Determination of organophosphate esters in water samples by mixed-mode liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry

A critical review on organophosphate esters in drinking water: Analysis, occurrence, sources, and human health risk assessment

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are ubiquitous in the environment. Copious studies assessed OPEs in various environmental media. However, there is limited summative information about OPEs in drinking water. This review provides comprehensive data for the analytical methods, occurrence, sources, and risk assessment of OPEs in drinking water. In general, liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction are the most common methods in the extraction of OPEs from drinking water, while gas chromatography and liquid chromatography are the most commonly used instrumental methods for detecting OPEs in drinking water. On the basis of these techniques, a variety of methods on OPEs pretreatment and determination have been developed to know the pollution situation of OPEs. Studies on the occurrence of OPEs in drinking water show that the total concentrations of OPEs vary seasonally and regionally, with tris(1-chloro-2-isopropyl) phosphate and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate dominant among different kinds of drinking water. Source identification studies show that there are three main sources of OPEs in drinking water: 1) source water contamination; 2) residual in drinking water treatment process; 3) leakage from device or pipeline. Besides, risk assessments indicate that individual and total OPEs pose no or negligible health risk to human, but this result may be significantly underestimated. Finally, the current knowledge gaps on the research of OPEs in drinking water are discussed and some suggestions are provided for future environmental research.

Critical review on organophosphate esters in water environment: Occurrence, health hazards and removal technologies

Organophosphate esters (OPEs), which are phosphoric acid ester derivatives, are anthropogenic substances that are widely used in commerce. Nevertheless, there is growing public concern about these ubiquitous contaminants, which are frequently detected in contaminated water sources. OPEs are mostly emitted by industrial operations, and the primary routes of human exposure to OPEs include food intake and dermal absorption. Because of their negative effects on both human health and the environment, it is clear that innovative methods are needed to facilitate their eradication. In this study, we present a comprehensive overview of the existing characteristics and origins of OPEs, their possible impacts on human health, and the merits, drawbacks, and future possibilities of contemporary sophisticated remediation methods. Current advanced remediation approaches for OPEs include adsorption, degradation (advanced oxidation, advanced reduction, and redox technology), membrane filtration, and municipal wastewater treatment plants, degradation and adsorption are the most promising removal technologies. Meanwhile, we proposed potential areas for future research (appropriate management approaches, exploring the combination treatment process, economic factors, and potential for secondary pollution). Collectively, this work gives a comprehensive understanding of OPEs, providing useful insights for future research on OPEs pollution.

Organophosphate Esters in Building Materials from China: Levels, Sources, Emissions, and Preliminary Assessment of Human Exposure

Source characteristics and health risks of indoor organophosphate esters (OPEs) are limited by the lack of knowledge on emission processes. This study attempted to integrate the contents and emissions of OPEs from indoor building materials to assess human health effects. Thirteen OPEs were investigated in 80 pieces of six categories of building materials. OPEs are ubiquitous in the building materials and ∑13OPE contents varied significantly (p < 0.05) from 72.8 ng/g (seam agent) to 109,900 ng/g (wallpaper). Emission characteristics of OPEs from the building materials were examined based on a microchamber method. Depending on the sample category, the observed initial area-specific emission rates of ∑13OPEs varied from 154 ng/m2/h (carpet) to 2760 ng/m2/h (wooden floorboard). Moreover, the emission rate model was developed to predict the release levels of individual OPEs, quantify source contributions, and assess associated exposure risks. Source apportionments of indoor OPEs exhibited heterogeneities in multiple environmental media. The joint OPE contribution of wallpaper and wooden floorboard to indoor dust was up to 94.8%, while latex paint and wooden floorboard were the main OPE contributors to indoor air (54.2%) and surface (76.1%), respectively. Risk assessment showed that the carcinogenic risks of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (3.35 × 10-7) were close to the acceptable level (1 × 10-6) and deserved special attention.

An Initial Survey on Occurrence, Fate, and Environmental Risk Assessment of Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Romanian Waterways

Organophosphate ester flame retardants (OPFRs) are ubiquitous organic pollutants in the environment and present an important preoccupation due to their potential toxicity to humans and biota. They can be found in various sources, including consumer products, building materials, transportation industry, electronic devices, textiles and clothing, and recycling and waste management. This paper presents the first survey of its kind in Romania, investigating the composition, distribution, possible sources, and environmental risks of OPFRs in five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and the rivers receiving their effluents. Samples from WWTPs and surface waters were collected and subjected to extraction processes to determine the OPFRs using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. All the target OPFRs were found in all the matrices, with the average concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 1422 ng/L in wastewater, 0.88 to 1851 ng/g dry weight (d.w.) in sewage sludge, and 0.73 to 1036 ng/L in surface waters. The dominant compound in all the cases was tri(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCPP). This study observed that the wastewater treatment process was inefficient, with removal efficiencies below 50% for all five WWTPs. The environmental risk assessment indicated that almost all the targeted OPFRs pose a low risk, while TDCPP, TCPP, and TMPP could pose a moderate risk to certain aquatic species. These findings provide valuable information for international pollution research and enable the development of pollution control strategies.

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) in a heavily polluted river in South China: Occurrence, spatiotemporal trends, sources, and phase distribution

In the past decade, organophosphate esters (OPEs) undergo rapid increase in production and use. Meanwhile, owing to their additive property, OPEs exhibit liability to escape from related products and therefore ubiquity in various environments. Moreover, numerous researches verify their bioavailability and negative effects on biota and human, hence their occurrence and associated risks have caught much concern, particularly those in aquatic systems. So far, however, OPEs in water are generally investigated as a whole, their phase distribution and behavior in waterbodies are incompletely characterized. We examined 25 OPEs in water (including dissolved and particulate phases), sediment, and sediment core samples from the Lian River, which flows through the Guiyu e-waste recycling zone and Shantou specific economic zone in South China. Compared to most global waterbodies, the Lian River showed high or ultrahigh OPE levels in both water and sediments, particularly in the reaches surrounded by e-waste recycling and plastic-related industries, which were the top two greatest OPE sources. Non-industrial and agriculture-related anthropogenic activities also contributed OPEs. Sediment core data suggested that OPEs have been present in waters in Guiyu since the 1960s and showed a temporal trend consistent with the local waste-recycling business. The phase distribution of OPEs in the Lian River was significantly correlated with their hydrophobicity and solubility. Owing to their wide range of physicochemical properties, OPE congeners showed significant percentage differences in the Lian River water and sediments. Generally, OPEs in water reflect their dynamic real-time inputs, while those in sediment signify their accumulative deposition, which is another cause of their phase distribution disparities in the Lian River. The physicochemical parameters of OPEs first imposed negative and then positive influences on their dissolved phase-sediment distribution, indicating the involvement of both the adsorption of dissolved OPEs and the deposition of particle-bound OPEs.

Facile synthesis of spherical covalent organic frameworks for enrichment and quantification of aryl organophosphate esters in mouse serum and tissues

Here, an imine-linked-based spherical covalent organic framework (COF) was prepared at room temperature. The as-synthesized spherical COF served as an adsorbent in dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE), by its virtue of great surface area (1542.68 m2 /g), regular distribution of pore size (2.95 nm), and excellent stability. Therefore, a simple and high-efficiency dispersive solid phase extraction method based on a spherical COF coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was established to determine aryl organophosphate esters in biological samples. This approach displayed favorable linearity in the range of 10.0-1000.0 ng/L (r > 0.9989), a high signal enhancement factor (58.8-181.8 folds) with low limits of detection (0.3-3.3 ng/L). Moreover, it could effectively eliminate complex matrix interference to accurately extract seven aryl organophosphate esters from mouse serum and tissue samples with spiked recoveries of 82.0%-117.4%. The as-synthesized spherical COF has been successfully applied in sample preparation. The dSPE-HPLC-MS/MS method based on a spherical COF has potential application to study the pollutants' metabolism in vivo.

Non-target screening and risk assessment of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in drinking water resource water, surface water, groundwater, and seawater

By use of an integrated target, suspect, and non-target screening strategy, we investigated occurrence and spatial distribution of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in four types of water (drinking water resource water, surface water, groundwater, and seawater) collected from Jiangsu Province (China) in 2021 (n = 111). Eighteen out of 23 target OPEs were detectable at least once in these analyzed samples, and the total concentrations (Σ18OPEs) of OPEs in various water samples exhibited a descending order following as: groundwater (67026 ng/L) > surface water (35803 ng/L) > drinking water resource water (21055 ng/L) > seawater (17820 ng/L). The highest concentration detected in groundwater may be ascribed to pollution from surrounding factories. Among the target OPEs, triethyl phosphate (TEP), tris(chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), and tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP) were the most abundant congeners with the average concentrations of 407 ng/L, 143 ng/L, and 475 ng/L, respectively. Besides of 18 target OPEs, we further identified 17 suspect OPEs (3 of them were fully identified by authentic standards) on the basis of in-house suspect screening OPE database, and 2 non-target organophosphates (OPs) on the basis of feature fragments. One of these 2 non-target OPs was fully identified as bis(2-chloroethyl) 2-chloroethylphosphonate (B2CE2CEPP) by matching the retention time and MS/MS data with authentic standard, and the other one was preliminarily identified as 2,4,8,10-tetra-tert-butyl-6-methoxydibenzo[d,f][1,3,2]dioxaphosphepin-6-one (TTBMDBDOPPO). We also observed that B2CE2CEPP shared a similar structure with TCEP, suggesting that they may have similar toxicological characteristics and commercial sources. The ecological and human health risk assessments indicated that all OPEs posed a low or negligible ecological risk to aquatic organisms (algae, crustacean, and fish), and negligible risk to human health except for trimethyl phosphate (TMP) in drinking water resource water.

Occurrence and spatio-seasonal distribution of organophosphate tri- and di-esters in surface water from Dongting Lake and their potential biological risk

In this study, 24 surface water samples were collected from Dongting Lake, China, in the wet and dry seasons, then the concentrations, composition profiles and spatio-seasonal variations of nine organophosphate triesters (OPEs) and five organophosphate diesters (Di-OPs) were determined. Significantly higher total OPE concentrations (∑OPEs) were observed in the wet season (49.5-148 ng L^-1) than in the dry season (5.00-45.7 ng L^-1) suggesting higher input via tributaries discharge as well as wet deposition in the studied region. Whereas lower levels of TnBP and (triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) in wet season reflected their possible degradation under solar irradiation. Comparable levels of total Di-OPs (∑Di-OPs) were found in the wet season (3.41-13.9 ng L^-1) and dry season (1.01-12.3 ng L^-1). Tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate and tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate were the main OPE components, while diphenyl phosphate, di-n-butyl phosphate and bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate were the main Di-OP components. High levels of OPEs and Di-OPs were found in Datong Lake suggesting possible local emissions potentially related to fishery activity in the land-locked lake. Samples at river mouths to the lake also have higher levels of target OPEs and Di-OPs, the results disclosed obvious discharges from tributaries in Hunan Province. Negligible non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were determined based on the measured concentrations in source waters. A limited ecological risk aquatic organisms in the Dongting Lake was identified, with most risk from TPHP.

Therapeutic tissue regenerative nanohybrids self-assembled from bioactive inorganic core / chitosan shell nanounits

Natural inorganic/organic nanohybrids are a fascinating model in biomaterials design due to their ultra-microstructure and extraordinary properties. Here, we report unique-structured nanohybrids through self-assembly of biomedical inorganic/organic nanounits, composed of bioactive inorganic nanoparticle core (hydroxyapatite, bioactive glass, or mesoporous silica) and chitosan shell - namely Chit@IOC. The inorganic core thin-shelled with chitosan could constitute as high as 90%, strikingly contrasted with the conventional composites. The Chit@IOC nanohybrids were highly resilient under cyclic load and resisted external stress almost an order of magnitude effectively than the conventional composites. The nanohybrids, with the nano-roughened surface topography, could accelerate the cellular responses through stimulated integrin-mediated focal adhesions. The nanohybrids were also able to load multiple therapeutic molecules in the core and shell compartment and then release sequentially, demonstrating controlled delivery systems. The nanohybrids compartmentally-loaded with therapeutic molecules (dexamethasone, fibroblast growth factor 2, and phenamil) were shown to stimulate the anti-inflammatory, pro-angiogenic and osteogenic events of relevant cells. When implanted in the in vivo calvarium defect model with 3D-printed scaffold forms, the therapeutic nanohybrids were proven to accelerate new bone formation. Overall, the nanohybrids self-assembled from Chit@IOC nanounits, with their unique properties (ultrahigh inorganic content, nano-topography, high resilience, multiple-therapeutics delivery, and cellular activation), can be considered as promising 3D tissue regenerative platforms.

Enhancing extraction performance of organophosphorus flame retardants in water samples using titanium hierarchical porous silica materials as sorbents

A sorbent for the extraction of organophosphorus flame retardants has been proposed, based on UVM-7 (University of Valencia Materials) mesoporous silica doped with titanium. Designed cartridges have been applied to the extraction and preconcentration of flame retardants in water samples, followed by gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometry detector. Firstly, UVM-7 materials with different contents of titanium were synthesized and characterized by several techniques, thus confirming the proper mesoporous architecture. The potential of these materials was assessed in comparison with their morphological properties, resulting Ti50-UVM-7 the best solid phase. Several extraction parameters were also optimized. Analytical parameters were also evaluated, and limits of detection from 0.019 to 0.21 ng mL^-1 were obtained, as well as intra-day relative standard deviation below 11% for all analytes. Extraction efficiencies above 80% in water samples were achieved. The reusability of the material was also proved. Finally, the designed protocol was applied for the analysis of real water samples, and quantifiable concentrations of tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) were obtained in some samples. The method was compared with a United States Environmental Protection Agency general method with C18 cartridges.

Determination of Organophosphorus Esters in Fall Protection Equipment by Accelerated Solvent Extraction and Solid-Phase Extraction Coupled with LC-MS/MS Detection

An analysis method was established to determine 14 organophosphorus ester (OPE) flame retardants in fall protection equipment by combining accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and solid-phase extraction (SPE) with high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The ASE parameters were optimized as follows: static extraction with acetonitrile at 80°C for 5 min for two cycles. The combined extract was purified with the ENVI-18 cartridge before further analysis. A HILIC column was used to separate the OPEs using an acetonitrile/water mixture as the mobile phase with the detection by the electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, which was operated under the positive mode. Under optimized conditions, the limit of detection for the target OPEs ranged in 0.015-1.33 ng/g, with a spike recovery of 71.6%-114% and a relative standard deviation of 0.8%-11.2%. The developed method was used to analyze OPEs in fall protection equipment (safety helmets and ropes), where OPEs were all detectable. Safety ropes displayed a higher concentration of OPEs than ones in safety helmets, with the pollutants being mainly triphenyl phosphate, 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP), tri(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate, and tri-n-butyl phosphate in the range of 11.07 ng/g‒815.53 ng/g. The EHDPP was the dominant compound in safety helmets with the concentration from 26.84 to 95.29 ng/g, while the other OPEs in safety helmets were lower than 5.136 ng/g. The potential health and environmental risks of these fall protection equipment during their use and disposal call for further attention.

Trends in sample preparation and separation methods for the analysis of very polar and ionic compounds in environmental water and biota samples

Recent years showed a boost in knowledge about the presence and fate of micropollutants in the environment. Instrumental and methodological developments mainly in liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry hold a large share in this success story. These techniques soon complemented gas chromatography and enabled the analysis of more polar compounds including pesticides but also household chemicals, food additives, and pharmaceuticals often present as traces in surface waters. In parallel, sample preparation techniques evolved to extract and enrich these compounds from biota and water samples. This review article looks at very polar and ionic compounds using the criterion log P ≤ 1. Considering about 240 compounds, we show that (simulated) log D values are often even lower than the corresponding log P values due to ionization of the compounds at our reference pH of 7.4. High polarity and charge are still challenging characteristics in the analysis of micropollutants and these compounds are hardly covered in current monitoring strategies of water samples. The situation is even more challenging in biota analysis given the large number of matrix constituents with similar properties. Currently, a large number of sample preparation and separation approaches are developed to meet the challenges of the analysis of very polar and ionic compounds. In addition to reviewing them, we discuss some trends: for sample preparation, preconcentration and purification efforts by SPE will continue, possibly using upcoming mixed-mode stationary phases and mixed beds in order to increase comprehensiveness in monitoring applications. For biota analysis, miniaturization and parallelization are aspects of future research. For ionic or ionizable compounds, we see electromembrane extraction as a method of choice with a high potential to increase throughput by automation. For separation, predominantly coupled to mass spectrometry, hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography applications will increase as the polarity range ideally complements reversed phase liquid chromatography, and instrumentation and expertise are available in most laboratories. Two-dimensional applications have not yet reached maturity in liquid-phase separations to be applied in higher throughput. Possibly, the development and commercial availability of mixed-mode stationary phases make 2D applications obsolete in semi-targeted applications. An interesting alternative will enter routine analysis soon: supercritical fluid chromatography demonstrated an impressive analyte coverage but also the possibility to tailor selectivity for targeted approaches. For ionic and ionizable micropollutants, ion chromatography and capillary electrophoresis are amenable but may be used only for specialized applications such as the analysis of halogenated acids when aspects like desalting and preconcentration are solved and the key advantages are fully elaborated by further research. Graphical abstract.

A review of organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in the environment: Analysis, occurrence and risk assessment

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are used as additives in flame retardants and plasticizers. Due to phase out of several congeners of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), the application of organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) is continuously increasing over the years. As a consequence, large amounts of OPEs enter the environment. Sewage and solid waste (especially e-waste) treatment plants are the important sources of OPEs released to the environment. Other sources include emissions of OPE-containing materials and vehicle fuel into the atmosphere. OPEs are widely detected in air, dust, water, soil, sediment and sludge. To know the pollution situation of OPEs, a variety of methods on their pretreatment and determination have been developed. We discussed and compared the analytical methods of OPEs, including extraction, purification as well as GC- and LC-based determination techniques. Much attention has been paid to OPEs because some of them are recognized highly toxic to biota, and the toxicological investigations of the most concerned OPEs were summarized. Risk assessments showed that the aquatic and benthic environments in some regions are under considerable ecological risks of OPEs. Finally, we pointed out problems in the current studies on OPEs and provided some suggestions for future research.

Analysis of mobile chemicals in the aquatic environment-current capabilities, limitations and future perspectives

Persistent and mobile water contaminants are rapidly developing into a focal point of environmental chemistry and chemical regulation. Their defining parameter that sets them apart from the majority of regularly monitored and regulated contaminants is their mobility in the aquatic environment, which is intrinsically tied to a high polarity. This high polarity, however, may have severe implications in the analytical process and thus the most polar of these mobile contaminants may not be covered by widely utilized trace-analytical methods, and thus, alternatives are required. In this review, we infer the physical and chemical properties of mobile water contaminants from a set of almost 1800 prioritized REACH chemicals and discuss the implications these substance properties may have on four integral steps of the analytical process: sampling and sample storage, sample pre-treatment, separation and detection. We discuss alternatives to widely utilized trace-analytical methods, examine their application range and limitations, highlight potential analytical techniques on the horizon and emphasize research areas we believe still offer the most room for further improvement. While we have a comprehensive set of analytical methods to cover a large portion of the known mobile chemicals, these methods are still only infrequently utilized. Graphical abstract.

Profiling cocaine residues and pyrolytic products in wastewater by mixed-mode liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

This work provides a new analytical method for the determination of cocaine, its metabolites benzoylecgonine and cocaethylene, the pyrolytic products anhydroecgonine and anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and the pharmaceutical levamisole in wastewater. Samples were solid-phase extracted and extracts analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using, for the first time in the illicit drug field, a stationary phase that combines reversed-phase and weak cation-exchange functionalities. The overall method performance was satisfactory, with limits of detection below 1 ng/L, relative standard deviations below 21%, and percentages of recovery between 93% and 121%. Analysis of 24-hour composite raw wastewater samples collected in Santiago de Compostela (Spain) and Brasilia (Brazil) highlighted benzoylecgonine as the compound showing the highest population-normalized mass loads (300-1000 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). In Brasilia, cocaine and levamisole loads underwent an upsurge on Sunday, indicating a high consumption, and likely a direct disposal, of cocaine powder on this day. Conversely, the pyrolytic product resulting from the smoke of crack, anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and its metabolite anhydroecgonine were relatively stable over the four days, agreeing with a non-recreational-associated use of crack.

Organophosphate flame retardants in leachates from six municipal landfills across China

With the phasing out of brominated flame retardants, organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) have been widely used and further detected in multiple environmental media. However, municipal landfill leachates, an important source of contamination of OPFRs to aquatic environment, have not been fully understood, especially in a developing country like China. Thus, the occurrence, aqueous removal efficiency, environmental emission, and risk assessment of 10 OPFRs were investigated in leachates from six municipal landfills across China. The results indicated that except triethyl phosphate (TEP), the remaining 9 OPFRs were detected in both raw and final leachates with different frequencies higher than 33.3%. The range of total concentrations of OPFRs (ΣOPFRs) across China was 29.0-437 and 0.652-32.4 μg L^-1 in raw and final leachates, respectively. Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) was the dominant species and accounted for 78.5% and 85.8% of average ΣOPFR concentration in raw and final leachates, respectively. This may be because TCEP is the most prevalently used OPFR in China. The overall aqueous removal efficiency of ΣOPFRs across China ranged from 57.7% to 99.8%. Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate was the most removed species (98.8%), whereas TCEP was the least removed species (91.5%). The annual emissions of ΣOPFRs discharged into the aquatic environment from municipal landfills across China were estimated to be between 170 and 7094 g. Further risk assessment based on risk quotient values in the final leachates showed that most OPFRs posed negligible risk except TCEP (medium and high risk) and tributyl phosphate (medium risk).

Metabolites of organophosphate ester flame retardants in urine from Shanghai, China

The metabolites of nine organophosphate ester (OPE) flame retardants were measured in 180 urine samples collected from a population (including adults and children) in western Shanghai, China, using liquid chromatography-tandem spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The total urinary concentrations of nine OPE metabolites ranged 100-23800 pg/mL, with a geometric mean (GM) value of 1450 pg/mL. The concentrations of alkyl-OPE metabolites (879 pg/mL) were approximately an order of magnitude higher than those of aryl-OPE (53.7 pg/mL) and chlorinated-OPE metabolites (52.7 pg/mL). Diphenyl phosphate (DPHP), diethyl phosphate (DEP), di-n-butyl phosphate (DNBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (BEHP), and bis(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (BBOEP) were the dominant OPE metabolites found in urine. The results showed that an increase in age was associated with a significant decrease in urinary DPHP (r = -0.278, p < 0.01) and DNBP (r = -0.314, p < 0.01) concentrations. The highest concentrations of DPHP (GM = 80.7 pg/mL) and DNBP (GM = 16.9 pg/mL) were found in urine from people living in homes that were less than 10 years old. The urinary DNBP concentration was significantly associated with self-reported symptoms of allergy. Our result establishes baseline value for OPE exposure in a population in China for comparison in future studies.

Occurrence and distribution of oligomeric organophosphorus flame retardants in different treatment stages of a sewage treatment plant

Oligomeric organophosphate esters (OOPEs) like 2,2-bis(chloromethyl)-propane-1,3-diyltetrakis (2-chloroethyl) bisphosphate (V6), resorcinol bis(diphenylphosphate) (RDP) and bisphenol A bis(diphenylphosphate) (BDP), are widely used as alternatives of Deca-BDE in plastic and electronic consumer products. However, studies on the environmental occurrence and fate of OOPEs are very scarce. This work studied the occurrence, distribution and fate of V6, BDP and RDP during the different treatment stages of a sewage treatment plant (STP) in Beijing, China. To accomplish this, a method to analyze trace V6, BDP and RDP in suspended solids samples and aqueous samples of sewage and sludge was developed by using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Using this method, BDP and RDP were detected for the first time in suspended solids of sewage and sludge with a concentration of 2.06-5.82 ng/g dry weight and 0.44-3.45 ng/g dry weight, respectively, whereas their concentration level in the aqueous phase of these samples were below the detection limits of the method. However, V6 was detected in all treatment stages of the STP, with concentrations in the range of 10.2-27.1 ng/L in aqueous phase and 0.40-1.73 ng/g dw in solid phase. Mass balance results indicated that 75.6% of the original V6 mass flow was discharged along with effluent, while 83.3% and 72.2% of the initial RDP and BDP mass flow were lost due to biodegradation, respectively. Nevertheless, compared to the 14 widely used monomeric organophosphate esters (MOPEs), the concentration levels of OOPEs in this studied STP were relatively low.

Screening for Polar Chemicals in Water by Trifunctional Mixed-Mode Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry

The presence of persistent and mobile organic contaminants (PMOC) in aquatic environments is a matter of high concern due to their capability of crossing through natural and anthropogenic barriers, even reaching drinking water. Most analytical methods rely on reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), which is quite limited for the detection of very polar chemicals. Thus, many of these PMOCs may have not been recognized as water pollutants yet, due to the lack of analytical methods capable to detect them. Mixed-mode LC (MMLC), providing the combination of RP and ion-exchange functionalities is explored in this work with a trifunctional column, combining RPLC, anion and cation exchange, which allows the simultaneous determination of analytes with extremely different properties. A nondiscriminant sample concentration step followed by a MMLC-high resolution mass spectrometry method was developed for a group of 37 very polar model chemicals with different acid/base functionalities. The overall method performance was satisfactory with a mean limit of detection of 50 ng/L, relative standard deviation lower than 20% and overall recoveries (including matrix effects) higher than 60% for 54% of model compounds. Then, the method was applied to 15 real water samples, by a suspect screening approach. For those detected PMOC with standard available, a preliminary estimation of concentrations was also performed. Thus, 22 compounds were unequivocally identified in a range of expected concentrations from 6 ng/L to 540 μg/L. Some of them are well-known PMOC, such as acesulfame, perfluorobutanoic acid or metformin, but other novel pollutants were also identified, as for example di-o-tolylguanidine or trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, which had not or were scarcely studied in water so far.

Understanding the distribution, degradation and fate of organophosphate esters in an advanced municipal sewage treatment plant based on mass flow and mass balance analysis

Although organophosphate esters (OPEs) in the ambient environment are from sewage treatment plants due to the discharge of effluent and application of sludge, the distribution, degradation and fate of OPEs in advanced municipal sewage treatment plants remain unclear. This work focused on the use of mass flow and mass balance analysis to understand the behaviors and fate of 14 OPEs in an advanced municipal sewage treatment plant. OPEs were detected in all sewage water and sludge samples with total OPEs (ΣOPEs) concentrations of 1399 ± 263 ng/L in raw sewage aqueous phase, 833 ± 175 ng/L in tertiary effluent aqueous phase, and 315 ± 89 ng/g dry weight in dewatered sludge. The dissolved concentrations of ΣOPEs significantly decreased during biological treatment, whereas negligible decrease was observed in mechanical and physical-chemical treatments. For individual OPE, the chlorinated tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCPP) did not decrease but increased during both biological treatment and physical-chemical treatment. Mass flow analysis indicated the total removal efficiency of ΣOPEs in aqueous phase was 40.5%, and the polarity-specific removal efficiencies for individual OPE were positively related to their solid-water partition coefficients (Kd). Furthermore, mass balance results showed that 53.1% and 6.3% of the initial OPE mass flow were eventually transferred to the effluents and dewatered sludge, respectively, while the remaining 39.9% and 0.7% were lost due to biodegradation and physical-chemical treatment, respectively. It was indicated that the activated sludge treatment system with anaerobic/anoxic/aerobic bioreactors was a major factor in the removal of OPEs from the raw sewage, while transfer to dewatered sludge governed by hydrophobic interactions was limited during the sewage treatment. Meanwhile, the degradation difference of OPEs in activated sludge treatment was more related with their molecular structure over their hydrophobicity.