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Fruhauf S, Pühringer D, Thamhesl M, Fajtl P, Kunz-Vekiru E, Höbartner-Gussl A, Schatzmayr G, Adam G, Damborsky J, Djinovic-Carugo K, Prokop Z, Moll WD. Bacterial Lactonases ZenA with Noncanonical Structural Features Hydrolyze the Mycotoxin Zearalenone. ACS Catal 2024; 14:3392-3410. [PMID: 38449531 PMCID: PMC10913051 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.4c00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogenic polyketide produced by Fusarium graminearum and other phytopathogenic members of the genus Fusarium. Contamination of cereals with ZEN is frequent, and hydrolytic detoxification with fungal lactonases has been explored. Here, we report the isolation of a bacterial strain, Rhodococcus erythropolis PFA D8-1, with ZEN hydrolyzing activity, cloning of the gene encoding α/β hydrolase ZenA encoded on the linear megaplasmid pSFRL1, and biochemical characterization of nine homologues. Furthermore, we report site-directed mutagenesis as well as structural analysis of the dimeric ZenARe of R. erythropolis and the more thermostable, tetrameric ZenAScfl of Streptomyces coelicoflavus with and without bound ligands. The X-ray crystal structures not only revealed canonical features of α/β hydrolases with a cap domain including a Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad but also unusual features including an uncommon oxyanion hole motif and a peripheral, short antiparallel β-sheet involved in tetramer interactions. Presteady-state kinetic analyses for ZenARe and ZenAScfl identified balanced rate-limiting steps of the reaction cycle, which can change depending on temperature. Some new bacterial ZEN lactonases have lower KM and higher kcat than the known fungal ZEN lactonases and may lend themselves to enzyme technology development for the degradation of ZEN in feed or food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Fruhauf
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Dominic Pühringer
- Department
for Structural and Computational Biology, Max Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Campus Vienna Biocenter 5, Vienna 1030, Austria
| | - Michaela Thamhesl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Patricia Fajtl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Elisavet Kunz-Vekiru
- Institute
of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology
IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources
and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Andreas Höbartner-Gussl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Gerd Schatzmayr
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Institute
of Microbial Genetics, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Straße
24, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt
Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty
of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Bld. A13, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
- International
Clinical Research Center, St. Anne’s
University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, Brno 656
91, Czech Republic
| | - Kristina Djinovic-Carugo
- Department
for Structural and Computational Biology, Max Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Campus Vienna Biocenter 5, Vienna 1030, Austria
- Department
of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
- European
Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Grenoble, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt
Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty
of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Bld. A13, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
- International
Clinical Research Center, St. Anne’s
University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, Brno 656
91, Czech Republic
| | - Wulf-Dieter Moll
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
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Li S, Chen S, Meng Y, Zhang S, Cai T. Identification and pretreatment analysis of endogenous degradation products of patulin in zebrafish. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 184:114414. [PMID: 38128688 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Identification and pretreatment analysis of endogenous metabolites of patulin (PAT) in zebrafish were successfully carried out using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS. Three major metabolites, namely hydroascladiol, E-ascladiol, and Z-ascladiol, were identified. They exhibited similar fragmentation pathways to PAT, with the structurally significant ions *b' and *c' generated through the cleavage of the side chains of *b and *c, respectively. These ions were crucial for confirming the modification site and have been confirmed as characteristic fragments for the identification of PAT metabolites. Furthermore, a pretreatment method for analyzing PAT and the three metabolites in zebrafish was proposed, using solid-phase-assisted liquid/liquid extraction (SLLE) and matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) techniques. The initial purification process involved loading the aqueous phase onto a macroporous diatomaceous column, followed by elution with acetonitrile. Following this, neutral alumina powder was added to the organic phase, effectively eliminating interference from hydrophilic and lipid-soluble compounds through the optimization of this step. Due to their structural similarity, the three metabolites were semi-quantitatively analyzed using a PAT standard curve. The results demonstrated a good linear relationship in the concentration range of 0.001-0.02 μg/mL (r2 ≥ 0.999). The limit of detection for PAT and the three metabolites ranged from 0.01 to 0.03 mg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Li
- Ningbo No2 Hospital, Ningbo, China; Guoke Ningbo Life Science and Health Industry Research Institute, Ningbo, China
| | - Shubing Chen
- Ningbo Customs Technology Center, Ningbo, 315040, China
| | - Yanan Meng
- Guoke Ningbo Life Science and Health Industry Research Institute, Ningbo, China
| | | | - Ting Cai
- Ningbo No2 Hospital, Ningbo, China
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3
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Schmidhauser M, Hankele AK, Ulbrich SE. Reconsidering "low-dose"-Impacts of oral estrogen exposure during preimplantation embryo development. Mol Reprod Dev 2023; 90:445-458. [PMID: 36864780 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.23675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
Perturbations of estrogen signaling during developmental stages of high plasticity may lead to adverse effects later in life. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) are compounds that interfere with the endocrine system by particularly mimicking the action of endogenous estrogens as functional agonists or antagonists. EDCs compose synthetic and naturally occurring compounds discharged into the environment, which may be taken up via skin contact, inhalation, orally due to contaminated food or water, or via the placenta during in utero development. Although estrogens are efficiently metabolized by the liver, the role of circulating glucuro- and/or sulpho-conjugated estrogen metabolites in the body has not been fully addressed to date. Particularly, the role of intracellular cleavage to free functional estrogens could explain the hitherto unknown mode of action of adverse effects of EDC at very low concentrations currently considered safe. We summarize and discuss findings on estrogenic EDC with a focus on early embryonic development to highlight the need for reconsidering low dose effects of EDC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meret Schmidhauser
- ETH Zurich, Animal Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Susanne E Ulbrich
- ETH Zurich, Animal Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Zurich, Switzerland
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4
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Mandal P, Lanaridi O, Warth B, Ansari KM. Metabolomics as an emerging approach for deciphering the biological impact and toxicity of food contaminants: the case of mycotoxins. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023; 64:9859-9883. [PMID: 37283072 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2217451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to mycotoxins through the dietary route occurs on a daily basis while their deleterious effects are exhibited in the form of ailments, such as inflammation, cancer, and hormonal imbalance. The negative impact of mycotoxins can be attributed to their interaction with various biomolecules and their interference in metabolic pathways. The activity of biomolecules, such as enzymes/receptors, which engage the intricate mechanism of endogenous metabolism, is more susceptible to disruption by metabolites of high toxicity, which gives rise to adverse health effects. Metabolomics is a useful analytical approach that can assist in unraveling such information. It can simultaneously and comprehensively analyze a large number of endogenous and exogenous molecules present in biofluids and can, thus, reveal biologically relevant perturbations following mycotoxin exposure. Information provided by genome, transcriptome and proteome analyses, which have been utilized for the elucidation of biological mechanisms so far, are further complemented by the addition of metabolomics in the available bioanalytics toolbox. Metabolomics can offer insight into complex biological processes and their respective response to several (co-)exposures. This review focuses on the most extensively studied mycotoxins reported in literature and their respective impact on the metabolome upon exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payal Mandal
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Olga Lanaridi
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kausar M Ansari
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, Food, Drug and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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5
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Zhang C, Li C, Liu K, Zhang Y. Characterization of zearalenone-induced hepatotoxicity and its mechanisms by transcriptomics in zebrafish model. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 309:136637. [PMID: 36181844 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone is a mycotoxin produced by several species of Fusarium fungi, which contaminates crop and cereal products worldwide. It is widely distributed and can be transported from agricultural fields to the aquatic environment via soil run-off. Zearalenone exposure can cause serious health problems to humans and animals, including estrogenic, immunotoxic, and xenogenic effects. Though its hepatotoxicity has been reported by few studies, the underlying mechanisms are yet to be investigated. This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the hepatotoxic effects of zearalenone and its molecular mechanism in the zebrafish model system. First, we found zearalenone exposure can cause liver injury, as evidenced by reduced liver size, decreased liver-specific fluorescence, increased aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity, delayed yolk sac absorption and lipid accumulation. Then, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was performed using dissected zebrafish fry liver, which found genes involved in oxidation and reduction were significantly enriched. Quantitative real-time PCR further confirmed the dysregulated expression of several antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, lipid peroxidation was proved by increased malondialdehyde (MDA) production and gene expression at the mRNA level. In contrast to the previous study, apoptosis was likely decreased in response to zearalenone exposure. Last, glucuronidation and amino acid metabolism were also disrupted by zearalenone. Our results revealed the complex mechanism of zearalenone-induced hepatotoxicity, which is a valuable contribution to a more comprehensive understanding of the toxicity of zearalenone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changqing Zhang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China; Engineering Research Center of Zebrafish Models for Human Diseases and Drug Screening of Shandong Province, 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China; Key Laboratory of Birth Regulation and Control Technology of National Health Commission of China, Shandong Provincial Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Chenqinyao Li
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China; Engineering Research Center of Zebrafish Models for Human Diseases and Drug Screening of Shandong Province, 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China
| | - Kechun Liu
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China; Engineering Research Center of Zebrafish Models for Human Diseases and Drug Screening of Shandong Province, 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China; Engineering Research Center of Zebrafish Models for Human Diseases and Drug Screening of Shandong Province, 28789 Jingshidong Road, Licheng District, Jinan, 250103, China.
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Zhao D, Xie H, Gao L, Zhang J, Li Y, Mao G, Zhang H, Wang F, Lam SS, Song A. Detoxication and bioconversion of aflatoxin B 1 by yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor): A sustainable approach for valuable larval protein production from contaminated grain. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 242:113935. [PMID: 35999758 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) is a supplementary protein source for food and feed and represents a promising solution to manage grain contaminated with Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). In this study, AFB1 present in different concentrations in wheat bran was treated and removed via bioconversion by yellow mealworm of different instars, with emphasis on the bioconversion performance and metabolism of AFB1. Upon application of wheat bran spiked with 100 μg/kg AFB1 to 5th-6th instar yellow mealworms, the conversion rate of AFB1 was up to 87.85 %. Low level of AFB1 (< 2 μg/kg) was accumulated in the larval bodies, and the survival rate, development and nutrition contents of yellow mealworm were not significantly affected. It was revealed that 1 kg of wheat bran contaminated with AFB1 increased the weight of yellow mealworms from 138 g to 469 g, containing approximately 103 g of protein. The bioconversion of AFB1 by yellow mealworms led to generation of 13 metabolites in the frass and 3 metabolites in the larvae. AFB1 was detoxicated and removed via phase I metabolism comprising reduction, dehydrogenation, hydration, demethylation, hydroxylation, decarbonylation and ketoreduction, followed by phase II metabolism involving conjugation of amino acid, glucoside and glutathione (GSH). The toxicity of AFB1 metabolites was deemed lower than that of AFB1 according to their structures. This study provides a sustainable approach and theoretical foundation on using yellow mealworms for cleaner grain contamination management and valuable larval protein production via bioconversion of food and feed contaminated by AFB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Hui Xie
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Lei Gao
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China
| | - Yan Li
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Guotao Mao
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Hongsen Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Fengqin Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China
| | - Su Shiung Lam
- Pyrolysis Technology Research Group, Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia; Sustainability Cluster, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
| | - Andong Song
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Enzyme Engineering of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, PR China.
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7
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Dey DK, Kang JI, Bajpai VK, Kim K, Lee H, Sonwal S, Simal-Gandara J, Xiao J, Ali S, Huh YS, Han YK, Shukla S. Mycotoxins in food and feed: toxicity, preventive challenges, and advanced detection techniques for associated diseases. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:8489-8510. [PMID: 35445609 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2059650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are produced primarily as secondary fungal metabolites. Mycotoxins are toxic in nature and naturally produced by various species of fungi, which usually contaminate food and feed ingredients. The growth of these harmful fungi depends on several environmental factors, such as pH, humidity, and temperature; therefore, the mycotoxin distribution also varies among global geographical areas. Various rules and regulations regarding mycotoxins are imposed by the government bodies of each country, which are responsible for addressing global food and health security concerns. Despite this legislation, the incidence of mycotoxin contamination is continuously increasing. In this review, we discuss the geographical regulatory guidelines and recommendations that are implemented around the world to control mycotoxin contamination of food and feed products. Researchers and inventors from various parts of the world have reported several innovations for controlling mycotoxin-associated health consequences. Unfortunately, most of these techniques are restricted to laboratory scales and cannot reach users. Consequently, to date, no single device has been commercialized that can detect all mycotoxins that are naturally available in the environment. Therefore, in this study, we describe severe health hazards that are associated with mycotoxin exposure, their molecular signaling pathways and processes of toxicity, and their genotoxic and cytotoxic effects toward humans and animals. We also discuss recent developments in the construction of a sensitive and specific device that effectively implements mycotoxin identification and detection methods. In addition, our study comprehensively examines the recent advancements in the field for mitigating the health consequences and links them with the molecular and signaling pathways that are activated upon mycotoxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debasish Kumar Dey
- Department of Biotechnology, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Ji In Kang
- Anticancer Agents Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang, Cheongwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Vivek K Bajpai
- Department of Energy and Materials Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwanwoo Kim
- Department of Biological Engineering, Biohybrid Systems Research Center (BSRC), Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hoomin Lee
- Department of Biological Engineering, Biohybrid Systems Research Center (BSRC), Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sonam Sonwal
- Department of Biological Engineering, Biohybrid Systems Research Center (BSRC), Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jesus Simal-Gandara
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo - Ourense Campus, Ourense, Spain
| | - Jianbo Xiao
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo - Ourense Campus, Ourense, Spain
| | - Sajad Ali
- Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yun Suk Huh
- Department of Biological Engineering, Biohybrid Systems Research Center (BSRC), Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Kyu Han
- Department of Energy and Materials Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Shruti Shukla
- TERI-Deakin Nanobiotechnology Centre, The Energy and Resources Institute, Gurugram, Haryana, India
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Lu Q, Luo JY, Ruan HN, Wang CJ, Yang MH. Structure-toxicity relationships, toxicity mechanisms and health risk assessment of food-borne modified deoxynivalenol and zearalenone: A comprehensive review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 806:151192. [PMID: 34710421 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxin, as one of the most common pollutants in foodstuffs, poses great threat to food security and human health. Specifically, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN)-two mycotoxin contaminants with considerable toxicity widely existing in food products-have aroused broad public concerns. Adding to this picture, modified forms of DON and ZEN, have emerged as another potential environmental and health threat, owing to their higher re-transformation rate into parent mycotoxins inducing accumulation of mycotoxin in humans and animals. Given this, a better understanding of the toxicity of modified mycotoxins is urgently needed. Moreover, the lack of toxicity data means a proper risk assessment of modified mycotoxins remains challenging. To better evaluate the toxicity of modified DON and ZEN, we have reviewed the relationship between their structures and toxicities. The toxicity mechanisms behind modified DON and ZEN have also been discussed; briefly, these involve acute, subacute, chronic, and combined toxicities. In addition, this review also addresses the global occurrence of modified DON and ZEN, and summarizes novel methods-including in silico analysis and implementation of relative potency factors-for risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN. Finally, the health risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN has also been discussed comprehensively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Lu
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jiao-Yang Luo
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hao-Nan Ruan
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chang-Jian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Mei-Hua Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
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Singh BK, Tiwari S, Maurya A, Kumar S, Dubey NK. Fungal and mycotoxin contamination of herbal raw materials and their protection by nanoencapsulated essential oils: An overview. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2021.102257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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10
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Flasch M, Bueschl C, Del Favero G, Adam G, Schuhmacher R, Marko D, Warth B. Elucidation of xenoestrogen metabolism by non-targeted, stable isotope-assisted mass spectrometry in breast cancer cells. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 158:106940. [PMID: 34673318 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Environmental exposure to xenoestrogens, i.e., chemicals that imitate the hormone 17β-estradiol, has the potential to influence hormone homeostasis and action. Detailed knowledge of xenobiotic biotransformation processes in cell models is key when transferring knowledge learned from in vitro models to in vivo relevance. This study elucidated the metabolism of two naturally-occurring phyto- and mycoestrogens; namely genistein and zearalenone, in an estrogen receptor positive breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) with the aid of stable isotope-assisted metabolomics and the bioinformatic tool MetExtract II. Metabolism was studied in a time course experiment after 2 h, 6 h and 24 h incubation. Twelve and six biotransformation products of zearalenone and genistein were detected, respectively, clearly demonstrating the abundant xenobiotic biotransformation capability of the cells. Zearalenone underwent extensive phase-I metabolism resulting in α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), a molecule known to possess a significantly higher estrogenicity, and several phase-II metabolites (sulfo- and glycoconjugates) of the native compound and the major phase I metabolite α-ZEL. Moreover, potential adducts of zearalenone with a vitamin and several hydroxylated metabolites were annotated. Genistein metabolism resulted in sulfation, combined sulfation and hydroxylation, acetylation, glucuronidation and unexpectedly adduct formation with pentose- and hexose sugars. Kinetics of metabolite formation and subsequent excretion into the extracellular medium revealed a time-dependent increase in most biotransformation products. The untargeted elucidation of biotransformation products formed during cell culture experiments enables an improved and more meaningful interpretation of toxicological assays and has the potential to identify unexpected or unknown metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Flasch
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Bueschl
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Rainer Schuhmacher
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Mendez‐Catala DM, Wang Q, Rietjens IM. PBK Model-Based Prediction of Intestinal Microbial and Host Metabolism of Zearalenone and Consequences for its Estrogenicity. Mol Nutr Food Res 2021; 65:e2100443. [PMID: 34648686 PMCID: PMC9285883 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202100443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
SCOPE The aim of the present study is to develop physiologically-based kinetic (PBK) models for rat and human that include intestinal microbial and hepatic metabolism of zearalenone (ZEN) in order to predict systemic concentrations of ZEN and to obtain insight in the contribution of metabolism by the intestinal microbiota to the overall metabolism of ZEN. METHODS AND RESULTS In vitro derived kinetic parameters, apparent maximum velocities (Vmax ) and Michaelis-Menten constants (Km ) for liver and intestinal microbial metabolism of ZEN are included in the PBK models. The models include a sub-model for the metabolite, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), a metabolite known to be 60-times more potent as an estrogen than ZEN. Integrating intestinal microbial ZEN metabolism into the PBK models revealed that hepatic metabolism drives the formation of α-ZEL. Furthermore, the models predicted that at the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.25 µg kg-1 bw the internal concentration of ZEN and α-ZEL are three-orders of magnitude below concentrations reported to induce estrogenicity in vitro. CONCLUSION It is concluded that combining kinetic data on liver and intestinal microbial metabolism in a PBK model facilitates a holistic view on the role of the intestinal microbiota in the overall metabolism of the foodborne xenobiotic ZEN and its bioactivation to α-ZEL.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Qianrui Wang
- Division of ToxicologyWageningen University and ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
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12
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Owumi SE, Najophe SE, Idowu TB, Nwozo SO. Protective mechanisms of gallic acid on hepatorenal dysfunction of zearalenone treated rat. Biologia (Bratisl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00828-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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13
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Habschied K, Kanižai Šarić G, Krstanović V, Mastanjević K. Mycotoxins-Biomonitoring and Human Exposure. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:113. [PMID: 33546479 PMCID: PMC7913644 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species that commonly have a toxic effect on human and animal health. Different foodstuff can be contaminated and are considered the major source of human exposure to mycotoxins, but occupational and environmental exposure can also significantly contribute to this problem. This review aims to provide a short overview of the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and regulated mycotoxins in foods and workplaces, following the current literature and data presented in scientific papers. Biomonitoring of mycotoxins in plasma, serum, urine, and blood samples has become a common method for determining the exposure to different mycotoxins. Novel techniques are more and more precise and accurate and are aiming toward the simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in one analysis. Application of liquid chromatography (LC) methodologies, coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) or high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has become a common and most reliable method for determining the exposure to mycotoxins. Numerous references confirm the importance of mycotoxin biomonitoring to assess the exposure for humans and animals. The objectives of this paper were to review the general approaches to biomonitoring of different mycotoxins and the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins, using recent literature sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Habschied
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
| | - Gabriella Kanižai Šarić
- Department of Agroecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Vinko Krstanović
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
| | - Krešimir Mastanjević
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
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14
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Catteuw A, Devreese M, De Baere S, Antonissen G, Huybrechts B, Ivanova L, Uhlig S, Martens A, De Saeger S, De Boevre M, Croubels S. Toxicokinetic Studies in Piglets Reveal Age-Related Differences in Systemic Exposure to Zearalenone, Zearalenone-14-Glucoside, and Zearalenone-14-Sulfate. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:7757-7764. [PMID: 32584032 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Juveniles are considered as one of the most vulnerable population groups concerning mycotoxins and their modified forms. The weaning stage is a particularly vulnerable period in the life of mammals, reflected in intestinal and immune dysfunction. The current study investigated the toxicokinetic (TK) characteristics of zearalenone (ZEN), zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN14G), and zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN14S) in weaned (4-week-old) piglets, by means of oral and intravenous administration of equimolar doses, i.e., 331, 500, and 415 μg/kg bodyweight, respectively. Plasma and urine were sampled pre- and post-administration and were quantitatively analyzed for ZEN, ZEN14G, ZEN14S, and in vivo metabolites by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Tailor-made TK models were elaborated to process data. A statistical comparison of the results was performed with TK data obtained in a previously reported study in pigs of 8 weeks of age. Additionally, porcine plasma protein binding was determined to support TK findings. The TK results for ZEN, ZEN14G, and ZEN14S, obtained in 4- and 8-week-old pigs, revealed significant age-related differences, based on differences in intestinal permeability, body fat content, gastrointestinal transit time, and biotransformation, with a special emphasis on an increased absorbed fraction of ZEN14G, i.e., 94 vs 61% in 4- compared to 8-week-old pigs. Since the growing pig has been reported to be a suitable pediatric animal model for humans concerning TK processes, these results may contribute to refine the risk assessment concerning modified ZEN forms in juvenile animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Catteuw
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | | | - Lada Ivanova
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ann Martens
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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15
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Franco LT, Ismail A, Amjad A, Oliveira CAFD. Occurrence of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in workplaces and human biomonitoring of mycotoxins in exposed workers: a systematic review. TOXIN REV 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2020.1795685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Tuanny Franco
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil
| | - Amir Ismail
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Adnan Amjad
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
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16
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Yang S, Li Y, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Zhou J, Li Y, Zhang H, Sun F. Toxicokinetics of α-zearalenol and its masked form in rats and the comparative biotransformation in liver microsomes from different livestock and humans. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 393:121403. [PMID: 32143155 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Alpha-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and its masked form α-zearalenol-14 glucoside (α-ZEL-14G) have much higher oestrogenic activity than zearalenone. Owing to very limited toxicokinetic and metabolic data, no reference points could be established for risk assessment. To circumvent it, the toxicokinetic, metabolic profiles, and phenotyping of α-ZEL and α-ZEL-14G were comprehensively investigated in this study. As a result, the plasma concentrations of α-ZEL and α-ZEL-14G were all below LOQ after oral administration, while after iv injection, both could be significantly bio-transformed into various metabolites. A complete hydrolysis of α-ZEL-14G contributed to α-ZEL overall toxicity. Additionally, 31 phase I and 10 phase II metabolites of α-ZEL, and 9 phase I and 5 phase II metabolites were identified for α-ZEL-14G. For α-ZEL, hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, and glucuronidation were the major metabolic pathways, while for α-ZEL-14G, it was deglycosylation, reduction, hydroxylation, and glucuronidation. Significant metabolic differences were observed for α-ZEL and α-ZEL-14G in the liver microsomes of rats, chickens, swine, goats, cows and humans. Phenotyping studies indicated that α-ZEL and α-ZEL-14G were mediated by CYP 3A4, 2C8, and 1A2. Moreover, the deglycosylation of α-ZEL-14G was critically mediated by CES-I and CES-II. The acquired data would provide fundamental perspectives for risk evaluation of mycotoxins and their modified forms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shupeng Yang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jinhui Zhou
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiyan Zhang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China; Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China.
| | - Feifei Sun
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China; College of Aminal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, People's Republic of China.
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17
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De Ruyck K, Huybrechts I, Yang S, Arcella D, Claeys L, Abbeddou S, De Keyzer W, De Vries J, Ocke M, Ruprich J, De Boevre M, De Saeger S. Mycotoxin exposure assessments in a multi-center European validation study by 24-hour dietary recall and biological fluid sampling. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105539. [PMID: 32035364 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The European Food Consumption Validation (EFCOVAL) project includes 600 men and women from Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, the Netherlands, and Norway, who had given serum and 24-hour urine samples, and completed 24-hour dietary recall (24-HDR) interviews. Consumption, according to 24-HDR, was matched against the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) databases of mycotoxin contaminations, via the FoodEx1 standard classifications, producing an indirect external estimate of dietary mycotoxin exposure. Direct, internal measurements of dietary mycotoxin exposure were made in serum and urine by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. For the first time, mycotoxin exposures were thoroughly compared between two 24-HDRs, and two 24-hour urine samples collected during the same days covered by the 24-HDRs. These measurements were compared to a single-time point serum measurement to investigate evidence of chronic mycotoxin exposure. According to 24-HDR data, all 600 individuals were exposed to between 4 and 34 mycotoxins, whereof 10 found to exceed the tolerable daily intake. Correlations were observed between two time points, and significant correlations were observed between concentrations in serum and urine. However, only acetyldeoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, and sterigmatocystin were found to have significant positive correlations between 24-HDR exposures and serum, while aflatoxin G1 and G2, HT-2 toxin, and deoxynivalenol were associated between concurrent 24-HDR and 24-hour urine. Substantial agreements on quantitative levels between serum and urine were observed for the groups Type B Trichothecenes and Zearalenone. Further research is required to bridge the interpretation of external and internal exposure estimates of the individual on a time scale of hours. Additionally, metabolomic profiling of dietary mycotoxin exposures could help with a comprehensive assessment of single time-point exposures, but also with the identification of chronic exposure biomarkers. Such detailed characterization informs population exposure assessments, and aids in the interpretation of epidemiological health outcomes related to multi-mycotoxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl De Ruyck
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Inge Huybrechts
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Nutritional Epidemiology Group, Lyon, France
| | - Shupeng Yang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | | | - Liesel Claeys
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Souheila Abbeddou
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Willem De Keyzer
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, University College Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jeanne De Vries
- Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Marga Ocke
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Jiri Ruprich
- National Institute of Public Health, Department for Health, Nutrition and Food, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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18
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Schelstraete W, Devreese M, Croubels S. Comparative toxicokinetics of Fusarium mycotoxins in pigs and humans. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 137:111140. [PMID: 32004578 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins frequently contaminate food and feed materials, posing a threat to human and animal health. Fusarium species produce important mycotoxins with regard to their occurrence and toxicity, especially deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN) and T-2 toxin (T-2). The susceptibility of an animal species towards the effects of these toxins in part depends on the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME processes) of these toxins from the body. For humans, in vivo information is scarce and often animal data is used for extrapolation to humans. From a kinetic and safety point of view, the pig seems to be a promising animal model to aid in the assessment of the toxicological risk of mycotoxins to humans. Qualitatively, the ADME processes seem to be quite similar between pigs and humans. In addition, similar metabolite and excretion patterns are observed, although some quantitative differences are noticed which are subject of this review. The high sensitivity of pigs towards mycotoxins and the similar kinetics are an advantage for the use of this animal species in the risk assessment of mycotoxins, and for the establishment of legal limits of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wim Schelstraete
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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19
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Ieko T, Inoue S, Inomata Y, Inoue H, Fujiki J, Iwano H. Glucuronidation as a metabolic barrier against zearalenone in rat everted intestine. J Vet Med Sci 2019; 82:153-161. [PMID: 31839622 PMCID: PMC7041979 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.19-0570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZON), produced by Fusarium fungi, exhibits estrogenic activity. Livestock
can be exposed to ZON orally through contaminating feeds such as cereals, leading to
reproductive disorders such as infertility and miscarriage via endocrine system
disruption. However, the details of ZON metabolism remain unclear, and the mechanism of
its toxicity has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we investigated the kinetics of
ZON absorption and metabolism in rat segmented everted intestines. ZON absorption was
confirmed in each intestine segment 60 min after application to the mucosal buffer at 10
µM. Approximately half of the absorbed ZON was metabolized to
α-zearalenol, which tended to be mainly glucuronidated in intestinal cells. In the
proximal intestine, most of the glucuronide metabolized by intestinal cells was excreted
to the mucosal side, suggesting that the intestine plays an important role as a first drug
metabolism barrier for ZON. However, in the distal intestine, ZON metabolites tended to be
transported to the serosal side. Glucuronide transported to the serosal side could be
carried via the systemic circulation to the local tissues, where it could be reactivated
by deconjugation. These results are important with regard to the mechanism of endocrine
disruption caused by ZON.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Ieko
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan
| | - Sumire Inoue
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan
| | - Yume Inomata
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan
| | - Hiroki Inoue
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan.,Nihon Doubutsu Tokushu Shindan Co., Ltd., Eniwa, Hokkaido 061-1374, Japan
| | - Jumpei Fujiki
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan
| | - Hidetomo Iwano
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido 069-8501, Japan
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20
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Warth B, Preindl K, Manser P, Wick P, Marko D, Buerki-Thurnherr T. Transfer and Metabolism of the Xenoestrogen Zearalenone in Human Perfused Placenta. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2019; 127:107004. [PMID: 31596610 PMCID: PMC6867367 DOI: 10.1289/ehp4860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pregnancy is a sensitive condition during which adverse environmental exposures should be monitored thoroughly and minimized whenever possible. In particular, the hormone balance during gestation is delicate, and disturbance may cause acute or chronic long-term health effects. A potential endocrine disruption may be provoked by in utero exposure to xenoestrogens mimicking endogenous estrogens. The mycoestrogen zearalenone (ZEN), a toxic fungal secondary metabolite and mycotoxin found frequently in food and feed, constitutes a prominent example. OBJECTIVES We performed a comprehensive assessment of the transfer as well as phase I and phase II metabolism of ZEN at the human placental barrier. METHODS Human placentas were perfused with 1μM (318μg/L) ZEN for 6 h. Samples from the maternal and fetal compartment, placental tissue, and fetal plasma were analyzed by a highly sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS assay to detect ZEN as well as nine key metabolites (α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol, ZEN-14-glucuronide, α-zearalenol-14-glucuronide, β-zearalenol-14-glucuronide, ZEN-14-sulfate). RESULTS The model revealed a fast maternofetal transfer of ZEN across the human placental barrier. We also unraveled phase I and phase II metabolism of the parent toxin ZEN into the approximately 70-times more estrogenic α-zearalenol and the less active ZEN-14-sulfate conjugate, which are effectively released into the maternal and fetal circulation in considerable amounts. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that exposure to ZEN (such as through consumption of ZEN-contaminated cereal-based products) during pregnancy may result in in utero exposure of the fetus, not only to ZEN but also some of its highly estrogenically active metabolites. In the light of the known affinity of ZEN and potentially co-occurring xenoestrogens to the estrogen receptor, and our results demonstrating placental transfer of ZEN and its metabolites in an ex vivo model, we recommend further research and more comprehensive assessment of gestational exposures in women. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP4860.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Research Network Chemistry, Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Karin Preindl
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Pius Manser
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Peter Wick
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tina Buerki-Thurnherr
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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21
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Rogowska A, Pomastowski P, Rafińska K, Railean-Plugaru V, Złoch M, Walczak J, Buszewski B. A study of zearalenone biosorption and metabolisation by prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Toxicon 2019; 169:81-90. [PMID: 31493420 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A study of the mechanism responsible for the zearalenone (ZEA) neutralization by lactic acid bacteria Lactococcus lactis 56 and L929 cell line was carried out by determination of the kinetics of the binding process. In the case of prokaryotic cells the biosorption process was non-linear and three steps were identified. The maximum efficiency of zearalenone binding to L. lactis was almost 30% and no metabolites were observed. In turn, for eukaryotic cells only two steps of the binding process were differentiated, and the efficiency of zearalenone binding was 53.99%. Furthermore, L929 cell line metabolizes zearalenone to α-ZOL and β-ZOL. Additionally, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used for description of the structural changes at the protein and lipid level, while Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) was applied to detect changes at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Rogowska
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7 St, PL-87-100 Toruń, Poland; Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Paweł Pomastowski
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Rafińska
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7 St, PL-87-100 Toruń, Poland; Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Viorica Railean-Plugaru
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7 St, PL-87-100 Toruń, Poland; Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Michał Złoch
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Justyna Walczak
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7 St, PL-87-100 Toruń, Poland; Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Torun, Poland
| | - Bogusław Buszewski
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7 St, PL-87-100 Toruń, Poland; Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100 Torun, Poland.
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22
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Rai A, Das M, Tripathi A. Occurrence and toxicity of a fusarium mycotoxin, zearalenone. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:2710-2729. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1655388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Rai
- Food, Drugs and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) CSIR-IITR campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Mukul Das
- Food, Drugs and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) CSIR-IITR campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Anurag Tripathi
- Food, Drugs and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) CSIR-IITR campus, Lucknow, India
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23
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Niermans K, Woyzichovski J, Kröncke N, Benning R, Maul R. Feeding study for the mycotoxin zearalenone in yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) larvae-investigation of biological impact and metabolic conversion. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:231-242. [PMID: 30864055 PMCID: PMC6611894 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00346-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Edible insects as additional food and/or feed source may represent one important component to solve the problem of food security for a growing human population. Especially for covering the rising demand for protein of animal origin, seven insect species currently allowed as feed constituents in the European Union are gaining more interest. However, before considering insects such as yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) as suitable for, e.g. human consumption, the possible presence and accumulation of contaminants must be elucidated. The present work investigates the effects of the mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites on insect larvae. Seven different diets were prepared: toxin-free control, spiked and artificially contaminated (both containing approx.500 μg/kg and approx. 2000 μg/kg of ZEN) as well as two naturally contaminated diets (600 μg/kg and 900 μg/kg ZEN). The diets were used in a multiple-week feeding trial using T. molitor larvae as model insects. The amount of ZEN and its metabolites in the feed, larvae and the residue were measured by HPLC-MS/MS. A significantly enhanced individual larval weight was found for the insects fed on the naturally contaminated diets compared to the other feeding groups after 8 weeks of exposure. No ZEN or ZEN metabolites were detected in the T. molitor larvae after harvest. However, ZEN, α- and β-stereoisomers of zearalenol were found in the residue samples indicating an intense metabolism of ZEN in the larvae. No further ZEN metabolites could be detected in any sample. Thus, ZEN is not retained to any significant amount in T. molitor larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Niermans
- BfR - German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan Woyzichovski
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nina Kröncke
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Rainer Benning
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Ronald Maul
- BfR - German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
- University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568, Bremerhaven, Germany.
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24
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Slobodchikova I, Sivakumar R, Rahman MS, Vuckovic D. Characterization of Phase I and Glucuronide Phase II Metabolites of 17 Mycotoxins Using Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E433. [PMID: 31344861 PMCID: PMC6723440 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Routine mycotoxin biomonitoring methods do not include many mycotoxin phase I and phase II metabolites, which may significantly underestimate mycotoxin exposure especially for heavily metabolized mycotoxins. Additional research efforts are also needed to measure metabolites in vivo after exposure and to establish which mycotoxin metabolites should be prioritized for the inclusion during large-scale biomonitoring efforts. The objective of this study was to perform human in vitro microsomal incubations of 17 mycotoxins and systematically characterize all resulting metabolites using liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The results obtained were then used to build a comprehensive LC-MS library and expand a validated 17-mycotoxin method for exposure monitoring to screening of additional 188 metabolites, including 100 metabolites reported for the first time. The final method represents one of the most comprehensive LC-HRMS methods for mycotoxin biomonitoring or metabolism/fate studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Slobodchikova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Biological Applications of Mass Spectrometry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Reajean Sivakumar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Md Samiur Rahman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Dajana Vuckovic
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
- Centre for Biological Applications of Mass Spectrometry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
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25
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Al-Jaal BA, Jaganjac M, Barcaru A, Horvatovich P, Latiff A. Aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin, zearalenone and deoxynivalenol biomarkers in human biological fluids: A systematic literature review, 2001–2018. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 129:211-228. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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26
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Catteuw A, Broekaert N, De Baere S, Lauwers M, Gasthuys E, Huybrechts B, Callebaut A, Ivanova L, Uhlig S, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Gehring R, Devreese M, Croubels S. Insights into In Vivo Absolute Oral Bioavailability, Biotransformation, and Toxicokinetics of Zearalenone, α-Zearalenol, β-Zearalenol, Zearalenone-14-glucoside, and Zearalenone-14-sulfate in Pigs. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:3448-3458. [PMID: 30807145 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the toxicokinetic characteristics of ZEN and its modified forms, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), β-zearalenol (β-ZEL), zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN14G), and zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN14S), including presystemic and systemic hydrolysis in pigs. Crossover pig trials were performed by means of intravenous and oral administration of ZEN and its modified forms. Systemic plasma concentrations of the administered toxins and their metabolites were quantified and further processed via tailor-made compartmental toxicokinetic models. Furthermore, portal plasma was analyzed to unravel the site of hydrolysis, and urine samples were analyzed to determine urinary excretion. Results demonstrate complete presystemic hydrolysis of ZEN14G and ZEN14S to ZEN and high oral bioavailability for all administered compounds, with further extensive first-pass glucuronidation. Conclusively, the modified-ZEN forms α-ZEL, β-ZEL, ZEN14G, and ZEN14S contribute to overall ZEN systemic toxicity in pigs and should be taken into account for risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Catteuw
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ghent University , Salisburylaan 133 , 9820 Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - Nathan Broekaert
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ghent University , Salisburylaan 133 , 9820 Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ghent University , Salisburylaan 133 , 9820 Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - Marianne Lauwers
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ghent University , Salisburylaan 133 , 9820 Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - Elke Gasthuys
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ghent University , Salisburylaan 133 , 9820 Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - Bart Huybrechts
- Sciensano , Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14 , 1050 Elsene , Belgium
| | | | - Lada Ivanova
- Chemistry Section , Norwegian Veterinary Institute , Ullevålsveien 68 , 0454 Oslo , Norway
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Chemistry Section , Norwegian Veterinary Institute , Ullevålsveien 68 , 0454 Oslo , Norway
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460 , 9000 Ghent , Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460 , 9000 Ghent , Belgium
| | - Ronette Gehring
- Institute of Computational Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine , Kansas State University , 1700 Denison Ave , Manhattan , Kansas 66506 , United States
- Institute of Risk Assessment Sciences, Division of Toxicology/Pharmacology , Utrecht University , Yalelaan 1 , 3584 CL Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ghent University , Salisburylaan 133 , 9820 Merelbeke , Belgium
- Institute of Computational Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine , Kansas State University , 1700 Denison Ave , Manhattan , Kansas 66506 , United States
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ghent University , Salisburylaan 133 , 9820 Merelbeke , Belgium
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27
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Lauwers M, De Baere S, Letor B, Rychlik M, Croubels S, Devreese M. Multi LC-MS/MS and LC-HRMS Methods for Determination of 24 Mycotoxins including Major Phase I and II Biomarker Metabolites in Biological Matrices from Pigs and Broiler Chickens. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11030171. [PMID: 30893895 PMCID: PMC6468661 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A reliable and practical multi-method was developed for the quantification of mycotoxins in plasma, urine, and feces of pigs, and plasma and excreta of broiler chickens using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The targeted mycotoxins belong to the regulated groups, i.e., aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and Fusarium mycotoxins, and to two groups of emerging mycotoxins, i.e., Alternaria mycotoxins and enniatins. In addition, the developed method was transferred to a LC-high resolution mass spectrometry instrument to qualitatively determine phase I and II metabolites, for which analytical standards are not always commercially available. Sample preparation of plasma was simple and generic and was accomplished by precipitation of proteins alone (pig) or in combination with removal of phospholipids (chicken). A more intensive sample clean-up of the other matrices was needed and consisted of a pH-dependent liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) using ethyl acetate (pig urine), methanol/ethyl acetate/formic acid (75/24/1, v/v/v) (pig feces) or acetonitrile (chicken excreta). For the extraction of pig feces, additionally a combination of LLE using acetone and filtration of the supernatant on a HybridSPE-phospholipid cartridge was applied. The LC-MS/MS method was in-house validated according to guidelines defined by the European and international community. Finally, the multi-methods were successfully applied in a specific toxicokinetic study and a screening study to monitor the exposure of individual animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Lauwers
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Innovad, Postbaan 69, 2910 Essen, Belgium.
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Ben Letor
- Innovad, Postbaan 69, 2910 Essen, Belgium.
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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28
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Vulić A, Lešić T, Kudumija N, Mikuš T, Pleadin J. Resorcylic Acid Lactones in Urine Samples of Croatian Farm Animals. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 43:126-133. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- A Vulić
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska 143, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - T Lešić
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska 143, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - N Kudumija
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska 143, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - T Mikuš
- Animal Welfare Unit, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska 143, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - J Pleadin
- Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska 143, Zagreb, Croatia
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29
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Yang S, Zhang H, Zhang J, Li Y, Jin Y, Zhang S, De Saeger S, Li Y, Zhou J, Sun F, De Boevre M. Deglucosylation of zearalenone-14-glucoside in animals and human liver leads to underestimation of exposure to zearalenone in humans. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:2779-2791. [PMID: 30019167 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2267-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G), the modified mycotoxin of zearalenone (ZEN), has attracted considerable attention due to its high potential to be hydrolyzed into ZEN, which would exert toxicity. It has been confirmed that the microflora could metabolize ZEN-14G to ZEN. However, the metabolic profile of ZEN-14G and whether it could be deglucosidated in the liver are unknown. To thoroughly investigate the metabolism of ZEN-14G, in vitro metabolism including phase I and phase II metabolism was studied using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. Additionally, in vivo metabolism of ZEN-14G was conducted in model animals, rats, by oral administration. As a result, 29 phase I metabolites and 6 phase II metabolites were identified and significant inter-species metabolic differences were observed as well. What is more, ZEN-14G could be considerably deglucosidated into its free form of ZEN after the incubation with animals and human liver microsomes in the absence of NADPH, which was mainly metabolized by human carboxylesterase CES-I and II. Furthermore, results showed that the major metabolic pathways of ZEN-14G were deglucosylation, hydroxylation, hydrogenation and glucuronidation. Although interspecies differences in the biotransformation of ZEN-14G were observed, ZEN, α-ZEL-14G, β-ZEL-14G, α-ZEL, ZEN-14G-16GlcA and ZEN-14GlcA were the major metabolites of ZEN-14G. Additionally, a larger yield of 6-OH-ZEN-14G and 8-OH-ZEN-14G was also observed in human liver microsomes. The obtained data would be of great importance for the safety assessment of modified mycotoxin, ZEN-14G, and provide another perspective for risk assessment of mycotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shupeng Yang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiyan Zhang
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinzhen Zhang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Jin
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Suxia Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Yi Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinhui Zhou
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Feifei Sun
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, 100093, People's Republic of China.
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People's Republic of China.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
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30
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Yan Z, Wang L, Wang J, Tan Y, Yu D, Chang X, Fan Y, Zhao D, Wang C, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Sun C, Wu A. A QuEChERS-Based Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for the Simultaneous Determination of Nine Zearalenone-Like Mycotoxins in Pigs. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E129. [PMID: 29558416 PMCID: PMC5869417 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The determination of zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivatives as biomarkers in animal tissues or organs plays an important role in mycotoxin monitoring and can promote effective exposure assessment. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous quantification of nine ZEN-like mycotoxins, including three glucuronides in different pig tissues (heart, liver, spleen and muscle) was developed and validated in this study. Tissue samples were extracted using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction and clean-up procedure, and analyzed by LC-MS/MS in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. Dynamic linear ranges for each target analyte were determined with R² between 0.916 and 0.999. The LODs of the six ZENs were achieved in the range of 0.5-1 ng/g and the LOQs varied from 1 ng/g to 2 ng/g. The satisfying intra-day and inter-day reproducibility (both RSDr and RSDR < 20%) indicated a good stability of this method. The recoveries of the nine target analytes were in the range of 70-110%. The validation results showed that this LC-MS/MS method coupled with QuEChERS sample pretreatment is effective and suitable for the simultaneous quantitation of ZEN metabolites in pigs. It has been applied to analysis of the pig tissues in this research and can be also adapted for samples in the mycotoxin research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Yan
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Lan Wang
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Jun Wang
- Academy of State Administration of Grain P.R.C, No. 11 Baiwanzhuang Avenue, Xicheng District, Beijing 100037, China.
| | - Yanglan Tan
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Dianzhen Yu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Xiaojiao Chang
- Academy of State Administration of Grain P.R.C, No. 11 Baiwanzhuang Avenue, Xicheng District, Beijing 100037, China.
| | - Yingying Fan
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang/Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture/Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Duoyong Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang/Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture/Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Cheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang/Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture/Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Changpo Sun
- Academy of State Administration of Grain P.R.C, No. 11 Baiwanzhuang Avenue, Xicheng District, Beijing 100037, China.
| | - Aibo Wu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
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31
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Righetti L, Bergmann A, Galaverna G, Rolfsson O, Paglia G, Dall'Asta C. Ion mobility-derived collision cross section database: Application to mycotoxin analysis. Anal Chim Acta 2018. [PMID: 29523251 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.01.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The recent hyphenation of ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) with high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has risen as a powerful technique for both targeted and non-targeted screening, reducing background noise and allowing separation of isomeric and isobaric compounds. Nevertheless, such an approach remains largely unexplored in food safety applications, such as mycotoxin analysis. To implement ion mobility in routinely MS-based mycotoxin workflows, searchable databases with collusion cross section (CCS) values and accurate mass-values are required. This paper provides for the first time a traveling-wave IMS (TWIMS)-derived CCS database for mycotoxins, including more than 100 CCS values. The measurements showed high reproducibility (RSD < 2%) across different instrumental conditions as well as several complex cereal matrices, showing a mean inter-matrix precision of RSD <0.9%. As a proof of concept, the database was applied to the analysis of several spiked as well as naturally incurred cereal-based samples. In addition, the effect of adducts on the drift time was studied in a series of mycotoxins in order to understand potential deviations from expected drift time behaviors. Overall, our study confirmed that CCS values represent a physicochemical property that can be used alongside the traditional molecular identifiers of precursor ion accurate mass, fragment ions, isotopic pattern, and retention time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Righetti
- Department of Food Science, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 17/A, I-43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Andreas Bergmann
- Center for Systems Biology, Medical Department, University of Iceland, Sturlugata 8, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food Science, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 17/A, I-43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Ottar Rolfsson
- Center for Systems Biology, Medical Department, University of Iceland, Sturlugata 8, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Giuseppe Paglia
- Center of Biomedicine, European Academy of Bolzano/Bozen, Via Galvani 31, Bolzano 39100, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food Science, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 17/A, I-43124 Parma, Italy.
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32
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Yang S, Zhang H, Sun F, De Ruyck K, Zhang J, Jin Y, Li Y, Wang Z, Zhang S, De Saeger S, Zhou J, Li Y, De Boevre M. Metabolic Profile of Zearalenone in Liver Microsomes from Different Species and Its in Vivo Metabolism in Rats and Chickens Using Ultra High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole/Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:11292-11303. [PMID: 29205036 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
To explore differences of zearalenone (ZEN) metabolism between various species, phase I and II metabolism by liver microsomes of animals and human were investigated using ultra high-pressure liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q/TOF MS). A total of 24 metabolites were identified, among which 12 were reported for the first time. Reduction, hydroxylation, and glucuronidation were the major metabolic pathways of ZEN, and significant differences in various species were also observed. Reduction was the main reaction in swine and human, whereas hydroxylation was predominant in rats, chickens, goats, and cows in in vitro systems. Furthemore, in vivo metabolism of ZEN in rats and chickens was investigated, and 23 and 6 metabolites were identified in each species, respectively. Reduction, hydroxylation, and glucuronidation were the major metabolic pathways in rats, while reduction and sulfation predominated in chickens. These results further enrich the biotransformation profile of ZEN, providing a helpful reference for assessing the risks to animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shupeng Yang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Quality and Safety of Bee Products, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- China Agricultural University , College of Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiyan Zhang
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- China Agricultural University , College of Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Feifei Sun
- China Agricultural University , College of Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Karl De Ruyck
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jinzhen Zhang
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Quality and Safety of Bee Products, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Jin
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Quality and Safety of Bee Products, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University , Yantai, Shandong 264005, P. R. China
| | - Zhanhui Wang
- China Agricultural University , College of Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Suxia Zhang
- China Agricultural University , College of Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jinhui Zhou
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Quality and Safety of Bee Products, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Li
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Quality and Safety of Bee Products, Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100093, People's Republic of China
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Dellafiora L, Warth B, Schmidt V, Del Favero G, Mikula H, Fröhlich J, Marko D. An integrated in silico/in vitro approach to assess the xenoestrogenic potential of Alternaria mycotoxins and metabolites. Food Chem 2017; 248:253-261. [PMID: 29329852 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Xenoestrogenic mycotoxins may contaminate food and feed posing a public health issue. Besides the zearalenone group, the Alternaria toxin alternariol (AOH) has been described as a potential mycoestrogen. However, the estrogenicity of Alternaria toxins is still largely overlooked and further data are needed to better describe the group toxicity. In the frame of risk assessment, mixed in silico/in vitro approaches already proved to be effective first-line analytical tools. An integrated in silico/in vitro approach was used to investigate the effects of metabolic and chemical modifications on the estrogenicity of AOH. Among the considered modifications, methylation was found critical for enhancing estrogenicity (as seen for alternariol monomethyl ether (AME)) while hydroxylation and glucuronidation had the opposite effect (as seen for 4-hydroxy AOH and 4-hydroxy AME). The structure-activity relationship analysis provided the structural rationale. Our results provide insights to design more efficient risk assessment studies expanding knowledge over the group toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via G.P. Usberti 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Verena Schmidt
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Hannes Mikula
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Johannes Fröhlich
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Righetti L, Fenclova M, Dellafiora L, Hajslova J, Stranska-Zachariasova M, Dall'Asta C. High resolution-ion mobility mass spectrometry as an additional powerful tool for structural characterization of mycotoxin metabolites. Food Chem 2017; 245:768-774. [PMID: 29287439 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.11.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This work was designed as a proof of concept, to demonstrate the successful use of the comparison between theoretical and experimental collision cross section (CCS) values to support the identification of isomeric forms. To this purpose, thirteen mycotoxins were considered and analyzed using drift time ion mobility mass spectrometry. A good linear correlation (r2 = 0.962) between theoretical and experimental CCS was found. The average ΔCCS was 3.2%, fully consistent with the acceptability threshold value commonly set at 5%. The agreement between theoretical and experimental CCS obtained for mycotoxin glucuronides suggested the potential of the CCS matching in supporting the annotation procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Righetti
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic; Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Marie Fenclova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Jana Hajslova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Milena Stranska-Zachariasova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Dänicke S, Eriksen GS, Altieri A, Roldán-Torres R, Oswald IP. Risks for animal health related to the presence of zearalenone and its modified forms in feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04851. [PMID: 32625539 PMCID: PMC7009830 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurs predominantly in cereal grains. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risk to animal health related to ZEN and its modified forms in feed. Modified forms of ZEN occurring in feed include phase I metabolites α‐zearalenol (α‐ZEL), β‐zearalenol (β‐ZEL), α‐zearalanol (α‐ZAL), β‐zearalanol (β‐ZAL), zearalanone (ZAN) and phase II conjugates. ZEN has oestrogenic activity and the oestrogenic activity of the modified forms of ZEN differs considerably. For ZEN, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) established no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) for pig (piglets and gilts), poultry (chicken and fattening turkeys), sheep and fish (extrapolated from carp) and lowest observed effect level (LOAEL) for dogs. No reference points could be established for cattle, ducks, goats, horses, rabbits, mink and cats. For modified forms, no reference points could be established for any animal species and relative potency factors previously established from rodents by the CONTAM Panel in 2016 were used. The dietary exposure was estimated on 17,706 analytical results with high proportions of left‐censored data (ZEN about 60%, ZAN about 70%, others close to 100%). Samples for ZEN were collected between 2001 and 2015 in 25 different European countries, whereas samples for the modified forms were collected mostly between 2013 and 2015 from three Member States. Based on exposure estimates, the risk of adverse health effects of feed containing ZEN was considered extremely low for poultry and low for sheep, dog, pig and fish. The same conclusions also apply to the sum of ZEN and its modified forms.
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36
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Wang X, Wang Y, Wang Y, Sun L, Gooneratne R. Preparation of T-2-glucoronide with Rat Hepatic Microsomes and Its Use along with T-2 for Activation of the JAK/STAT Signaling Pathway in RAW264.7 Cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:4811-4818. [PMID: 28556663 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b01250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
T-2 toxin (T-2), one of the most toxic trichothecene A-type mycotoxins, is biotransformed in animal tissues to modified T-2s (mT-2s) including T-2-glucuronide (T-2-GlcA). In this study, the optimal conditions for T-2-GlcA synthesis were established, and the JAK/STAT pathway in RAW264.7 cells was used to study the toxicity of T-2-GlcA. Because many mT-2 standards are not readily available, optimal conditions for T-2-GlcA synthesis in vitro were established by incubating T-2 with rat liver microsomes, UDPGA, and 0.2% Triton X-100 for 90 min. qRT-PCR and Western blot results showed 21- and 760-fold increases in IL-6 mRNA expression induced by T-2-GlcA and T-2, respectively. Similar differences were observed in JAK3, SOCS2/3, and CIS mRNA expression. T-2-GlcA induced a dose-responsive decrease in STAT1 mRNA expression, whereas the result with T-2 was the opposite. Moreover, the phosphorylation of STAT3 induced by T-2-GlcA was higher than that by T-2, whereas the phosphorylation of STAT1 was to the contrary. Overall, the results show that T-2-GlcA was somewhat toxic, but activation of the JAK/STAT pathway in RAW264.7 was higher by T-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University , Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Yaling Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University , Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Yapei Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University , Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Lijun Sun
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University , Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Ravi Gooneratne
- Department of Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Lincoln University , P.O. Box 85084, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
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37
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Fleck SC, Churchwell MI, Doerge DR. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of zearalenone following oral and intravenous administration in juvenile female pigs. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 106:193-201. [PMID: 28552786 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.05.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a well-studied mycotoxin whose potent estrogenic properties have been used by international regulatory bodies to set health-based guidance values for ZEN exposure in grain-based foods from changes in hormonally responsive tissues of juvenile female pigs. The role of metabolism in determining estrogenic responses in vivo is a major uncertainty in inter-species extrapolation to humans and in assessing the potential for added susceptibility in sensitive subpopulations. This study evaluated the metabolism of ZEN and pharmacokinetics in ∼2 month-old female pigs using oral and intravenous dosing. The absolute bioavailability (AUCoral/AUCIV) of receptor-active ZEN aglycone was 1.8 ± 0.80%, consistent with extensive pre-systemic Phase II conjugation. Reductive metabolism to α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) was extensive, with smaller amounts of β-ZEL. When combined with its higher binding affinity, relative to ZEN and β-ZEL, α-ZEL was the predominant contributor to total estrogen receptor ligand activity (∼90%) after oral dosing with ZEN. The apparent similarities of reductive and Phase II conjugation metabolism of ZEN between pigs and humans support the use of juvenile female pigs as a sensitive model for risk assessments of estrogenic effects from dietary ZEN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie C Fleck
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Mona I Churchwell
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States
| | - Daniel R Doerge
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, United States.
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38
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Metabolism of Zearalenone and Its Major Modified Forms in Pigs. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9020056. [PMID: 28208710 PMCID: PMC5331435 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9020056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) can be conjugated with polar molecules, like sugars or sulfates, by plants and fungi. To date, the fate of these modified forms of ZEN has not yet been elucidated in animals. In order to investigate whether ZEN conjugates contribute to the total ZEN exposure of an individual, ZEN (10 µg/kg b.w.) and equimolar amounts of two of its plant metabolites (ZEN-14-O-β-glucoside, ZEN-16-O-β-glucoside) and of one fungal metabolite (ZEN-14-sulfate) were orally administered to four pigs as a single bolus using a repeated measures design. The concentrations of ZEN, its modified forms and its mammalian metabolites ZEN-14-glucuronide, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and α-ZEL-14-glucuronide in excreta were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) based methods. The biological recovery of ZEN in urine was 26% ± 10%, the total biological recovery in excreta was 40% ± 8%. Intact ZEN-14-sulfate, ZEN-14-O-β-glucoside and ZEN-16-O-β-glucoside were neither detected in urine nor in feces. After ZEN-14-sulfate application, 19% ± 5% of the administered dose was recovered in urine. In feces, no ZEN metabolites were detected. The total biological recoveries of ZEN-14-O-β-glucoside and ZEN-16-O-β-glucoside in the form of their metabolites in urine were 19% ± 11% and 13% ± 7%, respectively. The total biological recoveries in urine and feces amounted to 48% ± 7% and 34 ± 3%. An explanation for the low biological recoveries could be extensive metabolization by intestinal bacteria to yet unknown metabolites. In summary, ZEN-14-sulfate, ZEN-14-O-β-glucoside, and ZEN-16-O-β-glucoside were completely hydrolyzed in the gastrointestinal tract of swine, thus contributing to the overall toxicity of ZEN.
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39
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Wentzel JF, Lombard MJ, Du Plessis LH, Zandberg L. Evaluation of the cytotoxic properties, gene expression profiles and secondary signalling responses of cultured cells exposed to fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone mycotoxins. Arch Toxicol 2016; 91:2265-2282. [PMID: 27757495 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1872-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by a range of fungi and are common contaminants of agricultural crops. These toxins are chemically diverse and structurally stable, enabling them to enter the food chain which can lead to numerous adverse health effects in animals and humans. Although mycotoxin exposure is associated with the development of several cancers, it has proved challenging to show a direct connection between exposure and oncogenic change. This study investigates the in vitro cytotoxicity, molecular mechanisms and secondary signalling responses associated with the exposure to three major mycotoxins, fumonisin B1 (FB1), deoxynivalenol (Don) and zearalenone (Zea). The cytotoxicity of FB1, Don and Zea were investigated in cultured HepG2 and Caco-2 cells using cell viability assays as well as flow cytometry. FB1 proved to be less cytotoxic than its counterparts, while Don and Zea demonstrated high cytotoxicity through an apoptotic mechanism. Expression profiles of 84 genes involved in mediating communication between tumour cells and the cellular mediators of inflammation as well as the innate immune system were also studied. The expression profiles associated with the different mycotoxins were further explored for functional networks, biological functions, canonical pathways, toxicological association as well as to predict network associations between the differentially expressed genes. RT-qPCR revealed the significant differential expression of 46 genes, including the expression of several genes strongly associated with cancer and aberrant inflammatory signalling, after mycotoxin exposure. Aberrant inflammatory signalling seems to be a credible contributing factor that initiates the malignant change observed in cells exposed to mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes F Wentzel
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmacen), North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Martani J Lombard
- Centre of Excellence for Nutrition (CEN), North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Lissinda H Du Plessis
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmacen), North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Lizelle Zandberg
- Centre of Excellence for Nutrition (CEN), North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
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40
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Warth B, Braun D, Ezekiel CN, Turner PC, Degen GH, Marko D. Biomonitoring of Mycotoxins in Human Breast Milk: Current State and Future Perspectives. Chem Res Toxicol 2016; 29:1087-97. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department
of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstraße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Department IFA-Tulln, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department
of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstraße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Department
of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria
- Partnership
for Aflatoxin Control in Africa, Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Paul C. Turner
- Maryland
Institute for Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Gisela H. Degen
- Leibniz-Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystraße 67, D-44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Doris Marko
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department
of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstraße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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41
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Invited review: Diagnosis of zearalenone (ZEN) exposure of farm animals and transfer of its residues into edible tissues (carry over). Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 84:225-49. [PMID: 26277628 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the review was to evaluate the opportunities for diagnosing the zearalenone (ZEN) exposure and intoxication of farm animals by analyzing biological specimens for ZEN residue levels. Metabolism is discussed to be important when evaluating species-specific consequences for the overall toxicity of ZEN. Besides these toxicological facts, analytics of ZEN residues in various animal-derived matrices requires sensitive, matrix-adapted multi-methods with low limits of quantification, which is more challenging than the ZEN analysis in feed. Based on dose-response experiments with farm animals, the principle usability of various specimens as bio-indicators for ZEN exposure is discussed with regard to individual variation and practicability for the veterinary practitioner. ZEN residue analysis in biological samples does not only enable evaluation of ZEN exposure but also allows the risk for the consumer arising from contaminated foodstuffs of animal origin to be assessed. It was compiled from literature that the tolerable daily intake of 0.25 μg ZEN/kg body weight and day is exploited to approximately 8%, when a daily basket of animal foodstuffs and associated carry over factors are assumed at reported ZEN contamination levels of complete feed.
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42
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Huuskonen P, Auriola S, Pasanen M. Zearalenone metabolism in human placental subcellular organelles, JEG-3 cells, and recombinant CYP19A1. Placenta 2015; 36:1052-5. [PMID: 26188906 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2015.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivative, zearalanone (ZAN), are endocrine disruptive mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species. We investigated the human placental metabolism of ZEN and ZAN in vitro in JEG-3 cells, human term placental subcellular fractions and recombinant enzymes. Human placental enzymes were capable of metabolizing ZEN and ZAN to their primary OH-metabolites which have higher affinity for estrogen receptors than their parent compounds. These metabolites may interfere with physiological placental estrogen signaling and thus disrupt the progress of gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasi Huuskonen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Seppo Auriola
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Markku Pasanen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
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43
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Devreese M, Antonissen G, Broekaert N, De Baere S, Vanhaecke L, De Backer P, Croubels S. Comparative toxicokinetics, absolute oral bioavailability, and biotransformation of zearalenone in different poultry species. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:5092-5098. [PMID: 25947104 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
After oral (PO) and intravenous (IV) administration of zearalenone (ZEN) to broiler chickens, laying hens, and turkey poults, the mycotoxin was rapidly absorbed (Tmax = 0.32-0.97 h) in all three species; however, the absolute oral bioavailability was low (F% = 6.87-10.28%). Next, also a rapid elimination of the mycotoxin in all poultry species was observed (T(1/2el) = 0.29-0.46 h). Both α- and β-zearalenone (ZEL) were formed equally after IV administration in all species studied, whereas an increased biotransformation to β-ZEL was demonstrated after PO administration, indicating presystemic biotransformation mainly in broiler chickens and laying hens. In comparison to the latter, turkey poults demonstrated a more extensive biotransformation of ZEN to α-ZEL after PO administration which could, in combination with the observed higher volume of distribution of ZEN, indicate a higher sensitivity of this species to the effects of ZEN in comparison to other poultry species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Devreese
- †Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, ‡Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, and §Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- †Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, ‡Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, and §Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Nathan Broekaert
- †Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, ‡Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, and §Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- †Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, ‡Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, and §Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- †Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, ‡Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, and §Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Patrick De Backer
- †Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, ‡Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, and §Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- †Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, ‡Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, and §Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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44
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Frizzell C, Uhlig S, Miles CO, Verhaegen S, Elliott CT, Eriksen GS, Sørlie M, Ropstad E, Connolly L. Biotransformation of zearalenone and zearalenols to their major glucuronide metabolites reduces estrogenic activity. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:575-81. [PMID: 25645597 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi. Once ingested, ZEN may be absorbed and metabolised to α- and β-zearalenol (α-ZOL, β-ZOL), and to a lesser extent α- and β-zearalanol (α-ZAL, β-ZAL). Further biotransformation to glucuronide conjugates also occurs to facilitate the elimination of these toxins from the body. Unlike ZEN and its metabolites, information regarding the estrogenic activity of these glucuronide conjugates in various tissues is lacking. ZEN-14-O-glucuronide, α-ZOL-14-O-glucuronide, α-ZOL-7-O-glucuronide, β-ZOL-14-O-glucuronide and β-ZOL-16-O-glucuronide, previously obtained as the major products from preparative enzymatic synthesis, were investigated for their potential to cause endocrine disruption through interference with estrogen receptor transcriptional activity. All five glucuronide conjugates showed a very weak agonist response in an estrogen responsive reporter gene assay (RGA), with activity ranging from 0.0001% to 0.01% of that of 17β-estradiol, and also less than that of ZEN, α-ZOL and β-ZOL which have previously shown estrogenic potencies of the order 17β-estradiol>α-ZOL>ZEN>β-ZOL. Confirmatory mass spectrometry revealed that any activity observed was likely a result of minor deconjugation of the glucuronide moiety. This study confirms that formation of ZEN and ZOL glucuronides is a detoxification reaction with regard to estrogenicity, serving as a potential host defence mechanism against ZEN-induced estrogenic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Frizzell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Section for Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Section for Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway.
| | | | - Christopher T Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
| | - Gunnar S Eriksen
- Section for Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Morten Sørlie
- Department of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway.
| | - Erik Ropstad
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Lisa Connolly
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
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45
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Mukherjee D, Royce SG, Alexander JA, Buckley B, Isukapalli SS, Bandera EV, Zarbl H, Georgopoulos PG. Physiologically-based toxicokinetic modeling of zearalenone and its metabolites: application to the Jersey girl study. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113632. [PMID: 25474635 PMCID: PMC4256163 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA), a fungal mycotoxin, and its metabolite zeranol (ZAL) are known estrogen agonists in mammals, and are found as contaminants in food. Zeranol, which is more potent than ZEA and comparable in potency to estradiol, is also added as a growth additive in beef in the US and Canada. This article presents the development and application of a Physiologically-Based Toxicokinetic (PBTK) model for ZEA and ZAL and their primary metabolites, zearalenol, zearalanone, and their conjugated glucuronides, for rats and for human subjects. The PBTK modeling study explicitly simulates critical metabolic pathways in the gastrointestinal and hepatic systems. Metabolic events such as dehydrogenation and glucuronidation of the chemicals, which have direct effects on the accumulation and elimination of the toxic compounds, have been quantified. The PBTK model considers urinary and fecal excretion and biliary recirculation and compares the predicted biomarkers of blood, urinary and fecal concentrations with published in vivo measurements in rats and human subjects. Additionally, the toxicokinetic model has been coupled with a novel probabilistic dietary exposure model and applied to the Jersey Girl Study (JGS), which involved measurement of mycoestrogens as urinary biomarkers, in a cohort of young girls in New Jersey, USA. A probabilistic exposure characterization for the study population has been conducted and the predicted urinary concentrations have been compared to measurements considering inter-individual physiological and dietary variability. The in vivo measurements from the JGS fall within the high and low predicted distributions of biomarker values corresponding to dietary exposure estimates calculated by the probabilistic modeling system. The work described here is the first of its kind to present a comprehensive framework developing estimates of potential exposures to mycotoxins and linking them with biologically relevant doses and biomarker measurements, including a systematic characterization of uncertainties in exposure and dose estimation for a vulnerable population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dwaipayan Mukherjee
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Rutgers University - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Steven G. Royce
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Rutgers University - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Jocelyn A. Alexander
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Rutgers University - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Brian Buckley
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Sastry S. Isukapalli
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Rutgers University - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Elisa V. Bandera
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Helmut Zarbl
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Rutgers University - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Panos G. Georgopoulos
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Rutgers University - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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46
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Pietsch C, Noser J, Wettstein FE, Burkhardt-Holm P. Unraveling the mechanisms involved in zearalenone-mediated toxicity in permanent fish cell cultures. Toxicon 2014; 88:44-61. [PMID: 24950048 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2014] [Revised: 05/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The world-wide occurrence of zearalenone (ZEN) as a contaminant in feed for farm animals and fish requires the evaluation of toxicity mechanisms of action of ZEN. The present study investigates possible metabolization of ZEN in fish cell lines suggesting that mainly glucuronidation takes place. It demonstrates that concentrations up to 20,000 ng ml(-1) ZEN are capable of influencing cell viability in permanent fish cell cultures in a dose-response manner with different response patterns between the five tested cell lines, whereby lysosomes appeared to be the main target of ZEN. ZEN toxicity is often discussed in the context of oxidative stress. Our study shows a biphasic response of the cell lines when reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is monitored. Damage in cells was observed by measuring lipid peroxidation, DNA strand breaks, and alterations of intracellular glutathione levels. Metabolization of ZEN, especially at concentrations above 7500 ng ml(-1) ZEN, does not prevent cytotoxicity. ZEN as an estrogenic compound may involve processes mediated by binding to estrogen receptors (ER). Since one cell line showed no detectable expression of ER, an ER-mediated pathway seems to be unlikely in these cells. This confirms a lysosomal pathway as a main target of ZEN in fish cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze Pietsch
- Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), Institute of Natural Resource Sciences (IUNR), Gruental, P.O. Box, CH-8820 Waedenswil, Switzerland; Programm Man - Society - Environment, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Vesalgasse 1, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Jürg Noser
- Kantonales Laboratorium Basel, Gräubernstrasse 12, CH-4410 Liestal, Switzerland
| | - Felix E Wettstein
- Agroscope Reckenholz-Tänikon (ART), Research Station ART, Reckenholzstrasse 191, CH-8046 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Patricia Burkhardt-Holm
- Programm Man - Society - Environment, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Vesalgasse 1, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, CW 405 Biological Sciences Building, T6G 2E9, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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47
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Shephard GS, Burger HM, Gambacorta L, Gong YY, Krska R, Rheeder JP, Solfrizzo M, Srey C, Sulyok M, Visconti A, Warth B, van der Westhuizen L. Multiple mycotoxin exposure determined by urinary biomarkers in rural subsistence farmers in the former Transkei, South Africa. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 62:217-25. [PMID: 23985452 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.08.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Subsistence farmers are exposed to a range of mycotoxins. This study applied novel urinary multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods to determine multiple exposure biomarkers in the high oesophageal cancer region, Transkei, South Africa. Fifty-three female participants donated part of their maize-based evening meal and first void morning urine, which was analysed both with sample clean-up (single and multi-biomarker) and by a 'dilute-and-shoot' multi-biomarker method. Results were corrected for recovery with LOD for not detected. A single biomarker method detected fumonisin B1 (FB1) (87% incidence; mean±standard deviation 0.342±0.466 ng/mg creatinine) and deoxynivalenol (100%; mean 20.4±49.4 ng/mg creatinine) after hydrolysis with β-glucuronidase. The multi-biomarker 'dilute-and-shoot' method indicated deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide was predominantly present. A multi-biomarker method with β-glucuronidase and immunoaffinity clean-up determined zearalenone (100%; 0.529±1.60 ng/mg creatinine), FB1 (96%; 1.52±2.17 ng/mg creatinine), α-zearalenol (92%; 0.614±1.91 ng/mg creatinine), deoxynivalenol (87%; 11.3±27.1 ng/mg creatinine), β-zearalenol (75%; 0.702±2.95 ng/mg creatinine) and ochratoxin A (98%; 0.041±0.086 ng/mg creatinine). These demonstrate the value of multi-biomarker methods in measuring exposures in populations exposed to multiple mycotoxins. This is the first finding of urinary deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, their conjugates, ochratoxin A and zearalenols in Transkei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon S Shephard
- PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, PO Box 19070, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa.
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Mikula H, Weber J, Lexmüller S, Bichl G, Schwartz H, Varga E, Berthiller F, Hametner C, Krska R, Fröhlich J. Simultaneous preparation of α/β-zearalenol glucosides and glucuronides. Carbohydr Res 2013; 373:59-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Revised: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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49
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Warth B, Sulyok M, Berthiller F, Schuhmacher R, Krska R. New insights into the human metabolism of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. Toxicol Lett 2013; 220:88-94. [PMID: 23623764 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2013.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study reports on the detailed investigation of human deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in vivo metabolism through the analysis of urine samples obtained from one volunteer following a naturally contaminated diet containing 138μg DON and 10μg ZEN over a period of four days. Based on the mycotoxin intake and the concentrations of mycotoxin conjugates in urine, a mass balance was established. The average rates of DON excretion and glucuronidation were determined to be 68 and 76%, respectively. The investigation of formed glucuronides revealed DON-15-glucuronide as main conjugation product besides DON-3-glucuronide. Furthermore, for the first time in human urine a third DON-glucuronide was detected and the fate of ingested masked DON forms (3-acetyl-DON and DON-3-glucoside) was preliminary assessed. The mean excretion rate of ZEN was determined to be 9.4%. ZEN was mainly present in its glucuronide form and in some samples ZEN-14-glucuronide was directly determined 3-10h after exposure. For the first time concrete figures have become available for the excretion pattern of DON and ZEN-glucuronides throughout a day, the comparison of total DON in 24h and first morning urine samples and the urinary excretion rate of total ZEN in humans following exposure through naturally contaminated food. Therefore, valuable preliminary information has been obtained through the chosen experimental approach although the study involved only one single individual and needs to be confirmed in larger monitoring studies. The presented experiment contributes to a better understanding of human DON and ZEN in vivo metabolism and thereby supports advanced exposure and risk assessment to increase food safety and examine the relationship between these mycotoxins and potentially associated chronic diseases in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- Center for Analytical Chemistry and Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Austria
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50
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Zhao F, Li R, Xiao S, Diao H, Viveiros MM, Song X, Ye X. Postweaning exposure to dietary zearalenone, a mycotoxin, promotes premature onset of puberty and disrupts early pregnancy events in female mice. Toxicol Sci 2013; 132:431-42. [PMID: 23291560 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfs343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin commonly found in contaminated livestock feed and human food with levels in the range of ppb and low ppm. It was hypothesized that ZEA, an endocrine disruptor, could affect puberty and early pregnancy. To test this hypothesis, newly weaned (3 weeks old) C57BL/6J female mice were exposed to 0, 0.002, 4, 10, and 40 ppm ZEA and 0.05 ppm diethylstilbestrol (positive control) in phytoestrogen-free AIN-93G diet. Females exposed to 10 and 40 ppm ZEA diets showed earlier onset of vaginal opening. Those treated with 40 ppm ZEA diet also had earlier first copulation plug and irregular estrous cyclicity. At 8 weeks old, all females were mated with untreated stud males on AIN-93G diet during mating. Treatment resumed upon identification of a vaginal plug on gestation day 0.5 (D0.5). Embryo implantation was assessed on D4.5. Exposure to 40 ppm ZEA diet resulted in reduced percentage of plugged mice with implantation sites, distended uterine appearance, and retained expression of progesterone receptor in D4.5 uterine epithelium. To determine the exposure timing and mechanisms of disrupted embryo implantation, four groups of females were fed with 0 or 40 ppm ZEA diets during premating (weaning to mating) and postmating (D0.5-D4.5), respectively. Premating exposure to 40 ppm ZEA diet reduced fertilization rate, whereas postmating exposure to 40 ppm ZEA diet delayed embryo transport and preimplantation embryo development, which subsequently affected embryo implantation. These data demonstrate that postweaning exposure to dietary ZEA can promote premature onset of puberty and disrupt early pregnancy events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Zhao
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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