Model-free arterial spin labeling quantification approach for perfusion MRI

Assessing Semiregional Cerebral Oxygen Consumption (CMRO2) in Preterm Neonates: A Quantitative MRI Cohort Study With Exploratory Analysis of Respiratory Support

Developing a noninvasive method for measuring oxygen consumption at both regional and whole-brain levels in preterm infants is crucial for assessing brain development and neuronal injury in this vulnerable population. This study presents a multi-modal MRI technique and analysis pipeline that produces whole-brain semiregional maps-with the potential to be fully regional-which we employ in a cohort study to investigate how the duration of various respiratory supports in very preterm infants affects CBF and the cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen (CMRO2). Infants (n = 19) born < 32 weeks gestational age were recruited in the neonatal intensive care unit. Infants were scanned at term-equivalent age using a 3 T MRI sequence comprising T1-weighted, T2-weighted, arterial spin labeling (ASL), and SWI. Days on three different categories of respiratory support, based on levels of invasiveness, were recorded. Using multiple linear regression, CBF and CMRO2 were analyzed against days on: respiratory support, days in room air, and the proportion of days on respiratory support; GA and PMA were used as confounding factors. Average CBF and CMRO2 of cortical grey matter was 14.3 ± 4.25 mL/100 g/min and 29.49 ± 29.49 μmol/100 g/min, respectively. CMRO2 and CBF were positively correlated with days on noninvasive respiratory support and negatively correlated with days in room air. Using our novel method, CBF and CMRO2 values aligned closely with literature values. Our exploratory findings suggest that the type of respiratory support may influence cerebral oxygenation during the neonatal period in infants born very preterm, with greater oxygen delivery and consumption associated with noninvasive respiratory support. Our semiregional brain analysis further highlights that different brain structures are impacted in distinct ways. This study presents a novel multimodal MRI approach to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) and oxygen metabolism (CMRO2) in preterm infants. Exploratory findings suggest noninvasive respiratory support is associated with higher CBF and CMRO2, highlighting its potential impact on neonatal brain oxygenation and development.

Leveraging deep learning for improving parameter extraction from perfusion MR images: A narrative review

BACKGROUND

Perfusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive technique essential for assessing tissue microcirculation and perfusion dynamics. Various perfusion MRI techniques like Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced (DCE), Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast (DSC), Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL), and Intravoxel Incoherent Motion (IVIM) provide critical insights into physiological and pathological processes. However, traditional methods for quantifying perfusion parameters are time-consuming, often prone to variability, and limited by noise and complex tissue dynamics. Recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in deep learning (DL), offer potential solutions to these challenges. DL algorithms can process large datasets efficiently, providing faster, more accurate parameter extraction with reduced subjectivity.

AIM

This paper reviews the state-of-the-art DL-based techniques applied to perfusion MRI, considering DCE, DSC, ASL and IVIM acquisitions, focusing on their advantages, challenges, and potential clinical applications.

MAIN FINDINGS

DL-driven methods promise significant improvements over conventional approaches, addressing limitations like noise, manual intervention, and inter-observer variability. Deep learning techniques such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), and generative adversarial networks (GANs) are particularly valuable in handling spatial and temporal data, enhancing image quality, and facilitating precise parameter extraction.

CONCLUSIONS

These innovations could revolutionize diagnostic accuracy and treatment planning, offering a new frontier in perfusion MRI by integrating DL with traditional imaging methods. As the demand for precise, efficient imaging grows, DL's role in perfusion MRI could significantly improve clinical outcomes, making personalized treatment a more realistic goal.

Age and gender-related patterns of arterial transit time and cerebral blood flow in healthy adults

Normal aging has been associated with increased arterial transit time (ATT) and reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF). However, age-related patterns of ATT and CBF and their relationship remain unclear. This is partly due to the lengthy scan times required for ATT measurements, which caused previous age-related CBF studies to not fully account for transit time. In this work, we aimed to elucidate age-related ATT and ATT-corrected CBF patterns. We examined 131 healthy subjects aged 19 to 82 years old using two pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling (PCASL) MRI scans: one to measure fast low-resolution ATT maps with five post-labeling delays and the other to measure high-resolution perfusion-weighted maps with a single post-labeling delay. Both ATT and perfusion-weighed maps were applied with vessel suppression. We found that ATT increases with age in the frontal, temporoparietal, and occipital regions, with a more pronounced elongation in males compared to females in the middle temporal gyrus. ATT-corrected CBF decreases with age in several brain regions, including the anterior cingulate, insula, posterior cingulate, angular, precuneus, supramarginal, frontal, parietal, superior and middle temporal, occipital, and cerebellar regions, while remaining stable in the inferior temporal and subcortical regions. In contrast, without ATT correction, we detected artifactual decreases in the inferior temporal and precentral regions. These findings suggest that ATT provides valuable and independent insights into microvascular deficits and should be incorporated into CBF measurements for studies involving aging populations.

Arterial Spin-Labeling MR Imaging in the Detection of Intracranial Arteriovenous Malformations in Patients with Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is an autosomal dominant disease that causes vascular malformations in a variety of organs and tissues, including brain AVMs. Because brain AVMs have the potential to cause disabling or fatal intracranial hemorrhage, detection of these lesions before rupture is the goal of screening MR imaging/MRA examinations in patients with HHT. Prior studies have demonstrated superior sensitivity for HHT-related brain AVMs by using postcontrast MR imaging sequences as compared with MRA alone. We now present data regarding the incremental benefit of including arterial spin-labeling (ASL) perfusion sequences as part of MR imaging/MRA screening in patients with this condition.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed 831 patients at the UCSF Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia Center of Excellence. Of these, 42 patients had complete MR imaging/MRA, ASL perfusion scans, and criterion-standard DSA data. Two neuroradiologists reviewed imaging studies and a third provided adjudication when needed.

RESULTS

Eight patients had no brain AVMs detected on DSA. The remaining 34 patients had 57 brain AVMs on DSA. Of the 57 identified AVMs, 51 (89.5%) were detected on ASL and 43 (75.4%) were detected on conventional MR imaging/MRA sequences (P = .049), with 8 lesions detected on ASL perfusion but not on conventional MR imaging.

CONCLUSIONS

ASL provides increased sensitivity for brain AVMs in patients with HHT. Inclusion of ASL should be considered as part of comprehensive MR imaging/MRA screening protocols for institutions taking care of patients with HHT.

Recommendations for quantitative cerebral perfusion MRI using multi-timepoint arterial spin labeling: Acquisition, quantification, and clinical applications

Accurate assessment of cerebral perfusion is vital for understanding the hemodynamic processes involved in various neurological disorders and guiding clinical decision-making. This guidelines article provides a comprehensive overview of quantitative perfusion imaging of the brain using multi-timepoint arterial spin labeling (ASL), along with recommendations for its acquisition and quantification. A major benefit of acquiring ASL data with multiple label durations and/or post-labeling delays (PLDs) is being able to account for the effect of variable arterial transit time (ATT) on quantitative perfusion values and additionally visualize the spatial pattern of ATT itself, providing valuable clinical insights. Although multi-timepoint data can be acquired in the same scan time as single-PLD data with comparable perfusion measurement precision, its acquisition and postprocessing presents challenges beyond single-PLD ASL, impeding widespread adoption. Building upon the 2015 ASL consensus article, this work highlights the protocol distinctions specific to multi-timepoint ASL and provides robust recommendations for acquiring high-quality data. Additionally, we propose an extended quantification model based on the 2015 consensus model and discuss relevant postprocessing options to enhance the analysis of multi-timepoint ASL data. Furthermore, we review the potential clinical applications where multi-timepoint ASL is expected to offer significant benefits. This article is part of a series published by the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (ISMRM) Perfusion Study Group, aiming to guide and inspire the advancement and utilization of ASL beyond the scope of the 2015 consensus article.

ASL lexicon and reporting recommendations: A consensus report from the ISMRM Open Science Initiative for Perfusion Imaging (OSIPI)

The 2015 consensus statement published by the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (ISMRM) Perfusion Study Group and the European Cooperation in Science and Technology ( COST) Action ASL in Dementia aimed to encourage the implementation of robust arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion MRI for clinical applications and promote consistency across scanner types, sites, and studies. Subsequently, the recommended 3D pseudo-continuous ASL sequence has been implemented by most major MRI manufacturers. However, ASL remains a rapidly and widely developing field, leading inevitably to further divergence of the technique and its associated terminology, which could cause confusion and hamper research reproducibility. On behalf of the ISMRM Perfusion Study Group, and as part of the ISMRM Open Science Initiative for Perfusion Imaging (OSIPI), the ASL Lexicon Task Force has been working on the development of an ASL Lexicon and Reporting Recommendations for perfusion imaging and analysis, aiming to (1) develop standardized, consensus nomenclature and terminology for the broad range of ASL imaging techniques and parameters, as well as for the physiological constants required for quantitative analysis; and (2) provide a community-endorsed recommendation of the imaging parameters that we encourage authors to include when describing ASL methods in scientific reports/papers. In this paper, the sequences and parameters in (pseudo-)continuous ASL, pulsed ASL, velocity-selective ASL, and multi-timepoint ASL for brain perfusion imaging are included. However, the content of the lexicon is not intended to be limited to these techniques, and this paper provides the foundation for a growing online inventory that will be extended by the community as further methods and improvements are developed and established.

Simultaneous perfusion, diffusion, T2 *, and T1 mapping with MR fingerprinting

PURPOSE

Quantitative mapping of brain perfusion, diffusion, T2 *, and T1 has important applications in cerebrovascular diseases. At present, these sequences are performed separately. This study aims to develop a novel MRI technique to simultaneously estimate these parameters.

METHODS

This sequence to measure perfusion, diffusion, T2 *, and T1 mapping with magnetic resonance fingerprinting (MRF) was based on a previously reported MRF-arterial spin labeling (ASL) sequence, but the acquisition module was modified to include different TEs and presence/absence of bipolar diffusion-weighting gradients. We compared parameters derived from the proposed method to those derived from reference methods (i.e., separate sequences of MRF-ASL, conventional spin-echo DWI, and T2 * mapping). Test-retest repeatability and initial clinical application in two patients with stroke were evaluated.

RESULTS

The scan time of our proposed method was 24% shorter than the sum of the reference methods. Parametric maps obtained from the proposed method revealed excellent image quality. Their quantitative values were strongly correlated with those from reference methods and were generally in agreement with values reported in the literature. Repeatability assessment revealed that ADC, T2 *, T1 , and B1 + estimation was highly reliable, with voxelwise coefficient of variation (CoV) <5%. The CoV for arterial transit time and cerebral blood flow was 16% ± 3% and 25% ± 9%, respectively. The results from the two patients with stroke demonstrated that parametric maps derived from the proposed method can detect both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke.

CONCLUSION

The proposed method is a promising technique for multi-parametric mapping and has potential use in patients with stroke.

Contrast Agent-Free 3D Renal Ultrafast Doppler Imaging Reveals Vascular Dysfunction in Acute and Diabetic Kidney Diseases

To combat the irreversible decline in renal function associated with kidney disease, it is essential to establish non-invasive biomarkers for assessing renal microcirculation. However, the limited resolution and/or vascular sensitivity of existing diagnostic imaging techniques hinders the visualization of complex cortical vessels. Here, a 3D renal ultrafast Doppler (UFD) imaging system that uses a high ultrasound frequency (18 MHz) and ultrahigh frame rate (1 KHz per slice) to scan the entire volume of a rat's kidney in vivo is demonstrated. The system, which can visualize the full 3D renal vascular branching pyramid at a resolution of 167 µm without any contrast agent, is used to chronically and noninvasively monitor kidneys with acute kidney injury (AKI, 3 days) and diabetic kidney disease (DKD, 8 weeks). Multiparametric UFD analyses (e.g., vessel volume occupancy (VVO), fractional moving blood volume (FMBV), vessel number density (VND), and vessel tortuosity (VT)) describe rapid vascular rarefaction from AKI and long-term vascular degeneration from DKD, while the renal pathogeneses are validated by in vitro blood serum testing and stained histopathology. This work demonstrates the potential of 3D renal UFD to offer valuable insights into assessing kidney perfusion levels for future research in diabetes and kidney transplantation.

A Study to Evaluate the Role of Three-Dimensional Pseudo-Continuous Arterial Spin Labelling in Acute Ischemic Stroke

Introduction Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is well known to detect ischemic brain tissue and evaluate the tissue vulnerable to infarction. Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) has been a mainstay of stroke evaluation but has a few shortcomings, as it generally indicates only the core of ischemia and does not provide information regarding the tissue at risk or the ischemic penumbra surrounding the infarct. Perfusion imaging identifies brain tissue that has reduced blood flow as a potential target for reperfusion therapy. Arterial spin labelling (ASL) is a new non-invasive, non-contrast MRI perfusion sequence used to detect areas of hypoperfusion qualitatively and quantitatively and also identify the area at risk, i.e., the penumbra, in acute ischemic stroke. The most important component of the imaging is to determine the ischemic penumbra. One of the working definitions of penumbra is brain tissue that is ischemic but not yet infarcted and is at risk of further damage unless the flow is rapidly restored. Hence, perfusion-diffusion mismatch provides a realistic target for potential intervention. The aim of our study is to assess the role of ASL imaging in identifying the penumbra and providing insight into the management of acute ischemic stroke. Materials and methods Patients who presented with symptoms of acute ischemic stroke were included in the study, and an MRI stroke protocol comprising DWI, fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR), ASL, and magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) sequences was done. Post-thrombolysis, a follow-up MRI was done using DWI, ASL, and MRA to see the restoration of perfusion in the ischemic penumbra. Three-dimensional pseudo-continuous ASL (in our study, ASL refers to pseudo-continuous ASL) is included in the stroke protocol in cases of acute ischemic stroke and assessed qualitatively. Results Our study included 43 patients (n = 43), of whom 39.5% (17 patients) belong to the age group of 51-60 years and 2.3% (one patient) are in the age group of 21-30 years. All 43 cases demonstrated DWI-FLAIR mismatch, suggestive of ischemic stroke within the window period, and all 43 cases showed DWI-ASL mismatch, suggestive of a large yet potentially salvageable peri-infarct ischemic penumbra. The most common territory involved was the middle cerebral artery (MCA), and the posterior cerebral artery (PCA) was the least commonly involved territory. We had one case involving the MCA-PCA watershed zone. Conclusion Arterial spin labelling is a novel, non-invasive, non-contrast MRI sequence with the capability to provide qualitative information regarding the salvageable ischemic penumbra, and timely management prevents the progression of the penumbra. The incorporation of ASL as part of the standard neuroimaging protocol aids in the management of acute stroke, giving insight into the prediction of outcome.

The utility of arterial spin labelled perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in measuring the vascularity of high grade gliomas - A prospective study

Background

Dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) perfusion weighted imaging (PWI) currently remains the gold standard technique for measuring cerebral perfusion in glioma diagnosis and surveillance. Arterial spin labelling (ASL) PWI is a non-invasive alternative that does not require gadolinium contrast administration, although it is yet to be applied in widespread clinical practice. This study aims to assess the utility of measuring signal intensity in ASL PWI in predicting glioma vascularity by measuring maximal tumour signal intensity in patients based on pre-operative imaging and comparing this to maximal vessel density on histopathology.

Methods

Pseudocontinuous ASL (pCASL) and DSC images were acquired pre-operatively in 21 patients with high grade gliomas. The maximal signal intensity within the gliomas over a region of interest of 100 mm² was measured and also normalised to the contralateral cerebral cortex (nTBF-C), and cerebellum (nTBF-Cb). Maximal vessel density per 1 mm² was determined on histopathology using CD31 and CD34 immunostaining on all participants.

Results

Using ASL, statistically significant correlation was observed between maximal signal intensity (p < 0.05) and nTBF-C (p < 0.05) to maximal vessel density based on histopathology. Although a positive trend was also observed nTBF-Cb, this did not reach statistical significance. Using DSC, no statistically significant correlation was found between signal intensity, nTBF-C and nTBF-Cb. There was no correlation between maximal signal intensity between ASL and DSC. Average vessel density did not correlate with age, sex, previous treatment, or IDH status.

Conclusions

ASL PWI imaging is a reliable marker of evaluating the vascularity of high grade gliomas and may be used as an adjunct to DSC PWI.

Arterial spin labeling signal in the CSF: Implications for partial volume correction and blood-CSF barrier characterization

For better quantification of perfusion with arterial spin labeling (ASL), partial volume correction (PVC) is used to disentangle the signals from gray matter (GM) and white matter within any voxel. Based on physiological considerations, PVC algorithms typically assume zero signal in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Recent measurements, however, have shown that CSF-ASL signal can exceed 10% of GM signal, even when using recommended ASL labeling parameters. CSF signal is expected to particularly affect PVC results in the choroid plexus. This study aims to measure the impact of CSF signal on PVC perfusion measurements, and to investigate the potential use of PVC to retrieve pure CSF-ASL signal for blood-CSF barrier characterization. In vivo imaging included six pCASL sequences with variable label duration and post-labeling delay (PLD), and an eight-echo 3D-GRASE readout. A dataset was simulated to estimate the effect of CSF-PVC with known ground-truth parameters. Differences between the results of CSF-PVC and non-CSF-PVC were estimated for regions of interest (ROIs) based on GM probability, and a separate ROI isolating the choroid plexus. In vivo, the suitability of PVC-CSF signal as an estimate of pure CSF was investigated by comparing its time course with the long-TE CSF signal. Results from both simulation and in vivo data indicated that including the CSF signal in PVC improves quantification of GM CBF by approximately 10%. In simulated data, this improvement was greater for multi-PLD (model fitting) quantification than for single PLD (~1-5% difference). In the choroid plexus, the difference between CSF-PVC and non-CSF-PVC was much larger, averaging around 30%. Long-TE (pure) CSF signal could not be estimated from PVC CSF signal as it followed a different time course, indicating the presence of residual macrovascular signal in the PVC. The inclusion of CSF adds value to PVC for more accurate measurements of GM perfusion, and especially for quantification of perfusion in the choroid plexus and study of the glymphatic system.

Microvascular response to exercise varies along the length of the tibialis anterior muscle

Microvascular function is an important component in the physiology of muscle. One of the major parameters, blood perfusion, can be measured noninvasively and quantitatively by arterial spin labeling (ASL) MRI. Most studies using ASL in muscle have only reported data from a single slice, thereby assuming that muscle perfusion is homogeneous within muscle, whereas recent literature has reported proximodistal differences in oxidative capacity and perfusion. Here, we acquired pulsed ASL data in 12 healthy volunteers after dorsiflexion exercise in two slices separated distally by 7 cm. We combined this with a Look-Locker scheme to acquire images at multiple postlabeling delays (PLDs) and with a multiecho readout to measure T₂ *. This enabled the simultaneous evaluation of quantitative muscle blood flow (MBF), arterial transit time (ATT), and T₂ * relaxation time in the tibialis anterior muscle during recovery. Using repeated measures analyses of variance we tested the effect of time, slice location, and their interaction on MBF, ATT, and T₂ *. Our results showed a significant difference as a function of time postexercise for all three parameters (MBF: F = 34.0, p < .0001; T₂ *: F = 73.7, p < .0001; ATT: F = 13.6, p < .001) and no average differences between slices over the total time postexercise were observed. The interaction effect between time postexercise and slice location was significant for MBF and T₂ * (F = 5.5, p = 0.02, F = 6.1, p = 0.02, respectively), but not for ATT (F = 2.2, p = .16). The proximal slice showed a higher MBF and a lower ATT than the distal slice during the first 2 min of recovery, and T₂ * showed a delayed response in the distal slice. These results imply a higher perfusion and faster microvascular response to exercise in the proximal slice, in line with previous literature. Moreover, the differences in ATT indicate that it is difficult to correctly determine perfusion based on a single PLD as is commonly performed in the muscle literature.

Velocity-selective arterial spin labeling perfusion MRI: A review of the state of the art and recommendations for clinical implementation

This review article provides an overview of the current status of velocity-selective arterial spin labeling (VSASL) perfusion MRI and is part of a wider effort arising from the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (ISMRM) Perfusion Study Group. Since publication of the 2015 consensus paper on arterial spin labeling (ASL) for cerebral perfusion imaging, important advancements have been made in the field. The ASL community has, therefore, decided to provide an extended perspective on various aspects of technical development and application. Because VSASL has the potential to become a principal ASL method because of its unique advantages over traditional approaches, an in-depth discussion was warranted. VSASL labels blood based on its velocity and creates a magnetic bolus immediately proximal to the microvasculature within the imaging volume. VSASL is, therefore, insensitive to transit delay effects, in contrast to spatially selective pulsed and (pseudo-) continuous ASL approaches. Recent technical developments have improved the robustness and the labeling efficiency of VSASL, making it a potentially more favorable ASL approach in a wide range of applications where transit delay effects are of concern. In this review article, we (1) describe the concepts and theoretical basis of VSASL; (2) describe different variants of VSASL and their implementation; (3) provide recommended parameters and practices for clinical adoption; (4) describe challenges in developing and implementing VSASL; and (5) describe its current applications. As VSASL continues to undergo rapid development, the focus of this review is to summarize the fundamental concepts of VSASL, describe existing VSASL techniques and applications, and provide recommendations to help the clinical community adopt VSASL.

Arterial Spin Labeling technique and clinical applications of the intracranial compartment in stroke and stroke mimics - A case-based review

Magnetic resonance imaging perfusion (MRP) techniques can improve the selection of acute ischemic stroke patients for treatment by estimating the salvageable area of decreased perfusion, that is, penumbra. Arterial spin labeling (ASL) is a noncontrast MRP technique that is used to assess cerebral blood flow without the use of intravenous gadolinium contrast. Thus, ASL is of particular interest in stroke imaging. This article will review clinical applications of ASL in stroke such as assessment of the core infarct and penumbra, localization of the vascular occlusion, and collateral status. Given the nonspecific symptoms that patients can present with, differentiating between stroke and a stroke mimic is a diagnostic dilemma. ASL not only helps in differentiating stroke from stroke mimic but also can be used to specify the exact mimic when used in conjunction with the symptomatology and structural imaging. In addition to a case-based overview of clinical applications of the ASL in stroke and stroke mimics in this article, the more commonly used ASL labeling techniques as well as emerging ASL techniques, future developments, and limitations will be reviewed.

Impact of Catheter Ablation on Brain Microstructure and Blood Flow Alterations for Cognitive Improvements in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: A Pilot Longitudinal Study

Atrial fibrillation (AF) predisposes patients to develop cognitive decline and dementia. Clinical and epidemiological data propose that catheter ablation may provide further benefit to improve neurocognitive function in patients with AF, but the underlying mechanism is poorly available. Here, we conducted a pilot prospective study to investigate whether AF ablation can alter regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) and brain microstructures, using multimodal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique. Eight patients (63 ± 7 years) with persistent AF underwent arterial-spin labeling (ASL) perfusion, 3D T1-structural images and cognitive test batteries before and 6 months after intervention. ASL and structural MR images were spatially normalized, and the rCBF and cortical thickness of different brain areas were compared between pre- and 6-month post-treatment. Cognitive–psychological function was improved, and rCBF was significantly increased in the left posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) (p = 0.013), whereas decreased cortical thickness was found in the left posterior insular cortex (p = 0.023). Given that the PCC is a strategic site in the limbic system, while the insular cortex is known to play an important part in the central autonomic nervous system, our findings extend the hypothesis that autonomic system alterations are an important mechanism explaining the positive effect of AF ablation on cognitive function.

Multidelay ASL of the pediatric brain

Arterial spin labeling (ASL) is a powerful noncontrast MRI technique for evaluation of cerebral blood flow (CBF). A key parameter in single-delay ASL is the choice of postlabel delay (PLD), which refers to the timing between the labeling of arterial free water and measurement of flow into the brain. Multidelay ASL (MDASL) utilizes several PLDs to improve the accuracy of CBF calculations using arterial transit time (ATT) correction. This approach is particularly helpful in situations where ATT is unknown, including young subjects and slow-flow conditions. In this article, we discuss the technical considerations for MDASL, including labeling techniques, quantitative metrics, and technical artefacts. We then provide a practical summary of key clinical applications with real-life imaging examples in the pediatric brain, including stroke, vasculopathy, hypoxic-ischemic injury, epilepsy, migraine, tumor, infection, and metabolic disease.

Spatial variation of perfusion MRI reflects cognitive decline in mild cognitive impairment and early dementia

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) measured with arterial spin labelling (ASL) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reflects cerebral perfusion, related to metabolism, and arterial transit time (ATT), related to vascular health. Our aim was to investigate the spatial coefficient of variation (sCoV) of CBF maps as a surrogate for ATT, in volunteers meeting criteria for subjective cognitive decline (SCD), amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and probable Alzheimer’s dementia (AD). Whole-brain pseudo continuous ASL MRI was performed at 3 T in 122 participants (controls = 20, SCD = 44, MCI = 45 and AD = 13) across three sites in New Zealand. From CBF maps that included all grey matter, sCoV progressively increased across each group with increased cognitive deficit. A similar overall trend was found when examining sCoV solely in the temporal lobe. We conclude that sCoV, a simple to compute imaging metric derived from ASL MRI, is sensitive to varying degrees of cognitive changes and supports the view that vascular health contributes to cognitive decline associated with Alzheimer’s disease.

Separating spin compartments in arterial spin labeling using delays alternating with nutation for tailored excitation (DANTE) pulse: A validation study using T2 -relaxometry and application to arterial cerebral blood volume imaging

PURPOSE

To clarify the type of spin compartment in arterial spin labeling (ASL) that is eliminated by delays alternating with nutation for tailored excitation (DANTE) pulse using T₂ -relaxometry, and to demonstrate the feasibility of arterial cerebral blood volume (CBV_a ) imaging using DANTE-ASL in combination with a simplified two-compartment model.

METHOD

The DANTE and T₂ -preparation modules were combined into a single ASL sequence. T₂ values under the application of DANTE were determined to evaluate changes in T₂ , along with the post-labeling delay (PLD) and the relationship between transit time without DANTE (TT_noVS ) and T₂ . The reference tissue T₂ (T_{2_ref} ) was also obtained. Subsequently, the DANTE module was embedded into the Hadamard-encoded ASL. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) and CBV_a were computed using two Hadamard-encoding datasets (with and without DANTE) in a rest and breath-holding (BH) task.

RESULTS

While T₂ without DANTE (T_{2_noVS} ) decreased as the PLD increased, T₂ with DANTE (T_{2_DANTE} ) was equivalent to T_{2_ref} and did not change with the PLD. Although there was a significant positive correlation between TT_noVS and T_{2_noVS} with short PLD, T_{2_DANTE} was not correlated with TT_noVS nor PLD. Baseline CBV_a values obtained at rest were 0.64 ± 0.12, 0.64 ± 0.11, and 0.58 ± 0.15 mL/100 g for anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries, respectively. Significant CBF and CBV_a elevations were observed in the BH task.

CONCLUSION

Microvascular compartment signals were eliminated from the total ASL signals by DANTE. CBV_a can be measured using Hadamard-encoded DANTE-ASL in combination with a simplified two-compartment model.

Impact of the inversion time on regional brain perfusion estimation with clinical arterial spin labeling protocols

Objective

Evaluating the impact of the Inversion Time (TI) on regional perfusion estimation in a pediatric cohort using Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL).

Materials and methods

Pulsed ASL (PASL) was acquired at 3 T both at TI 1500 ms and 2020 ms from twelve MRI-negative patients (age range 9–17 years). A volume of interest (VOIs) and a voxel-wise approach were employed to evaluate subject-specific TI-dependent Cerebral Blood Flow (CBF) differences, and grey matter CBF Z-score differences. A visual evaluation was also performed.

Results

CBF was higher for TI 1500 ms in the proximal territories of the arteries (PTAs) (e.g. insular cortex and basal ganglia — P < 0.01 and P < 0.05 from the VOI analysis, respectively), and for TI 2020 ms in the distal territories of the arteries (DTAs), including the watershed areas (e.g. posterior parietal and occipital cortex — P < 0.001 and P < 0.01 from the VOI analysis, respectively). Similar differences were also evident when analyzing patient-specific CBF Z-scores and at a visual inspection.

Conclusions

TI influences ASL perfusion estimates with a region-dependent effect. The presence of intraluminal arterial signal in PTAs and the longer arterial transit time in the DTAs (including watershed areas) may account for the TI-dependent differences. Watershed areas exhibiting a lower perfusion signal at short TIs (~ 1500 ms) should not be misinterpreted as focal hypoperfused areas.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10334-021-00964-7.

Magnetic resonance angiography and perfusion mapping by arterial spin labeling using Fourier transform-based velocity-selective pulse trains: Examination on a commercial perfusion phantom

PURPOSE

Benchmarking of flow and perfusion MR techniques on standardized phantoms can facilitate the use of advanced angiography and perfusion-mapping techniques across multiple sites, field strength, and vendors. Here, MRA and perfusion mapping by arterial spin labeling (ASL) using Fourier transform (FT)-based velocity-selective saturation and inversion pulse trains were evaluated on a commercial perfusion phantom.

METHODS

The FT velocity-selective saturation-based MRA and FT velocity-selective inversion-based ASL perfusion imaging were compared with time-of-flight and pseudo-continuous ASL at 3 T on the perfusion phantom at two controlled flow rates, 175 mL/min and 350 mL/min. Velocity-selective MRA (VSMRA) and velocity-selective ASL (VSASL) were each performed with three velocity-encoding directions: foot-head, left-right, and oblique 45°. The contrast-to-noise ratio for MRA scans and perfusion-weighted signal, as well as labeling efficiency for ASL methods, were quantified.

RESULTS

On this phantom with feeding tubes having only vertical and transverse flow directions, VSMRA and VSASL exhibited the dependence of velocity-encoding directions. The foot-head-encoded VSMRA and VSASL generated similar signal contrasts as time of flight and pseudo-continuous ASL for the two flow rates, respectively. The oblique 45°-encoded VSMRA yielded more uniform contrast-to-noise ratio across slices than foot-head and left-right-encoded VSMRA scans. The oblique 45°-encoded VSASL elevated labeling efficiency from 0.22-0.68 to 0.82-0.90 through more uniform labeling of the entire feeding tubes.

CONCLUSION

Both FT velocity-selective saturation-based VSMRA and FT velocity-selective inversion-based VSASL were characterized on a commercial perfusion phantom. Careful selection of velocity-encoding directions along the major vessels is recommended for their applications in various organs.

Validation of the estimation of the macrovascular contribution in multi-timepoint arterial spin labeling MRI using a 2-component kinetic model

PURPOSE

In this paper, the ability to quantify cerebral blood flow by arterial spin labeling (ASL) was studied by investigating the separation of the macrovascular and tissue component using a 2-component model. Underlying assumptions of this model, especially the inclusion of dispersion in the analysis, were studied, as well as the temporal resolution of the ASL datasets.

METHODS

Four different datasets were acquired: (1) 4D ASL angiography to characterize the macrovascular component and to study dispersion modeling within this component, (2) high temporal resolution ASL data to investigate the separation of the 2 components and the effect of dispersion modelling on this separation, (3) low temporal resolution ASL dataset to study the effect of the temporal resolution on the separation of the 2 components, and (4) low temporal resolution ASL data with vascular crushing.

RESULTS

The model that included a gamma dispersion kernel had the best fit to the 4D ASL angiography. For the high temporal resolution ASL dataset, inclusion of the gamma dispersion kernel led to more signal included in the arterial blood volume map, which resulted in decreased cerebral blood flow values. The arterial blood volume and cerebral blood flow maps showed overall higher arterial blood volume values and lower cerebral blood flow values for the high temporal resolution dataset compared to the low temporal resolution dataset.

CONCLUSION

Inclusion of a gamma dispersion kernel resulted in better fitting of the model to the data. The separation of the macrovascular and tissue component is affected by the inclusion of a gamma dispersion kernel and the temporal resolution of the ASL dataset.

Non-Invasive Evaluation of Cerebral Microvasculature Using Pre-Clinical MRI: Principles, Advantages and Limitations

Alterations to the cerebral microcirculation have been recognized to play a crucial role in the development of neurodegenerative disorders. However, the exact role of the microvascular alterations in the pathophysiological mechanisms often remains poorly understood. The early detection of changes in microcirculation and cerebral blood flow (CBF) can be used to get a better understanding of underlying disease mechanisms. This could be an important step towards the development of new treatment approaches. Animal models allow for the study of the disease mechanism at several stages of development, before the onset of clinical symptoms, and the verification with invasive imaging techniques. Specifically, pre-clinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an important tool for the development and validation of MRI sequences under clinically relevant conditions. This article reviews MRI strategies providing indirect non-invasive measurements of microvascular changes in the rodent brain that can be used for early detection and characterization of neurodegenerative disorders. The perfusion MRI techniques: Dynamic Contrast Enhanced (DCE), Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast Enhanced (DSC) and Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL), will be discussed, followed by less established imaging strategies used to analyze the cerebral microcirculation: Intravoxel Incoherent Motion (IVIM), Vascular Space Occupancy (VASO), Steady-State Susceptibility Contrast (SSC), Vessel size imaging, SAGE-based DSC, Phase Contrast Flow (PC) Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping (QSM) and quantitative Blood-Oxygenation-Level-Dependent (qBOLD). We will emphasize the advantages and limitations of each strategy, in particular on applications for high-field MRI in the rodent's brain.

Examination of optimized protocols for pCASL: Sensitivity to macrovascular contamination, flow dispersion, and prolonged arterial transit time

Purpose

Previously, multi‐ post‐labeling delays (PLD) pseudo‐continuous arterial spin labeling (pCASL) protocols have been optimized for the estimation accuracy of the cerebral blood flow (CBF) with/without the arterial transit time (ATT) under a standard kinetic model and a normal ATT range. This study aims to examine the estimation errors of these protocols under the effects of macrovascular contamination, flow dispersion, and prolonged arrival times, all of which might differ substantially in elderly or pathological groups.

Methods

Simulated data for four protocols with varying degrees of arterial blood volume (aBV), flow dispersion, and ATTs were fitted with different kinetic models, both with and without explicit correction for macrovascular signal contamination (MVC), to obtain CBF and ATT estimates. Sensitivity to MVC was defined and calculated when aBV > 0.5%. A previously acquired dataset was retrospectively analyzed to compare with simulation.

Results

All protocols showed underestimation of CBF and ATT in the prolonged ATT range. With MVC, the protocol optimized for CBF only (CBFopt) had the lowest sensitivity value to MVC, 33.47% and 60.21% error per 1% aBV in simulation and in vivo, respectively, among multi‐PLD protocols. All multi‐PLD protocols showed a significant decrease in estimation error when an extended kinetic model was used. Increasing flow dispersion at short ATTs caused increasing CBF and ATT overestimation in all protocols.

Conclusion

CBFopt was the least sensitive protocol to prolonged ATT and MVC for CBF estimation while maintaining reasonably good performance in estimating ATT. Explicitly including a macrovascular component in the kinetic model was shown to be a feasible approach in controlling for MVC.

Three-dimensional whole-brain mapping of cerebral blood volume and venous cerebral blood volume using Fourier transform-based velocity-selective pulse trains

PURPOSE

To develop 3D MRI methods for cerebral blood volume (CBV) and venous cerebral blood volume (vCBV) estimation with whole-brain coverage using Fourier transform-based velocity-selective (FT-VS) pulse trains.

METHODS

For CBV measurement, FT-VS saturation pulse trains were used to suppress static tissue, whereas CSF contamination was corrected voxel-by-voxel using a multi-readout acquisition and a fast CSF T₂ scan. The vCBV mapping was achieved by inserting an arterial-nulling module that included a FT-VS inversion pulse train. Using these methods, CBV and vCBV maps were obtained on 6 healthy volunteers at 3 T.

RESULTS

The mean CBV and vCBV values in gray matter and white matter in different areas of the brain showed high correlation (r = 0.95 and P < .0001). The averaged CBV and vCBV values of the whole brain were 5.4 ± 0.6 mL/100 g and 2.5 ± 0.3 mL/100 g in gray matter, and 2.6 ± 0.5 mL/100 g and 1.5 ± 0.2 mL/100 g in white matter, respectively, comparable to the literature.

CONCLUSION

The feasibility of FT-VS-based CBV and vCBV estimation was demonstrated for 3D acquisition with large spatial coverage.

Conventional and advanced MRI evaluation of brain vascular malformations

Vascular malformations (VMs) of the central nervous system (CNS) include a wide range of pathological conditions related to intra and extracranial vessel abnormalities. Although some VMs show typical neuroimaging features, other VMs share and overlap pathological and neuroimaging features that hinder an accurate differentiation between them. Hence, it is not uncommon to misclassify different types of VMs under the general heading of arteriovenous malformations. Thorough knowledge of the imaging findings of each type of VM is mandatory to avoid these inaccuracies. Conventional MRI sequences, including MR angiography, have allowed the evaluation of CNS VMs without using ionizing radiation. Newer MRI techniques, such as susceptibility-weighted imaging, black blood sequences, arterial spin labeling, and 4D flow imaging, have an added value of providing physiopathological data in real time regarding the hemodynamics of VMs. Beyond MR images, new insights using 3D printed models are being incorporated as part of the armamentarium for a noninvasive evaluation of VMs. In this paper, we briefly review the pathophysiology of CNS VMs, focusing on the MRI findings that may be helpful to differentiate them. We discuss the role of each conventional and advanced MRI sequence for VMs assessment and provide some insights about the value of structured reports of 3D printing to evaluate VMs.

Effects of Acquisition Parameter Modifications and Field Strength on the Reproducibility of Brain Perfusion Measurements Using Arterial Spin-Labeling

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Although the added diagnostic value of arterial spin-labeling is shown in various cerebral pathologies, its use in clinical practice is limited. To encourage clinical adoption of ASL, we investigated the reproducibility of CBF measurements and the effects of variations in acquisition parameters compared to the recommended ASL implementation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-four volunteers (mean age, 57.8 ± 17.0 years; range, 22-80 years) underwent two separate sessions (1.5T and 3T scanners from a single vendor) using a 15-channel head coil. Both sessions contained repeated 3D and 2D pseudocontinuous arterial spin-labeling scans using vendor-recommended acquisition parameters (recommendation paper-based), followed by three 3D pseudocontinuous arterial spin-labeling scans, two with postlabeling delays of 1600  and 2000 ms and one with increased spatial resolution. All scans were single postlabeling delay. Intrasession (identical acquisitions, scanned five minutes apart) and intersession (first 2D and 3D acquisitions of two sessions) reproducibility was examined as well as the effect of parameter variations on CBF.

RESULTS

Intrasession CBF reproducibility was similar across image readouts and field strengths (within-subject coefficient of variation between 4.0% and 6.7%). Intersession within-subject coefficient of variation ranged from 6.6% to 14.8%. At 3T, the 3D acquisition with a higher spatial resolution resulted in less mixing of GM and WM signal, thus decreasing the bias in GM CBF between the 2D and 3D acquisitions (ΔCBF = 2.49 mL/100g/min [P < .001]). Postlabeling delay variations caused a modest bias (ΔCBF between -3.78 [P < .001] and 2.83 [P < .001] mL/100g/min).

CONCLUSIONS

Arterial spin-labeling imaging is reproducible at both field strengths, and the reproducibility is not significantly correlated with age. Furthermore, 3T tolerates more acquisition parameter variations and allows more extensive optimizations so that 3D and 2D acquisitions can be compared.

Association of iron levels in hair with brain structures and functions in young adults

BACKGROUND

Iron plays a critical role in normal brain functions and development, but it has also been known to have adverse neurological effects.

METHODS

Here, we investigated the associations of iron levels in hair with regional gray matter volume (rGMV), regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), and cognitive differences in a study cohort of 590 healthy young adults.

RESULTS

Our findings showed that high iron levels were associated with lower rGMV in areas including the hippocampus, lower rCBF in the anterior and posterior parts of the brain, greater FA in areas including the part of the splenium of the corpus callosum, lower MD in the overlapping area including the splenium of the corpus callosum, as well as greater MD in the left hippocampus and areas including the frontal lobe.

CONCLUSION

These results are compatible with the notion that iron plays diverse roles in neural mechanisms in healthy young adults.

Look-Locker FAIR TrueFISP for arterial spin labelling on mouse at 9.4 T

Pulsed arterial spin labelling remains a non-invasive and highly used method for the study of rodent cerebral blood flow (CBF). Flow-sensitive alternating inversion recovery (FAIR) is one of the most commonly used MR-sequences for this purpose and exists with many different strategies to record the images. This study investigates Look-Locker (LL) TrueFISP readout for FAIR as an alternative to the standard EPI readout, which is provided by the manufacturer. The aim was to show the improved image quality using TrueFISP and to verify the reproducibility of the determination of the cerebral blood flow values. The measurement of many inversion points also allowed to investigate the influence of the correct blood relaxation rate on the fit of the CBF data. For the LL-FAIR TrueFISP an in-house written method was created. The method was tested on a group of C57BL/6 mice at the field strength of 9.4 T. The results show CBF maps with less distortion than for EPI and the values found are in good agreement with the literature. A comparison of the CBF values found with EPI and LL-TrueFISP shows very small differences, most being not significant. In conclusion, the method presented gives equivalent CBF maps in comparison to standard FAIR-EPI. Both methods have the same measurement time. TrueFISP has the advantage to EPI of producing undistorted images over larger areas of the mouse brain. It is advisable to check the value of the blood relaxation rate by measurement or to estimate it as a fitting parameter.

Multidelay Arterial Spin Labeling MRI in the Assessment of Cerebral Blood Flow: Preliminary Clinical Experience in Pediatrics

OBJECTIVES

We attempted to demonstrate the clinical applicability and utility of a three-dimensional multidelay arterial spin labeling magnetic resonance imaging technique in pediatric neuroimaging through a series of case studies.

METHODS

Whole-brain three-dimensional multidelay arterial spin labeling data were acquired in five pediatric patients with different neurological conditions using 3 mm to 4 mm slices and a scan time of six to seven minutes.

RESULTS

Three-dimensional multidelay arterial spin labeling provided complementary diagnostic information via quantitative cerebral blood flow and arterial transit time maps.

CONCLUSIONS

Three-dimensional multidelay arterial spin labeling sequence provides simultaneous quantification of cerebral blood flow and arterial transit time and is feasible for pediatric patients.

MR fingerprinting ASL: Sequence characterization and comparison with dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) MRI

MR Fingerprinting (MRF)-based Arterial-Spin-Labeling (ASL) has the potential to measure multiple parameters such as cerebral blood flow (CBF), bolus arrival time (BAT), and tissue T1 in a single scan. However, the previous reports have only demonstrated a proof-of-principle of the technique but have not examined the performance of the sequence in the context of key imaging parameters. Furthermore, there has not been a study to directly compare the technique to clinically used perfusion method of dynamic-susceptibility-contrast (DSC) MRI. The present report consists of two studies. In the first study (N = 8), we examined the dependence of MRF-ASL sequence on TR time pattern. Ten different TR patterns with a range of temporal characteristics were examined by both simulations and experiments. The results revealed that there was a significance dependence of the sequence performance on TR pattern (p < 0.001), although there was not a single pattern that provided dramatically improvements. Among the TR patterns tested, a sinusoidal pattern with a period of 125 TRs provided an overall best estimation in terms of spatial consistency. These experimental observations were consistent with those of numerical simulations. In the second study (N = 8), we compared MRF-ASL results with those of DSC MRI. It was found that MRF-ASL and DSC MRI provided highly comparable maps of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and bolus-arrival-time (BAT), with spatial correlation coefficients of 0.79 and 0.91, respectively. However, in terms of quantitative values, BAT obtained with MRF-ASL was considerably lower than that from DSC (p < 0.001), presumably because of the differences in tracer characteristics in terms of diffusible versus intravascular tracers. Test-retest assessment of MRF-ASL MRI revealed that the spatial correlations of parametric maps were 0.997, 0.962, 0.746 and 0.863 for B1+ , T1 , CBF, and BAT, respectively. MRF-ASL is a promising technique for assessing multiple perfusion parameters simultaneously without contrast agent.

Intravascular signal suppression and microvascular signal mapping using delays alternating with nutation for tailored excitation (DANTE) pulse for arterial spin labeling perfusion imaging

OBJECTIVE

To optimize the delays alternating with nutation for tailored excitation (DANTE) pulse as a vascular crushing gradient to eliminate macro-and micro-vascular signals and to generate a macrovascular space-related map by applying DANTE with multiple conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Numerical simulation was performed to estimate the optimal flip angle (FA) of the DANTE. A phantom study was conducted to evaluate the impact of the FA and gradient area (GA) of the DANTE with three flow velocities and various parameters of the DANTE. Finally, an in vivo study was performed to assess the optimal DANTE parameters and to map the estimated macrovascular signal of the arterial spin labeling (ASL) signal.

RESULTS

Numerical simulation revealed that the decrease of magnetization plateaued at 12.5° of FA. The phantom study showed that the setting of larger FA or GA decreased the ASL signals. The decrease of the ASL signal depended on the flow velocity, and the dependence increased with decreasing GA. The in vivo study revealed that larger FA and GA decreased the perfusion signal.

DISCUSSION

An optimized DANTE makes it possible to efficiently suppress the macro-and-micro vascular signals depending on the flow velocity. Moreover, macrovascular signal mapping may be useful to assess altered hemodynamic states.

Quantification of cerebral perfusion and cerebrovascular reserve using Turbo-QUASAR arterial spin labeling MRI

Purpose

To compare cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebrovascular reserve (CVR) quantification from Turbo‐QUASAR (quantitative signal targeting with alternating radiofrequency labeling of arterial regions) arterial spin labeling (ASL) and single post‐labeling delay pseudo‐continuous ASL (PCASL).

Methods

A model‐based method was developed to quantify CBF and arterial transit time (ATT) from Turbo‐QUASAR, including a correction for magnetization transfer effects caused by the repeated labeling pulses. Simulations were performed to assess the accuracy of the model‐based method. Data from an in vivo experiment conducted on a healthy cohort were retrospectively analyzed to compare the CBF and CVR (induced by acetazolamide) measurement from Turbo‐QUASAR and PCASL on the basis of global and regional differences. The quality of the two ASL data sets was examined using the coefficient of variation (CoV).

Results

The model‐based method for Turbo‐QUASAR was accurate for CBF estimation (relative error was 8% for signal‐to‐noise ratio = 5) in simulations if the bolus duration was known. In the in vivo experiment, the mean global CVR estimated by Turbo‐QUASAR and PCASL was between 63% and 64% and not significantly different. Although global CBF values of the two ASL techniques were not significantly different, regional CBF differences were found in deep gray matter in both pre‐ and postacetazolamide conditions. The CoV of Turbo‐QUASAR data was significantly higher than PCASL.

Conclusion

Both ASL techniques were effective for quantifying CBF and CVR, despite the regional differences observed. Although CBF estimated from Turbo‐QUASAR demonstrated a higher variability than PCASL, Turbo‐QUASAR offers the advantage of being able to measure and control for variation in ATT.

Quantification of intracranial arterial blood flow using noncontrast enhanced 4D dynamic MR angiography

PURPOSE

Noncontrast enhanced dynamic magnetic resonance angiography delineates the pattern of dynamic blood flow of the cerebral vasculature. A model-free solution was proposed to quantify arterial blood flow (aBF) by using the monotonic property of the residual function.

THEORY AND METHODS

Analytical simulations and in-vivo studies were performed to evaluate the performance of the proposed method by comparing the aBF values generated from the proposed and conventional singular value decomposition methods. The aBF values were compared with blood flow velocity measured by 2D phase contrast MRI, and compared between balanced steady-state free precession-based radial and spoiled GRE-based Cartesian acquisitions. Hemodynamic parametric maps were generated in 1 patient with arteriovenous malformation.

RESULTS

The proposed method generates reliable aBF measurement at different signal-to-noise ratio levels, whereas overestimation/underestimation of aBF was observed when a high/low threshold was applied in the singular value decomposition method. Average aBF in large vascular branches was 214.4 and 214.5 mL/mL/min with radial and Cartesian acquisitions, respectively. Significant correlations were found between aBF and blood flow velocity measured by phase contrast MRI (P = 0.0008), and between Cartesian and radial acquisitions (P < 0.0001). Altered hemodynamics were observed at the lesion site of the arteriovenous malformation patient.

CONCLUSION

A robust analytical solution was proposed for quantifying aBF. This model-free method is robust to noise, and its clinical value in the diagnosis of cerebrovascular disorders awaits further evaluation.

Coupling between cerebral blood flow and cerebral blood volume: Contributions of different vascular compartments

A better understanding of the coupling between changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood volume (CBV) is vital for furthering our understanding of the BOLD response. The aim of this study was to measure CBF-CBV coupling in different vascular compartments during neural activation. Three haemodynamic parameters were measured during a visual stimulus. Look-Locker flow-sensitive alternating inversion recovery was used to measure changes in CBF and arterial CBV (CBVa ) using sequence parameters optimized for each contrast. Changes in total CBV (CBVtot ) were measured using a gadolinium-based contrast agent technique. Haemodynamic changes were extracted from a region of interest based on voxels that were activated in the CBF experiments. The CBF-CBVtot coupling constant αtot was measured as 0.16 ± 0.14 and the CBF-CBVa coupling constant αa was measured as 0.65 ± 0.24. Using a two-compartment model of the vasculature (arterial and venous), the change in venous CBV (CBVv ) was predicted for an assumed value of baseline arterial and venous blood volume. These results will enhance the accuracy and reliability of applications that rely on models of the BOLD response, such as calibrated BOLD.

BOLD-based cerebrovascular reactivity vascular transfer function isolates amplitude and timing responses to better characterize cerebral small vessel disease

Cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) is a dynamic measure of the cerebral blood vessel response to vasoactive stimulus. Conventional CVR measures amplitude changes in the blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) signal per unit change in end-tidal CO₂ (P_ET CO₂ ), effectively discarding potential timing information. This study proposes a deconvolution procedure to characterize CVR responses based on a vascular transfer function (VTF) that separates amplitude and timing CVR effects. We implemented the CVR-VTF to primarily evaluate normal-appearing white matter (WM) responses in those with a range of small vessel disease. Comparisons between simulations of P_ET CO₂ input models revealed that boxcar and ramp hypercapnia paradigms had the lowest relative deconvolution error. We used a T₂ * BOLD-MRI sequence on a 3 T MRI scanner, with a boxcar delivery model of CO₂ , to test the CVR-VTF approach in 18 healthy adults and three white matter hyperintensity (WMH) groups: 20 adults with moderate WMH, 12 adults with severe WMH, and 10 adults with genetic WMH (CADASIL). A subset of participants performed a second CVR session at a one-year follow-up. Conventional CVR, area under the curve of VTF (VTF-AUC), and VTF time-to-peak (VTF-TTP) were assessed in WM and grey matter (GM) at baseline and one-year follow-up. WMH groups had lower WM VTF-AUC compared with the healthy group (p < 0.0001), whereas GM CVR did not differ between groups (p > 0.1). WM VTF-TTP of the healthy group was less than that in the moderate WMH group (p = 0.016). Baseline VTF-AUC was lower than follow-up VTF-AUC in WM (p = 0.013) and GM (p = 0.026). The intraclass correlation for VTF-AUC in WM was 0.39 and coefficient of repeatability was 0.08 [%BOLD/mm Hg]. This study assessed CVR timing and amplitude information without applying model assumptions to the CVR response; this approach may be useful in the development of robust clinical biomarkers of CSVD.

MRI techniques to measure arterial and venous cerebral blood volume

The measurement of cerebral blood volume (CBV) has been the topic of numerous neuroimaging studies. To date, however, most in vivo imaging approaches can only measure CBV summed over all types of blood vessels, including arterial, capillary and venous vessels in the microvasculature (i.e. total CBV or CBVtot). As different types of blood vessels have intrinsically different anatomy, function and physiology, the ability to quantify CBV in different segments of the microvascular tree may furnish information that is not obtainable from CBVtot, and may provide a more sensitive and specific measure for the underlying physiology. This review attempts to summarize major efforts in the development of MRI techniques to measure arterial (CBVa) and venous CBV (CBVv) separately. Advantages and disadvantages of each type of method are discussed. Applications of some of the methods in the investigation of flow-volume coupling in healthy brains, and in the detection of pathophysiological abnormalities in brain diseases such as arterial steno-occlusive disease, brain tumors, schizophrenia, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and hypertension are demonstrated. We believe that the continual development of MRI approaches for the measurement of compartment-specific CBV will likely provide essential imaging tools for the advancement and refinement of our knowledge on the exquisite details of the microvasculature in healthy and diseased brains.

Cerebrovascular Reactivity Measured with ASL Perfusion MRI, Ivy Sign, and Regional Tissue Vascularization in Moyamoya

BACKGROUND

Arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be used to determine brain regions at risk for ischemia in patients with moyamoya vasculopathy and to identify patients who may benefit from surgical revascularization. We aimed to investigate whether 1) the severity of moyamoya is related to the presence of leptomeningeal collaterals and cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR), 2) the presence of collaterals and ivy sign reflects disturbed CVR, and 3) arterial transit artefacts (ATAs) and ivy sign reflect the presence of collaterals.

METHODS

We determined severity of moyamoya on digital subtraction angiography (DSA) according to the modified Suzuki classification in 20 brain regions and scored regional tissue revascularization using a 4-point scale. Regional CVR and ATAs were assessed on ASL perfusion MRI, ivy sign on fluid attenuation inversion recovery MRI.

RESULTS

In 11 patients (median age 36 years; 91% female), we studied 203 regions. ATAs were associated with the presence of collaterals on DSA (P < 0.01). Of all regions with clearly visible collateral vessels on DSA, however, only 24% had ATAs. Ivy sign was not related to the presence or absence of collaterals nor to CVR. In 10% of regions with good vascularization on DSA, CVR was poor or showed steal.

CONCLUSIONS

ATAs were associated with the presence of collaterals on DSA. Although DSA vascularization scores correlated with CVR, 10% of regions with good vascularization on DSA had absent CVR or steal on ASL-MRI. DSA and ivy sign did not provide adequate information on the hemodynamic status of brain tissue in patients with moyamoya vasculopathy.

ASL-MRICloud: An online tool for the processing of ASL MRI data

Arterial spin labeling (ASL) MRI is increasingly used in research and clinical settings. The purpose of this work is to develop a cloud-based tool for ASL data processing, referred to as ASL-MRICloud, which may be useful to the MRI community. In contrast to existing ASL toolboxes, which are based on software installation on the user's local computer, ASL-MRICloud uses a web browser for data upload and results download, and the computation is performed on the remote server. As such, this tool is independent of the user's operating system, software version, and CPU speed. The ASL-MRICloud tool was implemented to be compatible with data acquired by scanners from all major MRI manufacturers, is capable of processing several common forms of ASL, including pseudo-continuous ASL and pulsed ASL, and can process single-delay and multi-delay ASL data. The outputs of ASL-MRICloud include absolute and relative values of cerebral blood flow, arterial transit time, voxel-wise masks indicating regions with potential hyper-perfusion and hypo-perfusion, and an image quality index. The ASL tool is also integrated with a T₁ -based brain segmentation and normalization tool in MRICloud to allow generation of parametric maps in standard brain space as well as region-of-interest values. The tool was tested on a large data set containing 309 ASL scans as well as on publicly available ASL data from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) study.

Determining the optimal postlabeling delay for arterial spin labeling using subject-specific estimates of blood velocity in the carotid artery

BACKGROUND

Arterial spin labeling with 3D acquisition requires determining a single postlabeling delay (PLD) value. PLD affects the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) per unit time as well as quantitative cerebral blood flow (CBF) values due to its bearing on the presence of a vascular signal.

PURPOSE

To search for an optimal PLD for pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling (pCASL) using patient-specific carotid artery blood velocity measurements.

STUDY TYPE

Prospective.

SUBJECTS

A control group of 11 volunteers with no known pathology. Corroboration was through a separate group of six volunteers and a noncontrol group of five sickle cell disease (SCD) patients.

FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE

Pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling with 3D nonsegmented echo planar imaging acquisition at 3T.

ASSESSMENT

A perfusion-based measure was determined over a range of PLDs for each of 11 volunteers. A third-order polynomial was used to find the optimal PLD where the defined measure was maximum. This was plotted against the corresponding carotid artery velocity to determine a relationship between the perfusion measure and velocity. Corroboration was done using a group of six volunteers and a noncontrol group of five patients with SCD. PLD was determined from the carotid artery velocity and derived relationship and compared with optimal PLD obtained from measured perfusion over a range of PLD values. Error between the perfusion measure at predicted and measured optimal PLD was determined.

STATISTICAL TESTS

Chi-squared goodness of fit; Pearson correlation; Bland-Altman.

RESULTS

Carotid artery velocity was 63.8 ± 6.6 cm/s (53.1 ≤ v ≤ 72.3 cm/s) while optimal PLD was 1374 ± 226.5 msec (1102 ≤ PLD ≤ 1787 msec) across the 11 volunteers. PLD as a function of carotid velocity was determined to be PLD = -31.94. v + 3410 msec (Pearson correlation -0.93). In six volunteers, mean error between the perfusion measure at predicted and measured optimal PLD was 1.35%. Pearson correlation between the perfusion measure at the predicted PLD and the measure obtained experimentally was r = 0.96 (P < 0.001). Bland-Altman revealed a slight bias of 1.3%. For the test case of five SCD patients, the mean error was 1.3%.

DATA CONCLUSION

Carotid artery velocity was used to determine optimal PLD for pCASL with 3D acquisition. The derived relationship was used to predict optimal PLD and the associated perfusion measure, which was found to be accurate when compared with its measured counterpart.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

2 Technical Efficacy: Stage 1 J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2019;50:951-960.

Development and evaluation of an arterial spin-labeling digital reference object for quality control and comparison of data analysis applications

Longitudinal assessment of quantitative imaging biomarkers (QIBs) requires a comprehensive quality control (QC) program to minimize bias and variance in measurement results. In addition, the availability of data analysis software from multiple vendors emphasizes the need for a means of quantitatively comparing the computed QIB measures produced by the applications. The purpose of this work is to describe a digital reference object (DRO) that has been developed for the evaluation of arterial spin-labeling (ASL) measurement results. The ASL DRO is a synthetic data set consisting of 10  ×  10 voxel square blocks with a range of ASL control image signal-to-noise ratio (SNR_Control), blood flow (BF), and proton density (PD) image SNR values (SNR_Control:1-100, BF:10-210 ml/100 g min^-1, SNR_PD:10-100). A pseudo-continuous ASL sequence was simulated with acquisition parameters and modeled signal intensities defined according to those typically associated with clinically-acquired ASL images. ASL parameters were estimated using the commercially-available nordicICE software package (NordicNeuroLab, Inc, Milwaukee, WI). Percent bias measures and Bland-Altman analyses demonstrated decreased bias and variance with increasing SNR_Control and BF values. Excellent agreement with reference values was seen for all BF values above an SNR_Control of 5 (concordance correlation coefficient greater than 0.92 for all SNR_PD values). The ASL DRO developed in this work allows for the evaluation of software bias and variance across physiologically-meaningful BF and SNR_Control values. Such studies are essential to the transition of quantitative ASL-based BF measurements into widespread clinical research applications, and ultimately, routine clinical care.

Combined angiography and perfusion using radial imaging and arterial spin labeling

PURPOSE

To demonstrate the feasibility of a novel noninvasive MRI technique for the comprehensive evaluation of blood flow to the brain: combined angiography and perfusion using radial imaging and arterial spin labeling (CAPRIA).

METHODS

In the CAPRIA pulse sequence, blood labeled with a pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling pulse train is continuously imaged as it flows through the arterial tree and into the brain tissue using a golden ratio radial readout. From a single raw data set, this flexible imaging approach allows the reconstruction of both high spatial/temporal resolution angiographic images with a high undersampling factor and low spatial/temporal resolution perfusion images with a low undersampling factor. The sparse and high SNR nature of angiographic images ensures that radial undersampling artifacts are relatively benign, even when using a simple regridding image reconstruction. Pulse sequence parameters were optimized through sampling efficiency calculations and the numerical evaluation of modified pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling signal models. A comparison was made against conventional pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling angiographic and perfusion acquisitions.

RESULTS

2D CAPRIA data in healthy volunteers demonstrated the feasibility of this approach, with good vessel visualization in the angiographic images and clear tissue perfusion signal when reconstructed at 108-ms and 252-ms temporal resolution, respectively. Images were qualitatively similar to those from conventional acquisitions, but CAPRIA had significantly higher SNR efficiency (48% improvement on average, P = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

The CAPRIA technique shows potential for the efficient evaluation of both macrovascular blood flow and tissue perfusion within a single scan, with potential applications in a range of cerebrovascular diseases.

A visual quality control scale for clinical arterial spin labeling images

BACKGROUND

Image-quality assessment is a fundamental step before clinical evaluation of magnetic resonance images. The aim of this study was to introduce a visual scoring system that provides a quality control standard for arterial spin labeling (ASL) and that can be applied to cerebral blood flow (CBF) maps, as well as to ancillary ASL images.

METHODS

The proposed image quality control (QC) system had two components: (1) contrast-based QC (cQC), describing the visual contrast between anatomical structures; and (2) artifact-based QC (aQC), evaluating image quality of the CBF map for the presence of common types of artifacts. Three raters evaluated cQC and aQC for 158 quantitative signal targeting with alternating radiofrequency labelling of arterial regions (QUASAR) ASL scans (CBF, T1 relaxation rate, arterial blood volume, and arterial transient time). Spearman correlation coefficient (r), intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), and receiver operating characteristic analysis were used.

RESULTS

Intra/inter-rater agreement ranged from moderate to excellent; inter-rater ICC was 0.72 for cQC, 0.60 for aQC, and 0.74 for the combined QC (cQC + aQC). Intra-rater ICC was 0.90 for cQC; 0.80 for aQC, and 0.90 for the combined QC. Strong correlations were found between aQC and CBF maps quality (r = 0.75), and between aQC and cQC (r = 0.70). A QC score of 18 was optimal to discriminate between high and low quality clinical scans.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed QC system provided high reproducibility and a reliable threshold for discarding low quality scans. Future research should compare this visual QC system with an automatic QC system.

Arterial spin labeling: a technical overview

Arterial spin labeling (ASL) is a non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging perfusion method based on changes in net-magnetization of blood water. The absence of contrast use and ionizing radiation, renders ASL valuable in hyper-acute settings as a monitoring tool for repeated dynamical measurements during and after intervention, and for patients with known co-morbidities. This text provides a short methodological introduction to ASL and contrasts it with traditional contrast-enhanced perfusion imaging. The review focused on sequence usefulness in the clinical setting of acute cerebral ischemia investigation.

Brain Perfusion Measurements Using Multidelay Arterial Spin-Labeling Are Systematically Biased by the Number of Delays

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Multidelay arterial spin-labeling is a promising emerging method in clinical practice. The effect of imaging parameters in multidelay arterial spin-labeling on estimated cerebral blood flow measurements remains unknown. We directly compared 3-delay versus 7-delay sequences, assessing the difference in the estimated transit time and blood flow.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study included 87 cognitively healthy controls (78.7 ± 3.8 years of age; 49 women). We assessed delay and transit time-uncorrected and transit time-corrected CBF maps. Data analysis included voxelwise permutation-based between-sequence comparisons of 3-delay versus 7-delay, within-sequence comparison of transit time-uncorrected versus transit time-corrected maps, and average CBF calculations in regions that have been shown to differ.

RESULTS

The 7-delay sequence estimated a higher CBF value than the 3-delay for the transit time-uncorrected and transit time-corrected maps in regions corresponding to the watershed areas (transit time-uncorrected = 27.62 ± 12.23 versus 24.58 ± 11.70 mL/min/100 g, Cohen's d = 0.25; transit time-corrected = 33.48 ± 14.92 versus 30.16 ± 14.32 mL/min/100 g, Cohen's d = 0.23). In the peripheral regions of the brain, the estimated delay was found to be longer for the 3-delay sequence (1.52408 ± 0.25236 seconds versus 1.47755 ± 0.24242 seconds, Cohen's d = 0.19), while the inverse was found in the center of the brain (1.39388 ± 0.22056 seconds versus 1.42565 ± 0.21872 seconds, Cohen's d = 0.14). Moreover, 7-delay had lower hemispheric asymmetry.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study support the necessity of standardizing acquisition parameters in multidelay arterial spin-labeling and identifying basic parameters as a confounding factor in CBF quantification studies. Our findings conclude that multidelay arterial spin-labeling sequences with a high number of delays estimate higher CBF values than those with a lower number of delays.

Polymorphisms in the microglial marker molecule CX3CR1 affect the blood volume of the human brain

AIM

CX3CR1, a G-protein-coupled receptor, is involved in various inflammatory processes. Two non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms, V249I (rs3732379) and T280M (rs3732378), are located in the sixth and seventh transmembrane domains of the CX3CR1 protein, respectively. Previous studies have indicated significant associations between T280M and leukocyte functional characteristics, including adhesion, signaling, and chemotaxis, while the function of V249I is unclear. In the brain, microglia are the only proven and widely accepted CX3CR1-expressing cells. This study aimed to specify whether there were specific brain regions on which these two single nucleotide polymorphisms exert their biological impacts through their functional effects on microglia.

METHODS

Associations between the single nucleotide polymorphisms and brain characteristics, including gray and white matter volumes, white matter integrity, resting arterial blood volume, and cerebral blood flow, were evaluated among 1300 healthy Japanese individuals.

RESULTS

The major allele carriers (V249 and T280) were significantly associated with an increased total arterial blood volume of the whole brain, especially around the bilateral precuneus, left posterior cingulate cortex, and left posterior parietal cortex. There were no significant associations between the genotypes and other brain structural indicators.

CONCLUSION

This finding suggests that the CX3CR1 variants may affect arterial structures in the brain, possibly via interactions between microglia and brain microvascular endothelial cells.

Overview and Critical Appraisal of Arterial Spin Labelling Technique in Brain Perfusion Imaging

Arterial spin labelling (ASL) allows absolute quantification of CBF via a diffusible intrinsic tracer (magnetically labelled blood water) that disperses from the vascular system into neighbouring tissue. Thus, it can provide absolute CBF quantification, which eliminates the need for the contrast agent, and can be performed repeatedly. This review will focus on the common ASL acquisition techniques (continuous, pulsed, and pseudocontinuous ASL) and how ASL image quality might be affected by intrinsic factors that may bias the CBF measurements. We also provide suggestions to mitigate these risks, model appropriately the acquired signal, increase the image quality, and hence estimate the reliability of the CBF, which consists an important noninvasive biomarker. Emerging methodologies for extraction of new ASL-based biomarkers, such as arterial arrival time (AAT) and arterial blood volume (aBV), will be also briefly discussed.

Arterial spin labeling for the measurement of cerebral perfusion and angiography

Arterial spin labeling (ASL) is an MRI technique that was first proposed a quarter of a century ago. It offers the prospect of non-invasive quantitative measurement of cerebral perfusion, making it potentially very useful for research and clinical studies, particularly where multiple longitudinal measurements are required. However, it has suffered from a number of challenges, including a relatively low signal-to-noise ratio, and a confusing number of sequence variants, thus hindering its clinical uptake. Recently, however, there has been a consensus adoption of an accepted acquisition and analysis framework for ASL, and thus a better penetration onto clinical MRI scanners. Here, we review the basic concepts in ASL and describe the current state-of-the-art acquisition and analysis approaches, and the versatility of the method to perform both quantitative cerebral perfusion measurement, along with quantitative cerebral angiographic measurement.

Increased resting cerebral blood flow in adult Fabry disease: MRI arterial spin labeling study

OBJECTIVE

To assess resting cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the whole-brain and cerebral white matter (WM) and gray matter (GM) of adults with Fabry disease (FD), using arterial spin labeling (ASL) MRI, and to investigate CBF correlations with WM hyperintensity (WMH) volume and the circulating biomarker lyso-Gb3.

METHODS

This cross-sectional, case-control study included 25 patients with genetically confirmed FD and 18 age-matched healthy controls. We quantified resting CBF using Quantitative Signal Targeting With Alternating Radiofrequency Labeling of Arterial Regions (QUASAR) ASL MRI. We measured WMH volume using semiautomated software. We measured CBF in regions of interest in whole-brain, WM, and deep GM, and assessed correlations with WMH volume and plasma lyso-Gb3.

RESULTS

The mean age (% male) for FD and healthy controls was 42.2 years (44%) and 37.1 years (50%). Mean whole-brain CBF was 27.56 mL/100 mL/min (95% confidence interval [CI] 23.78-31.34) for FD vs 22.39 mL/100 mL/min (95% CI 20.08-24.70) for healthy controls, p = 0.03. In WM, CBF was higher in FD (22.42 mL/100 mL/min [95% CI 17.72-27.12] vs 16.25 mL/100 mL/min [95% CI 14.03-18.48], p = 0.05). In deep GM, CBF was similar between groups (40.41 mL/100 mL/min [95% CI 36.85-43.97] for FD vs 37.46 mL/100 mL/min [95% CI 32.57-42.35], p = 0.38). In patients with FD with WMH (n = 20), whole-brain CBF correlated with WMH volume (r = 0.59, p = 0.006), not with plasma lyso-Gb3.

CONCLUSION

In FD, resting CBF is increased in WM but not deep GM. In FD, CBF correlates with WMH, suggesting that cerebral perfusion changes might contribute to, or result from, WM injury.