, particle size, stability, sterilization, scale-up manufacturing, etc. Finally, we discuss important criteria to consider for the successful development of long-acting injectables.

Development of long-acting injectable suspensions by continuous antisolvent crystallization: An integrated bottom-up process

Our present work elucidated the operational feasibility of direct generation and stabilization of long-acting injectable (LAI) suspensions of a practically insoluble drug, itraconazole (ITZ), by combining continuous liquid antisolvent crystallization with downstream processing (i.e., centrifugal filtration and reconstitution). A novel microchannel reactor-based bottom-up crystallization setup was assembled and optimized for the continuous production of micro-suspension. Based upon the solvent screening and solubility study, N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) was selected as the optimal solvent and an impinging jet Y-shaped microchannel reactor (MCR) was selected as the fluidic device to provide a reproducible homogenous mixing environment. Operating parameters such as solvent to antisolvent ratio (S/AS), total jet liquid flow rates (TFRs), ITZ feed solution concentration and the maturation time in spiral tubing were tailored to 1:9 v/v, 50 mL/min, 10 g/100 g solution, and 96 h, respectively. Vitamin E TPGS (0.5% w/w) was found to be the most suitable excipient to stabilize ITZ particles amongst 14 commonly used stabilizers screened. The effect of scaling up from 25 mL to 15 L was evaluated effectively with in situ monitoring of particle size distribution (PSD) and solid-state form. Thereafter, the suspension was subjected to centrifugal filtration to remove excess solvent and increase ITZ solid fraction. As an alternative, an even more concentrated wet pellet was reconstituted with an aqueous solution of 0.5% w/w Vitamin E TPGS as resuspending agent. The ITZ LAI suspension (of 300 mg/mL solid concentration) has the optimal PSD with a D10 of 1.1 ± 0.3 µm, a D50 of 3.53 ± 0.4 µm and a D90 of 6.5 ± 0.8 µm, corroborated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as remained stable after 548 days of storage at 25 °C. Finally, in vitro release methods using Dialyzer, dialysis membrane sac were investigated for evaluation of dissolution of ITZ LAI suspensions. The framework presented in this manuscript provides a useful guidance for development of LAI suspensions by an integrated bottom-up approach using ITZ as model API.

Roles of Fatty Acid Chain Length and Enzyme-Oriented Drug Controlled Release from pH-Triggering Self-Assembled Fatty Acid Conjugated Quetiapine Nanosuspensions

Background

Quetiapine (QTP) is a first-line antipsychotic drug, but its therapeutic druggability and patient adherence were limited due to high oral dose strength, low bioavailability and physicochemical/biopharmaceutical issues.

Purpose

To investigate the roles of fatty acid chain length and enzyme-oriented QTP controlled release from pH-triggering self-assembled fatty acid conjugated QTP nanosuspensions (NSPs).

Methods

QTP was conjugated with different chain length fatty acids (C10-decanoic acid, C14-myristic acid, C18-stearic acid) to obtain QTP-fatty acid conjugates (QFCs: QD, QM, QS) by exploiting 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide/4-dimethylaminopyridine (EDC/DMAP) conjugation chemistry. Then, the solubility, partitioning coefficient (log P), cell viability and cleavage kinetics of QFCs were evaluated. The pH-triggering self-assembled behaviors of QFCs to form QTP-fatty acid NSPs (QDN, QMN, QSN) by varying pH, QFC concentration and proton-to-QTP ratios were characterized. The morphological images, critical micelle concentration (CMC), physicochemical properties and enzyme-oriented QTP controlled release of NSPs were examined.

Results

Three QFCs were synthesized with different chain length fatty acids from QTP after desalting fumarate from QTP fumarate. The pH, QFC concentration and proton-to-quetiapine molar ratio could influence physicochemical properties and nanonization behaviors of QFCs. All three QFCs showed no effect on the viability of myoblast cells. The pH-triggering self-assembly of amphiphilic QFCs to form nanoparticles (NPs) occurred as the amine moiety of QTP was readily ionized in a strongly acidic environment (pH 1.2). Interestingly, the longer the fatty acid chain length, the lower water solubility, the higher log P (lipophilicity) and the smaller NP particle size were observed. The conversion rate of QFCs to liberate QTP by esterase in human plasma and liver S9 fractions was also inversely proportional to the fatty acid carbon chain length. Interestingly, the freeze-dried QMN showed the esterase-oriented controlled release of QTP over one month, unlike the initial burst release of QDN or the slowly delayed release pattern of QSN.

Conclusion

A new pH-triggering self-assembled nanonization platform was developed using different chain length fatty acid conjugated QTP in low pH environment. By varying fatty acid chain length, the enzyme-oriented QTP controlled release dosage form was challenged to enhance the therapeutic effectiveness of QTP.

Role of Modeling and Simulation in Preclinical and Clinical Long-Acting Injectable Drug Development

Innovations in the field of long-acting injectable drug development are increasingly being reported. More advanced in vitro and in vivo characterization can improve our understanding of the injection space and aid in describing the long-acting injectable (LAI) drug's behavior at the injection site more mechanistically. These innovations may enable unlocking the potential of employing a model-based framework in the LAI preclinical and clinical space. This review provides a brief overview of the LAI development process before delving deeper into the current status of modeling and simulation approaches in characterizing the preclinical and clinical LAI pharmacokinetics, focused on aqueous crystalline suspensions. A closer look is provided on in vitro release methods, available biopharmaceutical models and reported in vitro/in vivo correlations (IVIVCs) that may advance LAI drug development. The overview allows identifying the opportunities for use of model-informed drug development approaches and potential gaps where further research may be most warranted. Continued investment in improving our understanding of LAI PK across species through translational approaches may facilitate the future development of LAI drug products.

A Retrospective Analysis of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacokinetics from Administration of Long-Acting Aqueous Suspensions

Administration of long-acting injectable suspensions is an increasingly common approach to increasing patient compliance and improving therapeutic efficacy through less frequent dosing. While several long-acting suspensions have recently been marketed, parameters modulating drug absorption from suspension-based formulations are not well understood. Further, methods for predicting clinical pharmacokinetic data from preclinical studies are not well established. Together, these limitations hamper compound selection, formulation design and formulation selection through heavy reliance on iterative optimization in preclinical and clinical studies. This article identifies key parameters influencing absorption from suspension-based formulations through compilation and analysis of preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetic data of seven compounds marketed as suspensions; achievable margins for predicting the clinical dose and input rate from preclinical studies as a function of the preclinical species, the clinical injection location and the intended therapeutic duration were also established.

Current State and Opportunities with Long-acting Injectables: Industry Perspectives from the Innovation and Quality Consortium "Long-Acting Injectables" Working Group

Long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations can provide several advantages over the more traditional oral formulation as drug product opportunities. LAI formulations can achieve sustained drug release for extended periods of time, which results in less frequent dosing requirements leading to higher patient adherence and more optimal therapeutic outcomes. This review article will provide an industry perspective on the development and associated challenges of long-acting injectable formulations. The LAIs described herein include polymer-based formulations, oil-based formulations, and crystalline drug suspensions. The review discusses manufacturing processes, including quality controls, considerations of the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API), biopharmaceutical properties and clinical requirements pertaining to LAI technology selection, and characterization of LAIs through in vitro, in vivo and in silico approaches. Lastly, the article includes a discussion around the current lack of suitable compendial and biorelevant in vitro models for the evaluation of LAIs and its subsequent impact on LAI product development and approval.

Creation of a ready-to-use brexpiprazole suspension and the inflammation-mediated pharmacokinetics by intramuscular administration

Brexpiprazole (BPZ), which is approved for the treatment of schizophrenia and major depressive disorder, has the potential to meet diverse clinical needs. This study aimed to develop a long-acting injectable (LAI) formulation of BPZ that could provide sustained therapeutic benefits. A library of BPZ prodrugs was screened through esterification, and BPZ laurate (BPZL) was identified as an optimal candidate. To achieve stable aqueous suspensions, a pressure- and nozzle size-controlled microfluidization homogenizer was utilized. The pharmacokinetics (PK) profiles, considering dose and particle size modulation, were investigated following a single intramuscular injection in beagles and rats. BPZL treatment resulted in sustained plasma concentrations above the median effective concentration (EC₅₀) for 2∼3 weeks, without exhibiting an initial burst release. Histological examination of foreign body reaction (FBR) in rats revealed the morphological evolution of an inflammation-mediated drug depot, confirming the sustained release mechanism of BPZL. These findings provide strong support for the further development of a ready-to-use LAI suspension of BPZL, which could potentially enhance treatment outcomes, improve patient adherence, and address the clinical challenges associated with long-term regimens of schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD).

Accelerated reactive dissolution model of drug release from long-acting injectable formulations

Long-acting injectable formulations represent a rapidly emerging category of drug delivery systems that offer several advantages compared to orally administered medicines. Rather than having to frequently swallow tablets, the medication is administered to the patient by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection of a nanoparticle suspension that forms a local depot from which the drug is steadily released over a period of several weeks or months. The benefits of this approach include improved medication compliance, reduced fluctuations of drug plasma level, or the suppression of gastrointestinal tract irritation. The mechanism of drug release from injectable depot systems is complex, and there is a lack of models that would enable quantitative parametrisation of the process. In this work, an experimental and computational study of drug release from a long-acting injectable depot system is reported. A population balance model of prodrug dissolution from asuspension with specific particle size distribution has been coupled with the kinetics of prodrug hydrolysis to its parent drug and validated using in vitro experimental data obtained from an accelerated reactive dissolution test. Using the developed model, it is possible to predict the sensitivity of drug release profiles to the initial concentration and particle size distribution of the prodrug suspension, and subsequently simulate various drug dosing scenarios. Parametric analysis of the system has identified the boundaries of reaction- and dissolution-limited drug release regimes, and the conditions for the existence of a quasi-steady state. This knowledge is crucial for the rational design of drug formulations in terms of particle size distribution, concentration and intended duration of drug release.

Comparison of in vivo behaviors of intramuscularly long-acting celecoxib nanosuspensions with different particle sizes for the postoperative pain treatment

Celecoxib (CXB) has a good analgesic effect on postoperative acute pain, but clinically its compliance is compromised because of frequent administration. Therefore, the development of injectable celecoxib nanosuspensions (CXB-NS) for long-acting analgesic effects is highly desirable. However, how the particle size affects the in vivo behaviors of CXB-NS remains unclear. Herein, CXB-NS with different sizes were prepared by the wet-milling method. Following intramuscular (i.m.) injection in rats (50 mg/kg), all CXB-NS achieved sustained systemic exposure and long-acting analgesic effects. More importantly, CXB-NS showed size-dependent pharmacokinetic profiles and analgesic effects, and the smallest CXB-NS (about 0.5 μm) had the highest C_max, T_1/2, and AUC_0-240h and the strongest analgesic effects on incision pain. Therefore, small sizes are preferred for long action by i.m. injection, and the CXB-NS developed in this study were alternative formulations for the treatment of postoperative acute pain.

Pharmacokinetics of Long-Acting Aqueous Nano-/Microsuspensions After Intramuscular Administration in Different Animal Species and Humans-a Review

Formulating aqueous suspensions is an attractive strategy to incorporate poorly water-soluble drugs, where the drug release can be tailored to maintain desired release profiles of several weeks to months after parenteral (i.e., intramuscular or subcutaneous) administration. A sustained drug release can be desirable to combat chronic diseases by overcoming pill fatigue of a daily oral intake, hence, improving patient compliance. Although the marketed aqueous suspensions for intramuscular injection efficiently relieve the daily pill burden in chronic diseases, the exact drug release mechanisms remain to be fully unraveled. The in vivo drug release and subsequent absorption to the systemic circulation are influenced by a plethora of variables, resulting in a complex in vivo behavior of aqueous suspensions after intramuscular administration. A better understanding of the factors influencing the in vivo performance of aqueous suspensions could advance their drug development. An overview of the potential influential variables on the drug release after intramuscular injection of aqueous suspensions is provided with, where possible, available pharmacokinetic parameters in humans or other species derived from literature, patents, and clinical trials. These variables can be categorized into drug substance and formulation properties, administration site properties, and the host response towards drug particles. Based on the findings, the most critical factors are particle size, dose level, stabilizing excipient, drug lipophilicity, gender, body mass index, and host response.

A Holistic Review of the Preclinical Landscape for Long-Acting Anti-infective Drugs Using HIV as a Paradigm

Lack of predictive preclinical models is a key contributor to the steep attrition rate in drug development. Successful clinical translation may be higher for new chemical entities or existing approved drugs reformulated for long-acting (LA) administration if preclinical studies designed to identify any new uncertainties are predictive of human exposure and response. In this review, we present an overview of standard preclinical assessments deployed for LA formulations and delivery systems, using human immunodeficiency virus LA therapeutics preclinical development as a paradigm. Key progress in the preclinical development of novel LA antiretrovirals formulations and delivery systems are summarized, including bispecific broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibody and small molecule technologies for codelivery of multiple drugs with disparate solubility properties. There are new opportunities to take advantage of recent developments in tissue engineering and 3-dimensional in vitro modeling to advance preclinical modeling of anti-infective activity, developmental and reproductive toxicity assessment, and to apply quantitative modeling and simulation strategies. These developments are likely to drive the progression of more LA anti-infective drugs and multipurpose technologies into clinical development in the coming years.

Design of Montelukast Nanocrystalline Suspension for Parenteral Prolonged Delivery

Background

Montelukast (MTK), a representative leukotriene receptor antagonist, is currently being investigated as a potential candidate for treating Alzheimer’s disease. For potent and effective dosing in elderly patients, a parenteral prolonged delivery system is favored, with improved medication adherence with reduced dosage frequency.

Purpose

This study aimed to design a nanocrystalline suspension (NS)-based MTK prolonged delivery system and evaluate its pharmacokinetics profile and local tolerability following subcutaneous administration.

Methods

To decelerate the dissolution rate, the amorphous MTK raw material was transformed into a crystalline state using a solvent-mediated transformation method and subsequently formulated into NS using a bead-milling technique. The MTK NSs were characterized by morphology, particle size, crystallinity, and in vitro dissolution profiles. The pharmacokinetic profile and local tolerability at the injection site following subcutaneous injection of MTK suspension were evaluated in rats.

Results

Microscopic and physical characterization revealed that the amorphous MTK powder was lucratively transformed into a crystalline form in acidic media (pH 4). MTK crystalline suspensions with different diameters (200 nm, 500 nm, and 3 μm) were uniformly prepared using bead-milling technology, employing polysorbate 80 as suspending agent. Prepared crystalline suspensions exhibited analogous crystallinity (melting point, 150°C) and size-dependent in vitro dissolution profiles. MTK NSs with particle sizes of 200 nm and 500 nm provided a protracted pharmacokinetic profile for up to 4 weeks in rats, with a higher maximum drug concentration in plasma than the 3 μm-sized injectable suspensions. Histopathological examination revealed that MTK NS caused chronic granulomatous inflammation at the injection site, which resolved after 4 weeks.

Conclusion

The MTK parenteral NS delivery system is expected to be a valuable tool for treating Alzheimer’s disease with extended dose intervals.

Microcrystals of Ketal-Linked Paliperidone Prodrugs for Long-Acting Antipsychotics

Intramuscularly injectable long-acting prodrug-based microcrystals (MCs) are of particular interest for chronic disease management. Nevertheless, current prevalently used linkers degraded by enzymes have the potential drawback of substantial differences in enzyme levels between individuals. Here, we reported the synthesis of a stearyl-modified paliperidone prodrug (SKP) with an acid-sensitive ketal linker for developing long-acting MC antipsychotics. SKP-MCs of three different sizes were prepared and systematically examined. We found that paliperidone exposure in SKP-MC-treated rats was prolonged compared with that in rats treated with the commercial antipsychotic Invega Sustenna and that the drug release rate decreased with increasing MC size. In inflammation-inhibition-model rats, paliperidone release from the SKP-MCs was considerably decreased, indicating that the immune-mediated foreign-body response after intramuscular administration boosted paliperidone release. Our findings will provide valuable insights into in vivo drug release from prodrug-based MC formulations. The ketal-linked prodrug strategy might be a new solution for developing long-acting prodrug formulations of hydroxyl-group-bearing drugs.

Smart design of patient centric long-acting products: from preclinical to marketed pipeline trends and opportunities

INTRODUCTION

We see a development in the field of long-acting products to serve patients with chronic diseases by providing benefits in adherence, efficacy and safety of the treatment. This review investigates features of long-acting products on the market/pipeline to understand which drug substance (DS) and drug product (DP) characteristics likely enable a successful patient-centric, low-dosing frequency product.

AREAS COVERED

This review evaluates marketed/pipeline long-acting products with greater than one week release of small molecules and peptides by oral and injectable route of administration (RoA), with particular focus on patient centricity, adherence impact, health outcomes, market trends, and the match of DS/DP technologies which lead to market success.

EXPERT OPINION

Emerging trends are expected to change the field of long-acting products in the upcoming years by increasing capability in engineered molecules (low solubility, long half-life, high potency, etc.), directly developing DP as long-acting oral/injectable, increasing the proportion of products for local drug delivery, and a direction towards more subcutaneous, self-administered products. Among long-acting injectable products, nanosuspensions show a superiority in dose per administration and dosing interval, overwhelming the field of infectious diseases with the recently marketed products.

A Case Report of Subcutaneously Injected Liposomal Cannabidiol Formulation Used as a Compassion Therapy for Pain Management in a Dog

A 14-year-old intact mixed breed dog (26 kg) was submitted for a novel cannabidiol (CBD) analgesic treatment. The dog was cachectic and had a testicular neoplasia, hip and elbow osteoarthritis and severe cervical pain. Analgesic treatment included canine osteoarthritic supplement, robencoxib and gabapentin. An additional liposomal CBD injectable formulation at 5 mg/kg was administered subcutaneously between the shoulder blades. The dog was monitored using an activity monitoring collar (PetPace), owner wellbeing questionnaire (Canine Brief Pain Inventory; CBPI), pain interactive visual analog scale (iVAS), blood work and CBD plasma concentrations. A week from the injection and up to 3 weeks afterwards the dog had improved CBPI and iVAS pain scores, and increased collar activity scores. CBD was quantified in plasma for 28 days. Due to disease progression, further difficulty to rise and walk, and relapse to pain after 3 weeks, the owners requested a second liposomal CBD injection, which was performed 4 weeks following the first injection using 3 mg/kg dose. Two days later, the dog was found dead in the yard under direct sun, while environmental temperature was 37°C. Major findings on necropsy revealed evidence of heat stroke and severe cervical disc protrusion with spinal hematoma, none related to liposomal CBD. In conclusion, subcutaneous liposomal CBD produced quantifiable CBD plasma concentrations for 28 days and may be an effective additional treatment as part of multimodal pain management in dogs.

Advanced Strategies to Thwart Foreign Body Response to Implantable Devices

Mitigating the foreign body response (FBR) to implantable medical devices (IMDs) is critical for successful long‐term clinical deployment. The FBR is an inevitable immunological reaction to IMDs, resulting in inflammation and subsequent fibrotic encapsulation. Excessive fibrosis may impair IMDs function, eventually necessitating retrieval or replacement for continued therapy. Therefore, understanding the implant design parameters and their degree of influence on FBR is pivotal to effective and long lasting IMDs. This review gives an overview of FBR as well as anti‐FBR strategies. Furthermore, we highlight recent advances in biomimetic approaches to resist FBR, focusing on their characteristics and potential biomedical applications.

Effect of particle size on in vivo performances of long-acting injectable drug suspension

Herein, entecavir-3-palmitate (EV-P), an ester prodrug of entecavir (EV), was employed as a model drug, and the effect of drug particle size on in vivo pharmacokinetic profiles and local inflammatory responses, and those associations were evaluated following intramuscular (IM) injection. EV-P crystals with different median diameters (0.8, 2.3, 6.3, 15.3 and 22.6 μm) were prepared using the anti-solvent crystallization method, with analogous surface charges (-10.7 ~ -4.7 mV), and crystallinity (melting point, 160-170 °C). EV-P particles showed size-dependent in vitro dissolution profiles under sink conditions, exhibiting a high correlation between the median diameter and Hixon-Crowell's release rate constant (r² = 0.94). Following IM injection in rats (1.44 mg/kg as EV), the pharmacokinetic profile of EV exhibited marked size-dependency; 0.8 μm-sized EV-P particles about 1.6-, 3.6-, and 5.6-folds higher systemic exposure, compared to 6.3, 15.3, and 22.6 μm-sized particles, respectively. This pharmacokinetic pattern, depending on particle size, was also highly associated with histopathological responses in the injected tissue. The smaller EV-P particles (0.8 or 2.3 μm) imparted the larger inflammatory lesion after 3 days, lower infiltration of inflammatory cells, and thinner fibroblastic bands around depots after 4 weeks. Conversely, severe fibrous isolation with increasing particle size augmented the drug remaining at injection site over 4 weeks, impeding the dissolution and systemic exposure. These findings regarding the effects of formulation variable on the in vivo behaviors of long-acting injectable suspension, provide constructive knowledge toward the improved design in poorly water-soluble compounds.

Novel injectable progesterone-loaded nanoparticles embedded in SAIB-PLGA in situ depot system for sustained drug release

Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted considerable interest in the medical community as a sustained-release drug delivery system for localized treatment. However, it is currently a grand challenge to simultaneously achieve low-dose drugs, stable and prolonged drug release, and long-term retention circumventing uptake by macrophages. Here, we construct a solvent-exchange in-situ depot system by incorporating progesterone (PRG) loaded PLGA NPs into a sucrose acetate isobutyrate (SAIB) and PLGA matrix for the long term treatment of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART). The results showed that different solvent and PLGA contents could affect the drug release rate of PRG NPs-SAIB-PLGA in-situ depot system (PSPIDS). When DMSO was used as solvent with the addition of 8% PLGA to the depot, PSPIDS could achieve a constant drug release with no burst for 2 weeks in vitro. After a single intramuscular injection, such PSPIDS showed higher drug concentration and AUC (6773.0 ± 348.8 μg/L·h) over the entire 7-day testing period compared with the commercial multiple-day-dosing intramuscular PRG-oil solution (1914.5 ± 180.7 μg/L·h) in vivo. Importantly, PSPIDS could be administered at a dose of 3.65 mg/kg, which was one fourth of dose required for PRG-oil solution. The results demonstrate that PRG NPs could successfully achieve both reduced administered dosage and burst release, and therefore that PSPIDS is a promising long-acting composite system for hydrophobic drugs.

Transformation of tenofovir into stable ProTide nanocrystals with long-acting pharmacokinetic profiles

Treatment and prevention of human immunodeficiency virus type one (HIV-1) infection was transformed through widespread use of antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, ART has limitations in requiring life-long daily adherence. Such limitations have led to the creation of long-acting (LA) ART. While nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) remain the ART backbone, to the best of our knowledge, none have been converted into LA agents. To these ends, we transformed tenofovir (TFV) into LA surfactant stabilized aqueous prodrug nanocrystals (referred to as NM1TFV and NM2TFV), enhancing intracellular drug uptake and retention. A single intramuscular injection of NM1TFV, NM2TFV, or a nanoformulated tenofovir alafenamide (NTAF) at 75 mg/kg TFV equivalents to Sprague Dawley rats sustains active TFV-diphosphate (TFV-DP) levels ≥ four times the 90% effective dose for two months. NM1TFV, NM2TFV and NTAF elicit TFV-DP levels of 11,276, 1,651, and 397 fmol/g in rectal tissue, respectively. These results are a significant step towards a LA TFV ProTide.

Evaluating parameters affecting drug fate at the intramuscular injection site

Intramuscular (IM) injections are a well-established method of delivering a variety of therapeutics formulated for parenteral administration. While the wide range of commercial IM pharmaceuticals provide a wealth of pharmacokinetic (PK) information following injection, there remains an inadequate understanding of drug fate at the IM injection site that could dictate these PK outcomes. An improved understanding of injection site events could improve approaches taken by formulation scientists to identify therapeutically effective and consistent drug PK outcomes. Interplay between the typically non-physiological aspects of drug formulations and the homeostatic IM environment may provide insights into the fate of drugs at the IM injection site, leading to predictions of how a drug will behave post-injection in vivo. Immune responses occur by design after e.g. vaccine administration, however immune responses post-injection are not in the scope of this article. Taking cues from existing in vitro modelling technologies, the purpose of this article is to propose "critical parameters" of the IM environment that could be examined in hypothesis-driven studies. Outcomes of such studies might ultimately be useful in predicting and improving in vivo PK performance of IM injected drugs.

Enhancement of bioavailability through transdermal drug delivery of paliperidone palmitate-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers

Aim: The work describes enhanced bioavailability of paliperidone palmitate through transdermal delivery using nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC). Materials & methods: NLCs were formulated by nanoprecipitation method followed by incorporation in transdermal patch and physicochemical characterization. Results: NLCs showed high percentage entrapment efficiency of 83.44 ± 0.8%, drug loading of 24.75 ± 1.10% (w/w), particle size of 173.8 ± 3.25 nm, polydispersity index of 0.143 ± 0.05 and zeta potential of -15.9 ± 0.75 mV. In vitro and ex vivo studies indicated zero-order controlled drug release from NLCs and transdermal patch up to 48 h. Pharmacokinetic studies indicated 1.76-fold enhanced bioavailability by transdermal route as compared with oral drug delivery. Conclusion: From the results, it was concluded that drug-loaded NLCs-transdermal patch is promising drug delivery system for poorly bioavailable drugs.

Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging to characterize cabotegravir long-acting formulation depot kinetics in healthy adult volunteers

AIM

Cabotegravir long-acting (LA) intramuscular (IM) injection is being investigated for HIV preexposure prophylaxis due to its potent antiretroviral activity and infrequent dosing requirement. A subset of healthy adult volunteers participating in a Phase I study assessing cabotegravir tissue pharmacokinetics underwent serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to assess drug depot localization and kinetics following a single cabotegravir LA IM targeted injection.

METHODS

Eight participants (four men, four women) were administered cabotegravir LA 600 mg under ultrasonographic-guided injection targeting the gluteal muscles. MRI was performed to determine injection-site location in gluteal muscle (IM), subcutaneous (SC) adipose tissue and combined IM/SC compartments, and to quantify drug depot characteristics, including volume and surface area, on Days 1 (≤2 hours postinjection), 3 and 8. Linear regression analysis examined correlations between MRI-derived parameters and plasma cabotegravir exposure metrics, including maximum observed concentration (C_max ) and partial area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) through Weeks 4 and 8.

RESULTS

Cabotegravir LA depot locations varied by participant and were identified in the IM compartment (n = 2), combined IM/SC compartments (n = 4), SC compartment (n = 1) and retroperitoneal cavity (n = 1). Although several MRI parameter and exposure metric correlations were determined, total depot surface area on Day 1 strongly correlated with plasma cabotegravir concentration at Days 3 and 8, C_max and partial AUC through Weeks 4 and 8.

CONCLUSION

MRI clearly delineated cabotegravir LA injection-site location and depot kinetics in healthy adults. Although injection-site variability was observed, drug depot surface area correlated with both plasma C_max and partial AUC independently of anatomical distribution.

Linking In Vitro Intrinsic Dissolution Rate and Thermodynamic Solubility with Pharmacokinetic Profiles of Bedaquiline Long-Acting Aqueous Microsuspensions in Rats

Pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles of a range of bedaquiline (BDQ) long-acting injectable (LAI) microsuspensions in rats after parenteral (i.e., intramuscular and subcutaneous) administration were correlated with the in vitro intrinsic dissolution rate (IDR) and thermodynamic solubility of BDQ in media varying in surfactant type and concentration to better understand the impact of different nonionic surfactants on the in vivo performance of BDQ LAI microsuspensions. All LAI formulations had a similar particle size distribution. The investigated surfactants were d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS), poloxamer 338, and poloxamer 188. Furthermore, the relevance of medium complexity by using a biorelevant setup to perform in vitro measurements was assessed by comparing IDR and thermodynamic solubility results obtained in biorelevant media and formulation vehicle containing different surfactants in varying concentrations. In the presence of a surfactant, both media could be applied to obtain in vivo representative dissolution and solubility data because the difference between the biorelevant medium and formulation vehicle was predominantly nonsignificant. Therefore, a more simplistic medium in the presence of a surfactant was preferred to obtain in vitro measurements to predict the in vivo PK performance of LAI aqueous suspensions. The type of surfactant influenced the PK profiles of BDQ microsuspensions in rats, which could be the result of a surfactant effect on the IDR and/or thermodynamic solubility of BDQ. Overall, two surfactant groups could be differentiated: TPGS and poloxamers. Most differences between the PK profiles (i.e., maximum concentration observed, time of maximum concentration observed, and area under the curve) were observed during the first 21 days postdose, the time period during which particles in the aqueous suspension are expected to dissolve.

In-vitro drug release testing of parenteral formulations via an agarose gel envelope to closer mimic tissue firmness

Current in vitro drug-release testing of the sustained-release parenterals represents the in vivo situation insufficiently. In this work, a thin agarose hydrogel layer surrounding the tested dosage form was proposed to mimic the tissue. The method was applied on implantable formulations of different geometries (films, microspheres, and cylindrical implants); prepared from various polymers (several Resomer® grades or ethyl cellulose) and loaded with different model drugs: flurbiprofen, lidocaine or risperidone. The hydrogel layer did not possess any retarding effect on the released drug and acted as a physical restriction to swelling and/or plastic deformation of the tested dosage forms. This led to a different surface area available for drug-release compared with testing in release medium alone and correspondingly to significantly different release profiles of the majority of the formulations obtained between the two methods (e.g. t50% = 18 days in pure release medium vs. t50% = 26 days in gel-setup for risperidone loaded Resomer® 503 H films or t50% = 7 days vs. t50% = 19 days for risperidone loaded Resomer® 503 H microspheres). The limited space for swelling and the rigidity of the agarose gel might mimic the tight encapsulation of the dosage form in the tissue better than the conventional liquid medium.

Modulating target engagement of small molecules via drug delivery: approaches and applications in drug discovery and development

Drug-delivery technologies for modified drug release have been in existence for decades, but their utilization has been largely limited to post-launch efforts improving therapeutic outcomes. Recently, they have gained renewed importance because the pharmaceutical industry is steadily shifting to a more integrated discovery-development approach. In discovery, modulating target engagement via drug-delivery technologies can enable crucial pharmacological studies for building well-defined criteria for molecular design. In development, earlier implementation of delivery technologies can enhance the value of drug products through reduced dosing frequency and improved tolerability and/or safety profile, thereby leading to better adherence and therapeutic effectiveness.

Clinically established biodegradable long acting injectables: An industry perspective

Long acting injectable formulations have been developed to sustain the action of drugs in the body over desired periods of time. These delivery platforms have been utilized for both systemic and local drug delivery applications. This review gives an overview of long acting injectable systems that are currently in clinical use. These products are categorized in three different groups: biodegradable polymeric systems, including microparticles and implants; micro and nanocrystal suspensions and oil-based formulations. Furthermore, the applications of these drug delivery platforms for the management of various chronic diseases are summarized. Finally, this review addresses industrial challenges regarding the development of long acting injectable formulations.

Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of nanocarriers in vivo and their influences

As one of the most promising and effective delivery systems for targeted controlled-release drugs, nanocarriers (NCs) have been widely studied. Although the development of nanoparticle preparations is very prosperous, the safety and effectiveness of NCs are not guaranteed and cannot be precisely controlled due to the unclear processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME), as well as the drug release mechanism of NCs in the body. Thus, the approval of NCs for clinical use is extremely rare. This paper reviews the research progress and challenges of using NCs in vivo based on a review of several hundred closely related publications. First, the ADME of NCs under different administration routes is summarized; second, the influences of the physical, chemical, and biosensitive properties, as well as targeted modifications of NCs on their disposal process, are systematically analyzed; third, the tracer technology related to the in vivo study of NCs is elaborated; and finally, the challenges and perspectives of nanoparticle research in vivo are introduced. This review may help readers to understand the current research progress and challenges of nanoparticles in vivo, as well as of tracing technology in nanoparticle research, to help researchers to design safer and more efficient NCs. Furthermore, this review may aid researchers in choosing or exploring more suitable tracing technologies to further advance the development of nanotechnology.

[Research on Gliding and Discharge Performance of Suspended Injection from Syringe -Effect of Diameter Ratio of Suspending Particle against Needle Hole on Needle Passageability]

Suspended injectable formulations such as sustained-release luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LH-RH) analogue loaded in polylactic acid-glycolic acid copolymer (PLGA) particles have been developed on market. Such formulations have potential issue of suspended particles blocking the injection needle. In this research, two types of injectability tests (gliding force, particles discharge) were developed to evaluate the needle passageability of suspended particles. The model suspension was newly designed using mono-dispersed polyethylene (PE) spheres and qualified dispersing fluid to enhance universality and validity of the test. The suspension-filled syringe, in which three sizes of spheres (L, M, S) were dispersed, was vertically fixed and pushed by auto-compression/tensile tester. The gliding force was continuously detected during testing time and all discharged PE spheres were collected and weighed. The combination of sphere (L, M, S) and injection needle were varied to evaluate the effect of the diameter ratio of sphere against needle hole (D/W) on passageability through needle. These injectability tests revealed that the blockage of a needle hole was occasionally observed when the D/W value increased up to 0.35-0.5, which was detected by jump-up of gliding force and drastic decrease of discharged sphere. In addition, the effect of the formulation properties (concentration of suspended spheres, viscosity of dispersing fluid) and operational factor (injection speed) on injectability was also investigated. The results from this study would be valuable in developing suspended injections and predicting injection trouble at the medical scene.

A year-long extended release nanoformulated cabotegravir prodrug

Long-acting cabotegravir (CAB) extends antiretroviral drug administration from daily to monthly. However, dosing volumes, injection site reactions and health-care oversight are obstacles towards a broad usage. The creation of poloxamer-coated hydrophobic and lipophilic CAB prodrugs with controlled hydrolysis and tissue penetrance can overcome these obstacles. To such ends, fatty acid ester CAB nanocrystal prodrugs with 14, 18 and 22 added carbon chains were encased in biocompatible surfactants named NMCAB, NM2CAB and NM3CAB and tested for drug release, activation, cytotoxicity, antiretroviral activities, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution. Pharmacokinetics studies, performed in mice and rhesus macaques, with the lead 18-carbon ester chain NM2CAB, showed plasma CAB levels above the protein-adjusted 90% inhibitory concentration for up to a year. NM2CAB, compared with NMCAB and NM3CAB, demonstrated a prolonged drug release, plasma circulation time and tissue drug concentrations after a single 45 mg per kg body weight intramuscular injection. These prodrug modifications could substantially improve CAB's effectiveness.

Predicting Pharmacokinetics of a Tenofovir Alafenamide Subcutaneous Implant Using Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modelling

Long-acting (LA) administration using a subcutaneous (s.c.) implant presents opportunities to simplify administration of antiretroviral drugs, improve pharmacological profiles, and overcome suboptimal adherence associated with daily oral formulations. Tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) is a highly potent nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) and an attractive agent for LA delivery, with a high potency and long intracellular half-life. The aim of this study was to predict minimum TAF doses required to achieve concentrations effective for HIV preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Daily drug release requirements were then ascertained by averaging across the dosing interval. A TAF physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed and partially qualified against available oral single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics. The models were assumed to be qualified when simulated values were within 2-fold of the observed mean. TAF s.c. implants were simulated in five hundred individuals, reporting predicted TAF plasma and tenofovir (TFV) plasma concentrations for various release rates. Intracellular TFV diphosphate (TFV-DP) concentrations were also simulated in peripheral blood cells and cervical and rectal tissues. The minimum dose predicted to achieve intracellular TFV-DP levels above a target concentration of 48 fmol/10⁶ cells for a month was identified. TAF, TFV, and TFV-DP concentrations for release rates between 1.0 and 1.6 mg/day were simulated. The PBPK model indicated that a minimum release of 1.4 mg/day TAF is necessary to achieve TFV-DP concentrations above the identified target in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). TFV-DP cervical and rectal tissue concentrations were predicted to be between 1.5 and 2.0 fmol/10⁶ cells and 0.9 and 1.1 fmol/10⁶ cells, respectively, for release rates between 1.3 and 1.6 mg/day. These simulations provide target minimum doses for LA TAF PrEP in humans. Based on the generated results, multiple implants delivering a total of 1.4 mg/day of TAF subcutaneously could provide protection levels for approximately 6 months to 1 year. This modeling may inform future design of s.c. implants to mitigate adherence issues for effective PrEP applications.

Pharmacokinetics, safety and tolerability of long-acting parenteral intramuscular injection formulations of doravirine

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

Doravirine is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor indicated for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 infection. This phase 1 study in healthy adults investigated the pharmacokinetics, safety and tolerability of long-acting parenteral (LAP) microsuspension formulations of doravirine administered as an intramuscular (IM) injection.

METHODS

After confirmation of tolerability and safety of oral doravirine, 36 participants were randomized 1:1:1 to receive IM doravirine 200 mg as Treatment A (1 × 1 mL, 20% [200 mg/mL] suspension), B (1 × 0.66 mL, 30% [300 mg/mL] suspension) or C (2 × 0.5 mL, 20% suspension). Blood samples were taken as venous plasma, venous dried blood spots (DBS) and fingerstick DBS.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Plasma concentration-time profiles following IM treatments demonstrated rapid initial doravirine release, with initial peak ~4 days post-injection, followed by decline over the next ~6 days; a second peak was reached at ~24-36 days, corresponding to prolonged and sustained release, with measurable concentrations up to Day 183. Treatment C was associated with highest peak concentrations and shortest time to maximum concentration. Elimination half-lives for all IM formulations were prolonged versus oral administration (~46-58 days vs ~11-15 hours). Oral doravirine and IM doravirine were generally well tolerated; injection-site pain was the most common adverse event for IM doravirine. Doravirine concentrations from DBS samples showed strong correlations to venous plasma concentrations.

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSIONS

Novel doravirine LAP IM injection formulations investigated in this study demonstrated sustained plasma doravirine concentrations over a course of >20 weeks.

Interpreting In Vitro Release Performance from Long-Acting Parenteral Nanosuspensions Using USP-4 Dissolution and Spectroscopic Techniques

Injectable sustained release dosage forms have emerged as desirable therapeutic routes for patients that require life-long treatments. The prevalence of drug molecules with low aqueous solubility and bioavailability has added momentum toward the development of suspension-based long-acting parenteral (LAP) formulations; the previously undesirable physicochemical properties of Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) Class II/IV compounds are best suited for extended release applications. Effective in vitro release (IVR) testing of crystalline suspensions affirms product quality during early-stage development and provides connections with in vivo performance. However, before in vitro-in vivo correlations (IVIVCs) can be established, it is necessary to evaluate formulation attributes that directly affect IVR properties. In this work, a series of crystalline LAP nanosuspensions were formulated with different stabilizing polymers and applied to a continuous flow-through (USP-4) dissolution method. This technique confirmed the role of salt effects on the stability of polymer-coated nanoparticles through the detection of disparate active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) release profiles. The polymer stabilizers with extended hydrophilic chains exhibited elevated intrapolymer activity from the loss of hydrogen-bond cushioning in dissolution media with heightened ionic strength, confirmed through one-dimensional (1D) ¹H NMR and two-dimensional nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (2D NOESY) experiments. Thus, steric repulsion within the affected nanosuspensions was limited and release rates decreased. Additionally, the strength of interaction between hydrophobic polymer components and the API crystalline surface contributed to suspension dissolution properties, confirmed through solution- and solid-state spectroscopic analyses. This study provides a unique perspective on the dynamic interface between the crystalline drug and aqueous microenvironment during dissolution.

Predicting Drug-Drug Interactions Between Rifampicin and Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine Using Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling

BACKGROUND

Cabotegravir and rilpivirine are 2 long-acting (LA) antiretrovirals that can be administered intramuscularly; their interaction with rifampicin, a first-line antituberculosis agent, has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to simulate and predict drug-drug interactions (DDIs) between these LA antiretroviral agents and rifampicin using physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling.

METHODS

The designed PBPK models were qualified (according to European Medicines Agency guidelines) against observed data for oral formulations of cabotegravir, rilpivirine, and rifampicin. Induction potential of rifampicin was also qualified by comparing the DDI between oral cabotegravir and oral rilpivirine with rifampicin. Qualified PBPK models were utilized for pharmacokinetic prediction of DDIs.

RESULTS

PBPK models predicted a reduction in both area under the curve (AUC0-28 days) and trough concentration (Ctrough, 28th day) of LA cabotegravir of 41%-46% for the first maintenance dose coadministered with 600 mg once-daily oral rifampicin. Rilpivirine concentrations were predicted to decrease by 82% for both AUC0-28 days and Ctrough, 28th day following the first maintenance dose when coadministered with rifampicin.

CONCLUSIONS

The developed PBPK models predicted the theoretical effect of rifampicin on cabotegravir and rilpivirine LA intramuscular formulations. According to these simulations, it is likely that coadministration of rifampicin with these LA formulations will result in subtherapeutic concentrations of both drugs.

Long-Acting Paliperidone Parenteral Formulations Based on Polycaprolactone Nanoparticles; the Influence of Stabilizer and Chitosan on In Vitro Release, Protein Adsorption, and Cytotoxicity

Long-acting preparations containing the antipsychotic paliperidone for intramuscular injection has drawn considerable attention to achieve harmless long-term treatment. This study aimed to develop paliperidone loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) nanoparticles and investigate the influence of PCL/drug ratio, stabilizer type, and chitosan coating on physicochemical properties, protein adsorption, and cellular toxicity. Results showed that chitosan coating produced enlarged particle sizes, shifted the surface charges from negative into positive and did not influence encapsulation efficiencies. Chitosan coating relatively sustained the drug release especially in pluronic stabilized formulations. Pluronic F127 based formulations exhibited the least protein adsorption (384.3 μg/mL). Chitosan coating of Tween 80 and polyvinyl alcohol stabilized formulations significantly (p < 0.05) increased protein adsorption. Cellular viability was concentration-dependent and negatively affected by stabilizers. All formulations did not show cellular death at 1.56 μg/mL. Inflammatory responses and oxidative stress were less affected by Tween 80 compared with other stabilizers. Chitosan minimized all aspects of cellular toxicity. Collectively, stabilizer type and chitosan coating play critical roles in developing safe and effective long-acting PCL nanoparticles intended for parenteral drug delivery. The coated formulations containing Tween 80 and Pluronic F127 as stabilizers are warranted a future in vivo study to delineate its safety and efficacy profiles.

Modelling the long-acting administration of anti-tuberculosis agents using PBPK: a proof of concept study

SETTING

Anti-tuberculosis formulations necessitate uninterrupted treatment to cure tuberculosis (TB), but are characterised by suboptimal adherence, which jeopardises therapeutic efficacy. Long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations or implants could address these associated issues.

OBJECTIVE

niazid, rifapentine, bedaquiline and delamanid-in adults for treatment for latent tuberculous infection (LTBI).

DESIGN

PBPK models were developed and qualified against available clinical data by integrating drug physicochemical properties and in vitro and population pharmacokinetic data into a mechanistic description of drug distribution. Combinations of optimal dose and release rates were simulated such that plasma concentrations were maintained over the epidemiological cut-off or minimum inhibitory concentration for the dosing interval.

RESULTS

The PBPK model identified 1500 mg of delamanid and 250 mg of rifapentine as sufficient doses for monthly intramuscular administration, if a formulation or device can deliver the required release kinetics of 0.001-0.0025 h-1 and 0.0015-0.0025 h-1, respectively. Bedaquiline and isoniazid would require weekly to biweekly intramuscular dosing.

CONCLUSION

We identified the theoretical doses and release rates of LAI anti-tuberculosis formulations. Such a strategy could ease the problem of suboptimal adherence provided the associated technological complexities for LTBI treatment are addressed.

Creation of a long-acting rilpivirine prodrug nanoformulation

Antiretroviral therapy requires lifelong daily dosing to attain viral suppression, restore immune function, and improve quality of life. As a treatment alternative, long-acting (LA) antiretrovirals can sustain therapeutic drug concentrations in blood for prolonged time periods. The success of recent clinical trials for LA parenteral cabotegravir and rilpivirine highlight the emergence of these new therapeutic options. Further optimization can improve dosing frequency, lower injection volumes, and facilitate drug-tissue distributions. To this end, we report the synthesis of a library of RPV prodrugs designed to sustain drug plasma concentrations and improved tissue biodistribution. The lead prodrug M3RPV was nanoformulated into the stable LA injectable NM3RPV. NM3RPV treatment led to RPV plasma concentrations above the protein-adjusted 90% inhibitory concentration for 25 weeks with substantial tissue depots after a single intramuscular injection in BALB/cJ mice. NM3RPV elicited 13- and 26-fold increases in the RPV apparent half-life and mean residence time compared to native drug formulation. Taken together, proof-of-concept is provided that nanoformulated RPV prodrugs can extend the apparent drug half-life and improve tissue biodistribution. These results warrant further development for human use.

Synthesis of degradable-polar-hydrophobic-ionic co-polymeric microspheres by membrane emulsion photopolymerization: In vitro and in vivo studies

The synthesis of microspheres for tissue regeneration requires good control over the particle size and size distribution. This is particularly important when considering the immune response that may be triggered by the presence of particles in tissue. This report outlines the design of an injectable microsphere system using a low-inflammatory, degradable-polar-hydrophobic-ionic polyurethane, termed D-PHI, and investigates the system's performance in vitro and in vivo. Crosslinked polyurethane microspheres were prepared via a rapid and controlled process based on membrane emulsion and subsequent photopolymerization. The fabrication process efficiently generated microspheres with a narrow size distribution (12 ± 2 μm, PDI = 0.03). The D-PHI microspheres exhibited a slow and controlled degradation and a high capacity for water uptake. Water within the particles existed primarily within the pores of the particles and to a lesser degree within the polymer matrix itself. D-PHI microspheres supported human endothelial and fibroblast cell growth, and they maintained human blood-derived monocytes in a low-inflammatory state. Sub-acute toxicity was assessed for the particles after being administered via intramuscular injection in the gastrocnemius muscle of rats. Cellular infiltration and vascularization into the tissue region where the particles were deposited were observed along with an absence of a fibrous capsule around the particles. The microspheres did not cause elevated human monocyte induced inflammatory character, and supported tissue integration without a prolonged inflammatory response in the rat muscle. These injectable, degradable and low-inflammatory microspheres provide an attractive system for potential drug delivery and tissue regeneration applications in future studies. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Biodegradable, synthetic polymers are attractive candidates for generating tailored drug delivery vehicles and tissue scaffolds owing to their diverse chemical and physical properties that can be customised for delivering defined macromolecules at specific sites in the body. The past two decades have yielded interesting work exploring the fabrication of polymer microspheres with a narrow size distribution. However, the markedly low number of synthetic polymer chemistries currently used for microsphere production exhibit elevated proinflammatory character, both acute and chronic. Furthermore, a limited number of studies have explored the biocompatibility and immune response of polymeric microspheres with human primary cells and in vivo. In the current study, a method was conceived for efficiently generating low-activating polyurethane microspheres with respect to in vitro monocytes and in vivo macrophages. The biodegradable polyurethane, which contained multiple chemistry function and which has previously demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties in film and mm scale scaffold form, was selected as the base material. In this work we undertook the use of a room temperature membrane emulsification photopolymerization approach to avoid the need for high temperature cures and the use of solvents. The response of immune cells to the microspheres was studied with human primary cells and in the rat gastrocnemius muscle. The present work reveals important progress in the design of microspheres, with well-characterized low monocyte-activating properties and the translational advantages of a synthetic polyurethane which could be investigated in future studies for potential macromolecule delivery and tissue regeneration applications.

Design and in vivo evaluation of entecavir-3-palmitate microcrystals for subcutaneous sustained delivery

The objectives of this study were to formulate microcrystals of entecavir-3-palmiate (EV-P), a palmitic acid ester of entecavir (EV), and evaluate the influence of particle size on its pharmacokinetic behavior following subcutaneous (SC) injection. Systemic toxicity and local tolerability of the hepatitis B anti-viral suspension were further evaluated in normal rats. EV-P microcrystals possessing median diameters of 2.1, 6.3, and 12.7 µm were fabricated using anti-solvent crystallization technique with polysorbate 20 and polyethylene glycol 4000 as steric stabilizer. Dissolution rate of EV-P microcrystals was controlled by adjusting the particle size, under sink condition. Pharmacokinetic profiles of 2.1 µm-sized and 6.3 µm-sized EV-P microcrystals were quite comparable (1.44 mg/kg as EV), over 46 days in rats. The absorption rate and extent of EV after SC injection of 12.7 µm-sized microcrystals were significantly retarded, due to its slower dissolution rate in aqueous media. No single-dose systemic toxicity was observed after SC injection of high dose of EV-P microcrystal suspension (30-300 mg/kg as EV). The microcrystals were tolerable in the injected site, showing mild inflammatory responses at a dose of 30 mg/kg. Therefore, the novel microcrystal system with median particle size of below 6.3 µm is expected to be a unique long-acting system of the anti-viral agent, improving patient's compliance with chronic disease.

Practical guidelines for the characterization and quality control of pure drug nanoparticles and nano-cocrystals in the pharmaceutical industry

The number of poorly soluble drug candidates is increasing, and this is also seen in the research interest towards drug nanoparticles and (nano-)cocrystals; improved solubility is the most important application of these nanosystems. In order to confirm the functionality of these nanoparticles throughout their lifecycle, repeatability of the formulation processes, functional performance of the formed systems in pre-determined way and system stability, a thorough physicochemical understanding with the aid of necessary analytical techniques is needed. Even very minor deviations in for example particle size or size deviation in nanoscale can alter the product bioavailability, and the effect is even more dramatic with the smallest particle size fractions. Also, small particle size sets special requirements for the analytical techniques. In this review most important physicochemical properties of drug nanocrystals and nano-cocrystals are presented, suitable analytical techniques, their pros and cons, are described with the extra input on practical point of view.

Rats and rabbits as pharmacokinetic screening tools for long acting intramuscular depots: case study with paliperidone palmitate suspension

Development of prodrug of 9-hydroxyrisperidone (paliperidone) long-acting intramuscular injection has enabled delivery over four-week time period with improved compliance. The key aim of this work was to establish a reliable preclinical model which may potentially serve as a screening tool for judging the pharmacokinetics of paliperidone formulation(s) prior to human clinical work. Sparse sampling composite study was used in rats, (Wistar/Sprague-Dawley (SD; n = 10)) and a serial blood sampling study design was used in rabbits (n = 4). Animals received intramuscular injection of paliperidone palmitate in the thigh muscle at dose of 16 (rats) and 4.5 mg/kg (rabbits). Samples were drawn in rats (retro-orbital sinus) and rabbits (central ear artery) and were analysed for paliperidone using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/ mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) assay. The plasma data was subjected to pharmacokinetic analysis. Following intramuscular injection of depot formulation in Wistar/SD rats and rabbits, absorption of paliperidone was slow and gradual with median value of time to reach maximum concentration (T_max) occurring on day 7. The exposures (i.e. area under the curve (AUC; 0-28) days) were 18,597, 21,865 and 18,120 ng.h/mL, in Wistar, SD and rabbits, respectively. The clearance was slow and supported long half-life (8-10 days). Either one of the two models can serve as a research tool for establishing pharmacokinetics of paliperidone formulation(s).