Measurement of caffeic and ferulic acid equivalents in plasma after coffee consumption: Small intestine and colon are key sites for coffee metabolism

Encapsulation of phenolic acids within food-grade carriers systems: a systematic review

Phenolic acids are natural compounds with potential therapeutic effects against various diseases. However, their incorporation into food and pharmaceutical products is limited by challenges such as instability, low solubility, and reduced bioavailability. This systematic review summarizes recent advances in phenolic acid encapsulation using food-grade carrier systems, focusing on proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. Encapsulation efficiency, release behavior, and bioavailability are examined, as well as the potential health benefits of encapsulated phenolic acids in food products. Strategies to address limitations of current encapsulation systems are also proposed. Encapsulation has emerged as a promising method to enhance the stability and bioavailability of phenolic acids in food products, and various encapsulation technologies have been developed for this purpose. The use of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates as carriers in food-grade encapsulation systems remains a common approach, but it is associated with certain limitations. Future research on phenolic acid encapsulation should focus on developing environmentally friendly, organic solvent-free, low-energy, scalable, and stable encapsulation systems, as well as co-encapsulation methods that combine multiple phenolic acids or phenolic acids with other bioactive substances to produce synergistic effects.

Sourdough bread as nutritional intervention tool for improvement of cognitive dysfunction in diabetic rats

BACKGROUND

The current research targeted to study the impact of nutritional intervention by two sourdough breads in improvement of cognitive dysfunction in diabetic rats.

METHODS

Type-2 diabetes was induced in rats by Streptozotocin-Nicotinamide (STZ-NC). Diabetic rats were fed on balanced diet or balanced diet containing 20% of sourdough bread I or II for a month. Lipid profile, oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and cognitive functions were assessed in all rats. Gene expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and nuclear respiratory factor 2 (NRF-2) were assessed in hippocampal tissue, while expression of phosphoenol pyruvate carboxy kinase (PEPCK), and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) genes were evaluated in hepatic tissue. Chemical composition and fatty acids profile were evaluated in the prepared sourdough bread.

RESULTS

Sourdough bread II showed higher content of phenolic compounds, fat, fiber and carbohydrates. Fatty acids profile revealed that sourdough bread I was higher in saturated fatty acids (16.08%), while sourdough bread sample II was higher in unsaturated fatty acids (79.33%). Sourdough bread I or II feeding rats' showed significant improvement in hyperglycemia, oxidative stress markers, inflammatory markers, lipid profile, liver and kidney functions in association with improvement in cognitive function. Gene expression of BDNF and NRF2 in hippocampal tissue were increased significantly, while hepatic GLUT2 and PEPCK gene expression were down-regulated in diabetic given sourdough bread I or II.

CONCLUSION

Sourdough bread II was superior in all the studied parameters. The anti-diabetic effect and protection from cognitive dysfunction of sourdough bread samples may be ascribed to the occurrence of dietary fibers, phenolic compounds, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Main Colonic Metabolites from Coffee Chlorogenic Acid May Counteract Tumor Necrosis Factor-α-Induced Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in 3T3-L1 Cells

Obesity is coupled with an altered redox state and low-level inflammation. Oxidative stress may increase pre-adipocyte proliferation, adipocyte differentiation and mature adipocyte size. Regarding inflammation, the dysregulation of cytokine production by adipose tissue takes place in obesity, which is promoted by oxidative stress. Polyphenols may exert a positive effect on obesity, not only by modulating the redox state, but also due to their anti-inflammatory activity. Coffee, which is one of the most consumed beverages, is very rich in phenolic compounds. Bioavailability studies on coffee phenols have shown that the most abundant group of metabolites in plasma and urine are dihydrocaffeic (DHCA), dihydroferulic (DHFA), and hydroxyhippuric (HHA) acids, the three acids of colonic origin. To better understand the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of DHCA, DHFA, and HHA, an inflammation/oxidation model was set up in the pre-adipocyte 3T3-L1 cell line using tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). After the exposure of 3T3-L1 cells to 0.5, 1, 5, and 10 µM of TNF-α at different times, the cell viability, interleukin (IL)-6 secretion, and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutathione (GSH) were determined. Using the TNF-α prooxidant and proinflammatory conditions established (10 µM, 24 h), it was observed that the physiological concentrations (0.5, 1, 5, and 10 µM) of DHCA, DHFA, and HHA induced dose-dependent antioxidant effects according to the ROS, GSH, and antioxidant enzyme (glutathione peroxidase) results. In addition, reductions in the IL-1β, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) concentrations were observed to different extents depending on the metabolite (DHFA, HHA, or DHCA) and the concentration used. In conclusion, the main colonic metabolites from coffee chlorogenic acids may counteract TNF-α-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in the 3T3-L1 cell line, and thus, they present antiobesity potential.

Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory and Pro-Differentiative Effects of Chlorogenic Acid on M03-13 Human Oligodendrocyte-like Cells

Chlorogenic acid (CGA), a polyphenol found mainly in coffee and tea, exerts antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects at the gastrointestinal level. However, although CGA is known to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), its effects on the CNS are still unknown. Oligodendrocytes (OLs), the myelin-forming cells in the CNS, are the main target in demyelinating neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). We evaluated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic roles of CGA in M03-13, an immortalized human OL cell line. We found that CGA reduces intracellular superoxide ions, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and NADPH oxidases (NOXs) /dual oxidase 2 (DUOX2) protein levels. The stimulation of M03-13 cells with TNFα activates the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell (NF-kB) pathway, leading to an increase in superoxide ion, NOXs/DUOX2 and phosphorylated extracellular regulated protein kinase (pERK) levels. In addition, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) stimulation induces caspase 8 activation and the cleavage of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP). All these TNFα-induced effects are reversed by CGA. Furthermore, CGA induces a blockade of proliferation, driving cells to differentiation, resulting in increased mRNA levels of myelin basic protein (MBP) and proteolipid protein (PLP), which are major markers of mature OLs. Overall, these data suggest that dietary supplementation with this polyphenol could play an important beneficial role in autoimmune neuroinflammatory diseases such as MS.

Effect of Cu2+ and Al3+ on the interaction of chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid with serum albumin

Despite the phenolic acids' health benefits, their interactions with proteins are still unclear. In this study, the interactions of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) with chlorogenic acid (CHA), caffeic acid (CA), and their Al³⁺, Cu²⁺ complexes were studied by using circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and UV/Vis spectroscopy. It was found that esterification of carboxyl group of CA with quinic acid increased the binding affinities for BSA. After chelating with Cu²⁺ and Al³⁺, both CHA and CA exhibited high binding affinities for BSA. CHA could form CHA-Cu₂ and CHA-Al₂ complex with Cu²⁺ and Al³⁺. The result of CD spectroscopy demonstrated that the binding of CHA and Al³⁺ with BSA contributed to the folding of BSA secondary structure. In addition, with the presence of CHA, binding with Al³⁺ could also induce changes in BSA conformation. The binding sites of both CHA and CA were closed to Trp213.

Caffeic Acid Has Antiviral Activity against Ilhéus Virus In Vitro

Ilhéus virus (ILHV) is a neglected mosquito-borne flavivirus. ILHV infection may lead to Ilhéus fever, an emerging febrile disease like dengue fever with the potential to evolve into a severe neurological disease characterized by meningoencephalitis; no specific treatments are available for this disease. This study assessed the antiviral properties of caffeic acid, an abundant component of plant-based food products that is also compatible with the socioeconomic limitations associated with this neglected infectious disease. The in vitro activity of caffeic acid on ILHV replication was investigated in Vero and A549 cell lines using plaque assays, quantitative RT-PCR, and immunofluorescence assays. We observed that 500 µM caffeic acid was virucidal against ILHV. Molecular docking indicated that caffeic acid might interact with an allosteric binding site on the envelope protein.

Colonic Coffee Phenols Metabolites, Dihydrocaffeic, Dihydroferulic, and Hydroxyhippuric Acids Protect Hepatic Cells from TNF-α-Induced Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

Coffee presents beneficial health properties, including antiobesity effects. However, its effects on inflammation are controversial. Hydroxycinnamic acids are the main coffee phenolic bioactive compounds. In human bioavailability studies carried out with coffee, among the most abundant compounds found in urine and plasma were the colonic metabolites, dihydrocaffeic (DHCA), dihydroferulic (DHFA), and hydroxyhippuric (HHA) acids. To understand the hepato-protective potential of these three compounds, we tested whether treatment with realistic concentrations (0.5-10 µM) were effective to counteract inflammatory process and oxidative status induced by tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). First, we established a novel model of inflammation/oxidation using TNF-α and HepG2 cells. Afterwards, we evaluated the activity of DHCA, DHFA, and HHA against the inflammatory/oxidative challenge through the determination of the inflammatory mediators, interleukins (IL)-6, and IL-8 and chemokines, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and macrophage inflammatory protein-1, as well as the levels of biomarkers of oxidative stress, such as reactive oxygen species, reduced glutathione, and the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and reductase. Results showed that all three compounds have a potential hepato-protective effect against the induced inflammatory/oxidative insult.

Increased Intake of Both Caffeine and Non-Caffeine Coffee Components Is Associated with Reduced NAFLD Severity in Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes

Coffee may protect against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but the roles of the caffeine and non-caffeine components are unclear. Coffee intake by 156 overweight subjects (87% with Type-2-Diabetes, T2D) was assessed via a questionnaire, with 98 subjects (all T2D) also providing a 24 h urine sample for quantification of coffee metabolites by LC-MS/MS. NAFLD was characterized by the fatty liver index (FLI) and by Fibroscan^® assessment of fibrosis. No associations were found between self-reported coffee intake and NAFLD parameters; however, total urine caffeine metabolites, defined as Σ_caffeine (caffeine + paraxanthine + theophylline), and adjusted for fat-free body mass, were significantly higher for subjects with no liver fibrosis than for those with fibrosis. Total non-caffeine metabolites, defined as Σ_ncm (trigonelline + caffeic acid + p-coumaric acid), showed a significant negative association with the FLI. Multiple regression analyses for overweight/obese T2D subjects (n = 89) showed that both Σ_caffeine and Σ_ncm were negatively associated with the FLI, after adjusting for age, sex, Hb_A1c, ethanol intake and glomerular filtration rate. The theophylline fraction of Σ_caffeine was significantly increased with both fibrosis and the FLI, possibly reflecting elevated CYP2E1 activity-a hallmark of NAFLD worsening. Thus, for overweight/obese T2D patients, higher intake of both caffeine and non-caffeine coffee components is associated with less severe NAFLD. Caffeine metabolites represent novel markers of NAFLD progression.

Are isothiocyanates and polyphenols from Brassicaceae vegetables emerging as preventive/therapeutic strategies for NAFLD? The landscape of recent preclinical findings

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a lipid impairment-related chronic metabolic disease that affects almost 25% of the worldwide population and has become the leading cause of liver transplantation in the United States of America (USA). NAFLD may progress from simple hepatic steatosis (HS) to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which occurs simultaneously in an inflammatory and fibrotic microenvironment and affects approximately 5% of the global population. Recently, NASH has been suggested to be a relevant driver in progressive liver cirrhosis and a population-attributable factor in hepatocellular carcinoma patients. Moreover, predictions show that NAFLD-related annual health costs in the USA have reached ∼$100 bi., but effective therapies are still scarce. Thus, new preventative strategies for this hepatic disease urgently need to be developed. The Brassicaceae vegetable family includes almost 350 genera and 3500 species and these are one of the main types of vegetables harvested and produced worldwide. These vegetables are well-known sources of glucobrassicin-derivative molecules, such as isothiocyanates and phenolic compounds, which have shown antioxidant and antilipogenic effects in preclinical NAFLD data. In this review, we gathered prominent evidence of the in vivo and in vitro effects of these vegetable-derived nutraceutical compounds on the gut-liver-adipose axis, which is a well-known regulator of NAFLD and may represent a new strategy for disease control.

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) for cancer prevention: Progress and promise

Cancer is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality across the globe. Emerging evidence suggests that consumption of a well-balanced diet containing a wide variety of vegetables, fruits, and whole grains can prevent the development of, halt, or reverse cancer progression. Carica papaya L. (papaya) has a wide distribution throughout many countries. Although the fruits of C. papaya are primarily consumed as food, various parts of this tree, including the bark, fruits, latex, seeds, and roots, have been used in traditional medicine for health promotion and disease mitigation. While numerous individual studies have investigated anticancer efficacies of various products and constituents of C. papaya, an up-to-date, comprehensive, and critical evaluation of available research data covering its role in the prevention and intervention of various human malignancies has not been conducted according to our knowledge. The purpose of this review is to present a systematic, comprehensive, and critical analysis of the cancer-preventive potential of C. papaya extracts, fractions, and isolated phytochemicals with a special emphasis on the cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. Moreover, the bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and safety profiles of individual phytochemicals of C. papaya, as well as current limitations, challenges, and future directions of research, have also been discussed.

A review of the protective effects of chlorogenic acid against different chemicals

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a naturally occurring non-flavonoid polyphenol found in green coffee beans, teas, certain fruits, and vegetables, that exerts antiviral, antitumor, antibacterial, and antioxidant effects. Several in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that CGA can protect against toxicities induced by chemicals of different classes such as fungal/bacterial toxins, pharmaceuticals, metals, pesticides, etc., by preservation of cell survival via reducing overproduction of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species and suppressed pro-apoptotic signaling. CGA antioxidant effects mediated through the Nrf2-heme oxygenase-1 signaling pathway were shown to enhance the levels of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferases, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase as well as glutathione content. Also, CGA could suppress inflammation via inhibition of toll-like receptor 4 and MyD88, and the phosphorylation of inhibitor of kappa B and p65 subunit of NF-κB, resulting in diminished levels of downstream inflammatory factors including interleukin (IL)-1 β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, macrophage inflammatory protein 2, cyclooxygenase-2, and prostaglandin E2. Moreover, CGA inhibited apoptosis by reducing Bax, cytochrome C, and caspase 3 and 9 expression while increasing Bcl-2 levels. The present review discusses several mechanisms through which CGA may exert its protective role against such agents. Chemical and natural toxic agents affect human health. Phenolic antioxidant compounds can suppress free radical production and combat these toxins. Chlorogenic acid is a plant polyphenol present in the human diet and exerts strong antioxidant properties that can effectively help in the treatment of various toxicities.

Clinical and Preclinical Studies of Fermented Foods and Their Effects on Alzheimer’s Disease

The focus on managing Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is shifting towards prevention through lifestyle modification instead of treatments since the currently available treatment options are only capable of providing symptomatic relief marginally and result in various side effects. Numerous studies have reported that the intake of fermented foods resulted in the successful management of AD. Food fermentation is a biochemical process where the microorganisms metabolize the constituents of raw food materials, giving vastly different organoleptic properties and additional nutritional value, and improved biosafety effects in the final products. The consumption of fermented foods is associated with a wide array of nutraceutical benefits, including anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, immunomodulatory, and hypocholesterolemic properties. Due to their promising health benefits, fermented food products have a great prospect for commercialization in the food industry. This paper reviews the memory and cognitive enhancement and neuroprotective potential of fermented food products on AD, the recently commercialized fermented food products in the health and food industries, and their limitations. The literature reviewed here demonstrates a growing demand for fermented food products as alternative therapeutic options for the prevention and management of AD.

All Polyphenols Are Not Created Equal: Exploring the Diversity of Phenolic Metabolites

Dietary intake of plant polyphenols is significant, and many of them enter a human body as a highly diverse pool of ring-fission phenolic metabolites arising from digestion and microbial catabolism of the parental structures. Difficulty in designing the uniform intervention studies and limited tools calibrated to detect and quantify the inherent complexity of phenolic metabolites hindered efforts to establish and validate protective health effects of these molecules. Here, we highlight the recent findings that describe novel complex downstream metabolite profiles with a particular focus on dihydrophenolic (phenylpropanoic) acids of microbial origin, ingested and phase II-transformed methylated phenolic metabolites (methylated sinks), and small phenolic metabolites derived from the breakdown of different classes of flavonoids, stilbenoids, and tannins. There is a critical need for precise identification of the individual phenolic metabolite signatures originating from different polyphenol groups to enable future translation of these findings into break-through nutritional interventions and dietary guidelines.

Bibenzyl synthesis in Cannabis sativa L

This study focuses on the biosynthesis of a suite of specialized metabolites from Cannabis that are known as the 'bibenzyls'. In planta, bibenzyls accumulate in response to fungal infection and various other biotic stressors; however, it is their widely recognized anti-inflammatory properties in various animal cell models that have garnered recent therapeutic interest. We propose that these compounds are synthesized via a branch point from the core phenylpropanoid pathway in Cannabis, in a three-step sequence. First, various hydroxycinnamic acids are esterified to acyl-coenzyme A (CoA) by a member of the 4-coumarate-CoA ligase family (Cs4CL4). Next, these CoA esters are reduced by two double-bond reductases (CsDBR2 and CsDBR3) that form their corresponding dihydro-CoA derivatives from preferred substrates. Finally, the bibenzyl backbone is completed by a polyketide synthase that specifically condenses malonyl-CoA with these dihydro-hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA derivatives to form two bibenzyl scaffolds: dihydropiceatannol and dihydroresveratrol. Structural determination of this 'bibenzyl synthase' enzyme (CsBBS2) indicates that a narrowing of the hydrophobic pocket surrounding the active site evolved to sterically favor the non-canonical and more flexible dihydro-hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA substrates in comparison with their oxidized relatives. Accordingly, three point mutations that were introduced into CsBBS2 proved sufficient to restore some enzymatic activity with an oxidized substrate, in vitro. Together, the identification of this set of Cannabis enzymes provides a valuable contribution to the growing 'parts prospecting' inventory that supports the rational metabolic engineering of natural product therapeutics.

Small phenolic and indolic gut-dependent molecules in the primate central nervous system: levels vs. bioactivity

INTRODUCTION

A rapidly growing body of data documents associations between disease of the brain and small molecules generated by gut-microbiota (GMB). While such metabolites can affect brain function through a variety of mechanisms, the most direct action would be on the central nervous system (CNS) itself.

OBJECTIVE

Identify indolic and phenolic GMB-dependent small molecules that reach bioactive concentrations in primate CNS.

METHODS

We conducted a PubMed search for metabolomic studies of the primate CNS [brain tissue or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)] and then selected for phenolic or indolic metabolites that (i) had been quantified, (ii) were GMB-dependent. For each chemical we then conducted a search for studies of bioactivity conducted in vitro in human cells of any kind or in CNS cells from the mouse or rat.

RESULTS

36 metabolites of interests were identified in primate CNS through targeted metabolomics. Quantification was available for 31/36 and in vitro bioactivity for 23/36. The reported CNS range for 8 metabolites 2-(3-hydroxyphenyl)acetic acid, 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetic acid, 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid, (E)-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)prop-2-enoic acid [caffeic acid], 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 2-acetamido-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)propanoic acid [N-acetyltryptophan], 1H-indol-3-yl hydrogen sulfate [indoxyl-3-sulfate] overlapped with a bioactive concentration. However, the number and quality of relevant studies of CNS neurochemistry as well as of bioactivity were highly limited. Structural isomers, multiple metabolites and potential confounders were inadequately considered.

CONCLUSION

The potential direct bioactivity of GMB-derived indolic and phenolic molecules on primate CNS remains largely unknown. The field requires additional strategies to identify and prioritize screening of the most promising small molecules that enter the CNS.

A Review on Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors Used in Chlorogenic Acid Electroanalysis

Chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoylquinic acid) is a phenolic compound from the hydroxycinnamic acid family. Epidemiological, biological, and biochemical studies concur to support the beneficial role of chlorogenic acid in human health, along with other dietary phenolic compounds. Thus, chlorogenic acid has been reported to exert inhibitory effects on carcinogenesis in the large intestine, liver, and tongue, and a protective action on oxidative stress in vivo, together with anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic and antihypertensive activities. It is also claimed to have antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral effects with relatively low toxicity and side effects, alongside properties that do not lead to antimicrobial resistance. Due to its importance, numerous methods for determining chlorogenic acid (CGA), as well as for its derivatives from coffee beans and other plants, were elaborated. The most frequently used methods are infrared spectroscopy, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and chemiluminescence. Although these methods proved to be efficient for quantifying CGA and its derived products, a number of deficiencies were identified: they are time consuming, laborious, and require expensive instruments. Therefore, electrochemical methods have been developed and used in the determination of CGA in different nutraceuticals or food products. The present review aims to present the main progresses and performance characteristics of electrochemical sensors and biosensors used to detect CGA, as it is reported in a high number of relevant scientific papers published mainly in the last decade.

Effect of different patterns of consumption of coffee and a cocoa-based product containing coffee on the nutrikinetics and urinary excretion of phenolic compounds

BACKGROUND

Coffee consumption is associated with a reduced risk of several chronic diseases in a dose-dependent manner. Chronic intake results in the transient appearance of bioactive phenolic metabolites in the circulatory system. However, there is a lack of information on the impact of different patterns of coffee consumption on plasma and urinary profiles of phenolic metabolites.

OBJECTIVES

Plasma and urinary phenolic metabolites were investigated following regular consumption of different daily dosages of coffee or cocoa-based products containing coffee (CBPCC) under a real-life setting.

METHODS

A repeated-dose, randomized, crossover human intervention was conducted with 21 healthy volunteers. For 1 mo, participants consumed 1) 1 cup of coffee (1C), 2) 3 cups of coffee (3C), or 3) 1 cup of coffee + 2 CBPCC twice daily (PC). Plasma and urine samples were collected over a 24-h period after each treatment. The nutrikinetics and urinary excretion of native, human phase II, and colonic metabolites were assessed.

RESULTS

A total of 51 (poly)phenolic metabolites were quantified, with 41 metabolites being strictly related to coffee consumption. Significant differences were observed among treatments for most of the metabolites. The metabolites present in the highest amounts were the hydroxycinnamate, phenylpropanoic acid, benzaldehyde, and benzene classes, along with (-)-epicatechin and phenyl-γ-valerolactone derivatives after PC treatment. Daily average concentrations did not exceed 200 nmol/L and were <100 nmol/L for most of the metabolites. The excretion of coffee phenolics ranged from 40% to 70% of intake, indicating that coffee hydroxycinnamates are notably more bioavailable than previously thought. Interindividual variability was also investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

The absorption, metabolism, nutrikinetic profile, and bioavailability of coffee phenolics were established for different patterns of coffee consumption under real-life conditions. This work provides the basis for further nutritional epidemiology research and mode-of-action cell-based studies. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03166540.

Therapeutic Promises of Chlorogenic Acid with Special Emphasis on its Anti-Obesity Property

BACKGROUND

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a quinic acid conjugate of caffeic acid. It is an ester formed between caffeic acid and the 3-hydroxyl of L-quinic acid. This polyphenol is naturally present in substantial amount in the green coffee beans. Minor quantities of CGA are also reported in apples, eggplant, blueberries, tomatoes, strawberries and potatoes. CGA is reported to be beneficial in hypertension, hyperglycemia, antimicrobial, antitumor, memory enhancer, weight management etc. Further, it is also reported to have anticancer, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Since the last decade, CGA drew public attention for its widely recommended use as a medicine or natural food additive supplement for the management of obesity.

OBJECTIVE

The current review explores the medicinal promises of CGA and emphasizes on its antiobese property as reported by various scientific reports and publication.

CONCLUSION

CGA shows promises as an antioxidant, glycemic control agent, anti-hypertensive, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, neuro-protective and anti-obesity agent. It primarily activates the AMPactivated protein kinase, inhibits 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme-A reductase and strengthens the activity of carnitine palmitoyltransferase to control the obesity.

Urine and Plasma Metabolome of Healthy Adults Consuming the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) Diet: A Randomized Pilot Feeding Study

We aimed to identify plasma and urine metabolites altered by the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet in a post-hoc analysis of a pilot feeding trial. Twenty adult participants with un-medicated hypertension consumed a Control diet for one week followed by 2 weeks of random assignment to either Control or DASH diet. Non-missing fasting plasma (n = 56) and 24-h urine (n = 40) were used to profile metabolites using untargeted gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Linear models were used to compare metabolite levels between the groups. In urine, 19 identifiable untargeted metabolites differed between groups at p < 0.05. These included a variety of phenolic acids and their microbial metabolites that were higher during the DASH diet, with many at false discovery rate (FDR) adjusted p < 0.2. In plasma, eight identifiable untargeted metabolites were different at p < 0.05, but only gamma-tocopherol was significantly lower on DASH at FDR adjusted p < 0.2. The results provide insights into the mechanisms of benefit of the DASH diet.

A systematic review to identify biomarkers of intake for fermented food products

Background

Fermented foods are ubiquitous in human diets and often lauded for their sensory, nutritious, and health-promoting qualities. However, precise associations between the intake of fermented foods and health have not been well-established. This is in part due to the limitations of current dietary assessment tools that rely on subjective reporting, making them prone to memory-related errors and reporting bias. The identification of food intake biomarkers (FIBs) bypasses this challenge by providing an objective measure of intake. Despite numerous studies reporting on FIBs for various types of fermented foods and drinks, unique biomarkers associated with the fermentation process (“fermentation-dependent” biomarkers) have not been well documented. We therefore conducted a comprehensive, systematic review of the literature to identify biomarkers of fermented foods commonly consumed in diets across the world.

Results

After title, abstract, and full-text screening, extraction of data from 301 articles resulted in an extensive list of compounds that were detected in human biofluids following the consumption of various fermented foods, with the majority of articles focusing on coffee (69), wine (69 articles), cocoa (62), beer (34), and bread (29). The identified compounds from all included papers were consolidated and sorted into FIBs proposed for a specific food, for a food group, or for the fermentation process. Alongside food-specific markers (e.g., trigonelline for coffee), and food-group markers (e.g., pentadecanoic acid for dairy intake), several fermentation-dependent markers were revealed. These comprised compounds related to the fermentation process of a particular food, such as mannitol (wine), 2-ethylmalate (beer), methionine (sourdough bread, cheese), theabrownins (tea), and gallic acid (tea, wine), while others were indicative of more general fermentation processes (e.g., ethanol from alcoholic fermentation, 3-phenyllactic acid from lactic fermentation).

Conclusions

Fermented foods comprise a heterogeneous group of foods. While many of the candidate FIBs identified were found to be non-specific, greater specificity may be observed when considering a combination of compounds identified for individual fermented foods, food groups, and from fermentation processes. Future studies that focus on how fermentation impacts the composition and nutritional quality of food substrates could help to identify novel biomarkers of fermented food intake.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12263-021-00686-4.

Cardiovascular protection effect of chlorogenic acid: focus on the molecular mechanism

Vascular endothelial cells have a variety of functions such as the control of blood coagulation, vascular permeability, and tone regulation, as well as quiesce of immune cells. Endothelial dysfunction is a cardiovascular events predictor, which is considered the initial stage in atherosclerosis development. It is characterized by alterations in endothelium functions due to imbalanced vasodilators and vasoconstrictors, procoagulant and anticoagulant mediators, as well as growth inhibitor and promotor substances. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is the primary polyphenol in coffee and some fruits. It has many health-promoting properties, especially in the cardiovascular system. Many studies investigated the efficacy and mechanism of this compound in vascular health. CGA has several vascular benefits such as anti-atherosclerosis, anti-thrombosis, and anti-hypertensive. This review focuses on the molecular mechanism of CGA in vascular health.

Polyphenols and Human Health: The Role of Bioavailability

Polyphenols are a group of phytochemicals with potential health-promoting effects. They are classified as flavonoid (flavonols, flavanols, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, and anthocyanins) and non-flavonoid molecules (phenolic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, lignans, stilbenes, and tannins). Although an increasing number of trials have shown a correlation among polyphenol consumption and a reduction in risk factors for chronic diseases, discrepancies in explaining their positive effects have been found in terms of the bioavailability. In fact, polyphenols show a low bioavailability due to several factors: interaction with the food matrix, the metabolic processes mediated by the liver (phase I and II metabolism), intestine and microbiota. On the other hand, the biological activities of phenol compounds may be mediated by their metabolites, which are produced in vivo, and recent studies have confirmed that these molecules may have antioxidant and anti-phlogistic properties. This review discusses the studies performed in vivo, which consider the polyphenol bioavailability and their different food sources. Factors influencing the biological effects of the main classes of polyphenols are also considered.

Neuroprotective Effects of Coffee Bioactive Compounds: A Review

Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide. It is usually identified as a stimulant because of a high content of caffeine. However, caffeine is not the only coffee bioactive component. The coffee beverage is in fact a mixture of a number of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, especially chlorogenic acids (in green beans) and caffeic acid (in roasted coffee beans), alkaloids (caffeine and trigonelline), and the diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol). Extensive research shows that coffee consumption appears to have beneficial effects on human health. Regular coffee intake may protect from many chronic disorders, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and some types of cancer. Importantly, coffee consumption seems to be also correlated with a decreased risk of developing some neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and dementia. Regular coffee intake may also reduce the risk of stroke. The mechanism underlying these effects is, however, still poorly understood. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the neuroprotective potential of the main bioactive coffee components, i.e., caffeine, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, trigonelline, kahweol, and cafestol. Data from both in vitro and in vivo preclinical experiments, including their potential therapeutic applications, are reviewed and discussed. Epidemiological studies and clinical reports on this matter are also described. Moreover, potential molecular mechanism(s) by which coffee bioactive components may provide neuroprotection are reviewed.

Oxylipin regulation by phenolic compounds from coffee beverage: Positive outcomes from a randomized controlled trial in healthy adults and macrophage derived foam cells

Oxylipins are considered biomarkers related to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). They are generated in vivo via the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids as a result of oxidative stress and inflammation. Oxylipins are involved in vascular functions and are produced during foam cell formation in atherogenesis. Additionally, the consumption coffee is associated with the regulation on a particular oxylipin group, the F_2t-isoprostanes (F_2t-IsoPs). This function has been attributed to the chlorogenic acids (CGAs) from the coffee beverage. Considering the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of CGAs, we evaluated the effects of two types of coffee that provided 787 mg CGAs/day (Coffee A) and 407 mg CGAs/day (Coffee B) by reducing 35 selected oxylipins in healthy subjects. Furthermore, we assessed the effect of CGAs on the cellular proatherogenic response in foam cells by using an oxidized LDL (oxLDL)-macrophage interaction model. After eight weeks of coffee consumption, the contents of 12 urine oxylipins were reduced. However, the effect of Coffee A showed a stronger decrease in IsoPs, dihomo-IsoPs, prostaglandins (PGs) and PG metabolites, probably due to its higher content of CGAs. Neither of the two coffees reduced the levels of oxLDL. Moreover, the in vitro oxylipin induction by oxLDL on foam cells was ameliorated by phenolic acids and CGAs, including the inhibition of IsoPs and PGs by caffeoylquinic and dicaffeoylquinic acids, respectively, while the phenolic acids maintained both antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. These findings suggest that coffee antioxidants are strong regulators of oxylipins related to CVDs. The clinical trial was registered on the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, WHO primary registry (RPCEC00000168).

Coffee in cancer chemoprevention: an updated review

INTRODUCTION

Chemoprevention of cancer refers to the use of natural or synthetic compounds to abolish or perturb a variety of steps in tumor initiation, promotion, and progression. This can be realized through different mechanisms, including activation of free radical scavenging enzymes, control of chronic inflammation, and downregulation of specific signaling pathways.

AREAS COVERED

The goal of this article is to critically review recent evidence on association between coffee and prevention of different types of cancer, with particular emphasis on the molecular mechanisms and the bioactive compounds involved in its anticancer activity.

EXPERT OPINION

Coffee is a mixture of different compounds able to decrease the risk of many types of cancer. However, its potential anticancer activity is not completely understood. Hundreds of biologically active components such as caffeine, chlorogenic acid, diterpenes are contained in coffee. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the anticancer effects of coffee and fully understand the role of different confounding factors playing a role in its reported anticancer activity.

β-Glucuronidase- and OATP2B1-mediated drug interaction of scutellarin in Dengzhan Xixin Injection: A formulation aspect

Scutellarin is the major and active constituent of Dengzhan Xixin Injection (DZXX), a traditional Chinese medicine prepared from the aqueous extract of Erigeron breviscapus and widely used for the treatment of various cerebrovascular diseases in clinic. In present study, the possible pharmacokinetic differences of scutellarin after intravenous administration of scutellarin alone or DZXX were explored. Additional, the potential roles of β-glucuronidase (GLU) and OATP2B1 in drug-drug interaction (DDI) between scutellarin and constituents of DZXX were further evaluated in vitro. The plasma concentration, urinary and biliary excretion of scutellarin in rats after administration of DZXX, were significantly higher than those received scutellarin, while pharmacokinetic profile of Apigenin 7-O-glucuronide (AG) in rats was similar no matter AG or DZXX group. Furthermore, higher concentration in brain and plasma, however, lower level of scutellarin in intestine were observed after intravenous administration of DZXX. Finally, AG and caffeoylquinic acid esters were found to significantly inhibit GLU and OATP2B1 in vitro, which might explain, at least in part, the pharmacokinetic DDI between scutellarin and other chemical constituents in DZXX. The findings provided deep insight into the prescription-formulating principle in DZXX for treating the cerebrovascular diseases.

Biomarkers of Nutrition and Health: New Tools for New Approaches

A main challenge in nutritional studies is the valid and reliable assessment of food intake, as well as its effects on the body. Generally, food intake measurement is based on self-reported dietary intake questionnaires, which have inherent limitations. They can be overcome by the use of biomarkers, capable of objectively assessing food consumption without the bias of self-reported dietary assessment. Another major goal is to determine the biological effects of foods and their impact on health. Systems analysis of dynamic responses may help to identify biomarkers indicative of intake and effects on the body at the same time, possibly in relation to individuals' health/disease states. Such biomarkers could be used to quantify intake and validate intake questionnaires, analyse physiological or pathological responses to certain food components or diets, identify persons with specific dietary deficiency, provide information on inter-individual variations or help to formulate personalized dietary recommendations to achieve optimal health for particular phenotypes, currently referred as "precision nutrition." In this regard, holistic approaches using global analysis methods (omics approaches), capable of gathering high amounts of data, appear to be very useful to identify new biomarkers and to enhance our understanding of the role of food in health and disease.

TNF-α-induced oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in EA.hy926 cells is prevented by mate and green coffee extracts, 5-caffeoylquinic acid and its microbial metabolite, dihydrocaffeic acid

The main phenol in mate and coffee, 5-caffeoylquinic-acid (5-CQA), and its relevant microbial metabolites, dihydrocaffeic (DHCA) and dihydroferulic (DHFA) acids, have shown oxidative-stress protective effects in HepG2 cells. To evaluate possible endothelial-protective effects of the extracts and compounds, endothelial EA.hy926 cells were pre-treated with yerba mate (YME) and green coffee bean (GCBE) phenolic extracts, 5-CQA, DHCA and DHFA and afterwards stressed with tumour-necrosis-factor-alpha (TNF-α). Then oxidative-stress markers and endothelial-nitric-oxide-synthase levels were studied. TNF-α (10 ng/mL, 24 h) depleted reduced glutathione (GSH) and eNOS levels, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and reductase (GR) activities, and protein oxidation (carbonyl groups, CG) in EA.hy926 cells. Pre-treatment with YME, GCBE, 5-CQA, DHCA at certain physiological concentrations, lowered ROS production, recovered depleted GSH, reduced GR and GPx activities, and CG levels, and enhanced eNOS concentration.. YME, GCBE and 5-CQA show antioxidant effects in endothelial cells playing DHCA an important role in such protection; moreover, the extracts, 5-CQA, DHCA and DHFA increased eNOS levels.

A Prospective Randomized, Double-Blind, Two-Period Crossover Pharmacokinetic Trial Comparing Green Coffee Bean Extract-A Botanically Sourced Caffeine-With a Synthetic USP Control

Coffee is a primary dietary source of the chlorogenic acids (CGAs) of phenolic compounds. Coffee contains caffeine and other phytonutrients, including CGAs. Caffeine on its own has been well characterized and descried pharmacokinetically in the literature, less so for CGAs. The purpose of this double‐blind crossover study was to determine the comparative pharmacokinetics of CGAs with caffeine (natural extract) with synthetic caffeine (US Pharmacopeia [USP] standard). Sixteen healthy male subjects were randomly assigned to take 1 dose of product 1, 60 mg of botanically sourced caffeine from 480 mg of green coffee bean extract, or product 2, 60 mg of synthetic USP caffeine, with 5 days between. Blood analysis was done to determine the levels of CGA compounds, more specifically 3‐, 4‐, and 5‐caffeoylquinic acid (CQA), and serum caffeine. The natural caffeine extract exhibited mean peak concentrations (C_max) of 3‐CQA (11.4 ng/mL), 4‐CQA (6.84 ng/mL), and 5‐CQA (7.20 ng/mL). The mean systemic 4‐hour exposure (AUC_0–4 h) was 3‐CQA (27.3 ng·h/mL), 4‐CQA (16.1 ng·h/mL), and 5‐CQA (15.7 ng·h/mL). The median t_max was 3‐CQA (1.00 hour), 4‐CQA (1.00 hour), and 5‐CQA (1.50 hours). The t_max of caffeine was 0.75 hours (natural extract) and 0.63 hours (synthetic caffeine). C_max and AUC_0–4 h of serum caffeine were statistically equivalent between products. The geometric least‐squares mean ratios (GMRs) of C_max and AUC_{0–4 h} of caffeine were 97.77% (natural extract) and 98.33% (synthetic caffeine). It would appear that CGA compounds from the natural caffeine extract are bioavailable, and 3‐CGA may be the compound most absorbed. In addition, caffeine sourced from natural extract versus synthetic were statistically similar for pharmacokinetic parameters. There were no adverse events or safety concerns.

Microbial Biotransformation of a Polyphenol-Rich Potato Extract Affects Antioxidant Capacity in a Simulated Gastrointestinal Model

A multistage human gastrointestinal model was used to digest a polyphenol-rich potato extract containing chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and rutin as the primary polyphenols, to assess for their microbial biotransformation and to measure changes in antioxidant capacity in up to 24 h of digestion. The biotransformation of polyphenols was assessed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Antioxidant capacity was measured by the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. Among the colonic reactors, parent (poly)phenols were detected in the ascending (AC), but not the transverse (TC) or descending (DC) colons. The most abundant microbial phenolic metabolites in all colonic reactors included derivatives of propionic acid, acetic acid, and benzoic acid. As compared to the baseline, an earlier increase in antioxidant capacity (T = 8 h) was seen in the stomach and small intestine vessels as compared to the AC (T = 16 h) and TC and DC (T = 24 h). The increase in antioxidant capacity observed in the DC and TC can be linked to the accumulation of microbial smaller-molecular-weight phenolic catabolites, as the parent polyphenolics had completely degraded in those vessels. The colonic microbial digestion of potato-based polyphenols could lead to improved colonic health, as this generates phenolic metabolites with significant antioxidant potential.

Chlorogenic Acid: The Conceivable Chemosensitizer Leading to Cancer Growth Suppression

New paradigm in cancer pathogenesis revealed that microenvironmental conditions significantly contribute to cancer. Hence, Warburg stated that cancer is a metabolic disease. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a polyphenol that is found abundantly in coffee. This compound has proven ability in ameliorating some metabolic diseases through various pathways. This article will elaborate the potency of CGA as a chemosensitizer in suppressing tumor growth through a metabolic pathway. AMPK pathway is the main cell metabolic pathway that is activated by CGA in some studies. Moreover, CGA inhibited EGFR/PI3K/mTOR, HIF, VEGF pathways and MAPK/ERK pathway that may suppress tumor cell growth. Furthermore, CGA induced intracellular DNA damage and topoisomerase I- and II-DNA complexes formation that plays a key role in apoptosis. Conclusively, based on the ability of CGA in activate and inhibit some important pathways in cancer metabolism, it may act as a chemosensitizing agent leading to cancer growth suppression.

Chlorogenic acid (CGA): A pharmacological review and call for further research

Phenolic acids have recently gained substantial attention due to their various practical, biological and pharmacological effects. Chlorogenic Acid (CGA, 3-CQA) is a most abundant isomer among caffeoylquinic acid isomers (3-, 4-, and 5-CQA), that currently known as 5-CQA as per guidelines of IUPAC. It is one of the most available acids among phenolic acid compounds which can be naturally found in green coffee extracts and tea. CGA is an important and biologically active dietary polyphenol, playing several important and therapeutic roles such as antioxidant activity, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, neuroprotective, anti-obesity, antiviral, anti-microbial, anti-hypertension, free radicals scavenger and a central nervous system (CNS) stimulator. In addition, it has been found that CGA could modulate lipid metabolism and glucose in both genetically and healthy metabolic related disorders. It is speculated that CGA can perform crucial roles in lipid and glucose metabolism regulation and thus help to treat many disorders such as hepatic steatosis, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity as well. Furthermore, this phenolic acid (CGA) causes hepatoprotective effects by protecting animals from chemical or lipopolysaccharide-induced injuries. The hypocholesterolemic influence of CGA can result from the altered metabolism of nutrients, including amino acids, glucose and fatty acids (FA). The purpose of this review was to broaden the scope of knowledge of researchers to conduct more studies on this subject to both unveil and optimize its biological and pharmacological effects. As a result, CGA may be practically used as a natural safeguard food additive to replace the synthetic antibiotics and thereby reduce the medicinal cost.

Influence of the Form of Administration of Chlorogenic Acids on Oxidative Stress Induced by High fat Diet in Rats

Green coffee is one of health-promoting supplements of the diet, applied in the form of either preparations or enriched food products. Its positive impact is manifested by mitigation of the development of certain tumors, e.g., in the colon and liver, and type 2 diabetes. Many studies proved that chlorogenic acids are the main active substances in green coffee. The bioavailability of these compounds depends among others on their interactions with other components of the diet, mainly proteins. When they are used as food ingredients, their bioavailability is additionally decreased because of the decomposition or interactions with other ingredients during food processing. The undesirable changes may be limited among others by microencapsulation, for example with β-cyclodextrin. In this study, rats were fed the pro-oxidative high fat diet, which was supplemented with chlorogenic acids from green coffee that were used in four forms such as: a purified extract, complexes of chlorogenic acids and β-cyclodextrin, and bread supplemented with either the extract or the β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex. Chlorogenic acids added to bread because of the reduced absorption from the crumb in the small intestine and increased passage to the colon, contributed to the beneficial modification of enzymatic activities of intestinal microbiota. When added directly to the diet, they contributed to the improved antioxidant status in the liver and kidneys, lowered glucose level and increased HDL level. A high ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione in the liver and a high concentration of antioxidants in the blood serum were observed after administration of chlorogenic acids in the form of inclusion complexes with β-cyclodextrin, indicating that microencapsulation increased their bioaccessibility due to the limited interactions with other components of the diet.

Effects of subacute ingestion of chlorogenic acids on sleep architecture and energy metabolism through activity of the autonomic nervous system: a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blinded cross-over trial

Chlorogenic acids (CGA) are the most abundant polyphenols in coffee. Continuous consumption of CGA reduces body fat and body weight. Since energy metabolism and sleep are controlled by common regulatory factors, consumption of CGA might modulate sleep. Lack of sleep has been identified as a risk factor for obesity, hypertension and type 2 diabetes. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of ingesting CGA over 5 d on energy metabolism and sleep quality in humans. A total of nine healthy subjects (four male and five female) completed a placebo-controlled, double-blinded, cross-over intervention study. Subjects consumed a test beverage containing 0 or 600 mg of CGA for 5 d. On the fifth night, subjects stayed in a whole-room metabolic chamber to measure energy metabolism; sleep was evaluated using polysomnographic recording. It was found that CGA shortened sleep latency (9 (sem 2) v. 16 (sem 4) min, P<0·05) compared with the control, whereas no effect on sleep architecture, such as slow-wave sleep, rapid eye movement or waking after sleep onset, was observed. Indirect calorimetry revealed that consumption of CGA increased fat oxidation (510 (sem 84) kJ/8 h (122 (sem 20) kcal/8 h) v. 331 (sem 79) kJ/8 h (81 (sem 19) kcal/8 h), P<0·05) but did not affect energy expenditure during sleep. Consumption of CGA enhanced parasympathetic activity assessed from heart-rate variability during sleep (999 (sem 77) v. 919 (sem 54), P<0·05). A period of 5-d CGA consumption significantly increased fat oxidation during sleep, suggesting that beverages containing CGA may be beneficial to reduce body fat and prevent obesity. Consumption of CGA shortened sleep latency and did not adversely affect sleep quality.

The potential effects of chlorogenic acid, the main phenolic components in coffee, on health: a comprehensive review of the literature

Chlorogenic acid (CGA), an important biologically active dietary polyphenol, is produced by certain plant species and is a major component of coffee. Reduction in the risk of a variety of diseases following CGA consumption has been mentioned in recent basic and clinical research studies. This systematic review discusses in vivo animal and human studies of the physiological and biochemical effects of chlorogenic acids (CGAs) on biomarkers of chronic disease. We searched PubMed, Embase, Amed and Scopus using the following search terms: ("chlorogenic acid" OR "green coffee bean extract") AND (human OR animal) (last performed on April 1st, 2015) for relevant literature on the in vivo effects of CGAs in animal and human models, including clinical trials on cardiovascular, metabolic, cancerogenic, neurological and other functions. After exclusion of editorials and letters, uncontrolled observations, duplicate and not relevant publications the remaining 94 studies have been reviewed. The biological properties of CGA in addition to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects have recently been reported. It is postulated that CGA is able to exert pivotal roles on glucose and lipid metabolism regulation and on the related disorders, e.g. diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), obesity, cancer, and hepatic steatosis. The wide range of potential health benefits of CGA, including its anti-diabetic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-obesity impacts, may provide a non-pharmacological and non-invasive approach for treatment or prevention of some chronic diseases. In this study, the effects of CGAs on different aspects of health by reviewing the related literatures have been discussed.

The colonic metabolites dihydrocaffeic acid and dihydroferulic acid are more effective inhibitors of in vitro platelet activation than their phenolic precursors

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide.

Bioavailability of the ferulic acid-derived phenolic compounds of a rice bran enzymatic extract and their activity against superoxide production

Rice bran is an exceptional source of such antioxidant molecules as γ-oryzanol and ferulic acid, but their bioavailability and metabolism within this matrix remain unknown.

A Review of Fermented Foods with Beneficial Effects on Brain and Cognitive Function

Around the world, fermentation of foods has been adopted over many generations, primarily due to their commercial significance with enriched flavors and high-profile nutrients. The increasing application of fermented foods is further promoted by recent evidence on their health benefits, beyond the traditionally recognized effects on the digestive system. With recent advances in the understanding of gut-brain interactions, there have also been reports suggesting the fermented food's efficacy, particularly for cognitive function improvements. These results are strengthened by the proposed biological effects of fermented foods, including neuroprotection against neurotoxicity and reactive oxygen species. This paper reviews the beneficial health effects of fermented foods with particular emphasis on cognitive enhancement and neuroprotective effects. With an extensive review of fermented foods and their potential cognitive benefits, this paper may promote commercially feasible applications of fermented foods as natural remedies to cognitive problems.