Eating on impulse: the relation between overweight and food-specific inhibitory control

Exploring the longitudinal association between stress and unhealthy eating behaviors: The role of physical activity, BMI, and loneliness

Previous cross-sectional research indicates a link between stress and unhealthy eating, but the longitudinal association remains unknown. This study examined the longitudinal association between perceived stress over a longer time period and unhealthy eating (i.e., sweet and savory snack intake, uncontrolled eating) in a student population. Moreover, we examined whether physical activity buffers such association, and examined whether this buffering effect is stronger for individuals with higher Body Mass Index (BMI) or greater loneliness. Two timepoints of online survey data (Time 1 Oct-Nov 2021, Time 2 May-July 2022) of Dutch university students (n = 1325, 74.7 % female, mean age 22.45 (SD = 2.31)) were used. Results revealed no longitudinal link between stress and snack intake in the total sample, but this association was found in a subgroup of individuals with a higher BMI. Stress at Time 1 was associated with later uncontrolled eating. Physical activity did not moderate the link between stress and unhealthy eating. However, we found a negative longitudinal link between physical activity and uncontrolled eating among individuals with a higher BMI. Our findings suggest that stress does not play an important role in explaining snack intake in university students, but may be associated with uncontrolled eating. Physical activity seems to be linked with a reduction in uncontrolled eating among individuals with a higher BMI specifically. Replication and extension of current findings in a more diverse (e.g., eating disordered) sample would increase insights into the (combined) effects of stress, BMI and physical activity on uncontrolled eating.

Functional alterations in overweight/obesity: focusing on the reward and executive control network

Overweight (OW) and obesity (OB) have become prevalent issues in the global public health arena. Serving as a prominent risk factor for various chronic diseases, overweight/obesity not only poses serious threats to people's physical and mental health but also imposes significant medical and economic burdens on society as a whole. In recent years, there has been a growing focus on basic scientific research dedicated to seeking the neural evidence underlying overweight/obesity, aiming to elucidate its causes and effects by revealing functional alterations in brain networks. Among them, dysfunction in the reward network (RN) and executive control network (ECN) during both resting state and task conditions is considered pivotal in neuroscience research on overweight/obesity. Their aberrations contribute to explaining why persons with overweight/obesity exhibit heightened sensitivity to food rewards and eating disinhibition. This review centers on the reward and executive control network by analyzing and organizing the resting-state and task-based fMRI studies of functional brain network alterations in overweight/obesity. Building upon this foundation, the authors further summarize a reward-inhibition dual-system model, with a view to establishing a theoretical framework for future exploration in this field.

Mindfulness and mechanisms of attention in a neutral and palatable food context

Introduction

Mindfulness has been associated with benefits on cognitive processes, including attention. However, the exact relationship between mindfulness, components of attention, and the role of reward context has not yet been fully elucidated, which is relevant, especially in the context of addiction. In the current study, we specifically evaluated the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and the balance between voluntary (top-down), and stimulus-driven (bottom-up) attention. In addition, we explored whether the relationship was mediated by asymmetry of frontal brain activity, an index of approach tendencies, and varies as a function of reward context.

Methods

In total, 95 participants (30 male, 65 female) with a mean age of 25.87 (SD = 7.38) participated. Resting-state electrophysiological activity was recorded using EEG, and participants were assessed on dispositional mindfulness, and performed the visuospatial cueing (VSC) task, which indexed voluntary- and stimulus-driven attention in a neutral and palatable food (reward) context. In the endogenous VSC task, a central cue signals the likely location of a subsequent target. The validity effect represents the benefit of valid cueing relative to the costs of invalid cueing in terms of response time.

Results and discussion

Dispositional mindfulness was associated with a reduced validity effect, plausibly reflecting a combination of reduced voluntary attention and increased stimulus-driven attention, irrespective of condition. The relationship between dispositional mindfulness and visuospatial attention could not be explained by asymmetry of frontal brain activity.

The relationship between frontal alpha asymmetry and behavioral and brain activity indices of reactive inhibitory control

Reactive inhibitory control plays an important role in phenotype of different diseases/different phases of a disease. One candidate electrophysiological marker of inhibitory control is frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA). FAA reflects the relative difference in contralateral frontal brain activity. However, the relationship between FAA and potential behavioral/brain activity indices of reactive inhibitory control is not yet clear. We assessed the relationship between resting-state FAA and indicators of reactive inhibitory control. Additionally, we investigated the effect of modulation of FAA via transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). We implemented a randomized sham-controlled design with 65 healthy humans (Mage = 23.93, SDage = 6.08; 46 female). Before and after 2-mA anodal tDCS of the right frontal site (with the cathode at the contralateral site) for 20 min, we collected EEG data and reactive inhibitory performance in neutral and food-reward conditions, using the stop signal task (SST). There was no support for the effect of tDCS on FAA or any indices of reactive inhibitory control. Our correlation analysis revealed an association between inhibitory brain activity in the food-reward condition and (pre-tDCS) asymmetry. Higher right relative to left frontal brain activity was correlated with reduced early-onset inhibitory activity and, in contrast, linked with higher late-onset inhibitory control in the food-reward condition. Similarly, event-related potential analyses showed reduced early-onset and enhanced late-onset inhibitory brain activity over time, particularly in the food-reward condition. These results suggest that there can be a dissociation regarding the lateralization of frontal brain activity and early- and late-onset inhibitory brain activity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This research reveals dissociation between baseline frontal alpha asymmetry and the timing of reactive inhibitory brain activities in food-reward contexts. Whereas inhibitory control performance decreases over time in a stop signal task, electrophysiological indices show reduced early- and heightened late-onset inhibitory brain activity, especially in the reward condition. Additionally, greater right frontal activity correlates with reduced early-onset and increased late-onset inhibitory brain activity.

Modality Matters: Fasted Individuals Inhibit Food Stimuli Better Than Neutral Stimuli for Words, but Not for Pictures

The current study aimed to evaluate the effect different modalities (pictures and words) of food stimuli have on inhibitory control under different homeostatic states. To this end, the homeostatic state was altered by asking participants to fast for 16 h (n = 67) or eat lunch as usual (n = 76) before completing an online stop-signal task with modal (pictures) and amodal (words) food and valenced-matched non-food stimuli. The inclusion of non-food stimuli allowed us to test the food specificity of the effect. We found a significant Group × Modality × Stimulus Type interaction (F(1,141) = 5.29, p = 0.023, ηp2 = 0.036): fasted individuals had similar inhibitory capacity for modal and amodal food stimuli but better inhibitory capacity for non-food words compared to images, while there were no inhibitory differences in dependence on either modality or stimulus type in satiated individuals. Thus, we were able to show that inhibitory capacities to modal compared to amodal stimuli depend on participants' current state of fasting. Future studies should focus on how this lowered inhibitory capacity influences food intake, as well as the role of stimulus valence in cognitive processing, to clarify potential implications for dieting and weight loss training.

Food-related inhibitory control deficits in young male adults with obesity: Behavioral and ERP evidence from a food-related go/no-go task

PURPOSE

Obesity poses a pervasive challenge to global public health, which is linked to adverse physical health outcomes and cognitive decline. Cognitive function, particularly food-related cognitive function, plays a critical role in sustaining a healthy weight and mitigating the progression of obesity. The aim of this study was to investigate the behavioral and neuroelectronic aspects of food-related inhibitory functions in young adult males with obesity.

METHODS

Forty-nine participants with obesity and healthy-weight were recruited (BMI = 35.83 ± 5.06 kg/m2 vs. 22.55 ± 1.73 kg/m2, age = 24.23 ± 4.55 years vs. 26.00 ± 3.97 years). A food-related Go/No-go task which included 6 distinct blocks in a randomized order was conducted to investigate the general and food-related inhibitory control. 180 stimulus images from the Food Picture Database encompassing high-calorie food, low-calorie food, and neutral images were selected. Behavioral (Go RT, Go ACC, No-go ACC) and event-related potential measures (N2 and P3 amplitude) during the food-related Go/No-go task were measured.

RESULTS

The main findings indicated that the group with obesity exhibited lower No-go accuracy, slower go reaction times, and smaller P3 amplitudes in high-calorie, low-calorie foods, and neutral picture, compared to the normal-weight group, but with no group difference in N2. Additionally, high-calorie food induced larger N2 and P3 amplitude than the neutral stimuli.

CONCLUSIONS

Young male adults with obesity exhibit poorer inhibitory control in both food and non-food domains, specifically in slower reaction time and reduced accuracy, featuring difficulties in neural resource recruitment during the inhibitory control process. Additionally, the P3 component could serve as sensitive indicators to reveal the neural mechanisms of inhibitory control deficits in obesity, while the N2 and P3 components may differentiate the neural differences between high-calorie foods and non-foods in inhibitory control processing. Food, especially high-calorie food, induces more neural resources and may exacerbate the poor inhibitory ability towards food in obesity. Targeted interventions such as exercise interventions, cognitive training as well as neuromodulation interventions are warranted in the future to improve impaired general and food-related inhibitory functions in the obese populations, offering both theoretical and practical frameworks for obesity prevention and treatment.

Inhibition and shifting across the weight status spectrum

Executive functioning (EF) is of major interest in the study of cognitive factors involved in obesity. Among EF, shifting is related to behavioral flexibility, and inhibition to the ability to refrain from impulsive behavior. A deficit in those two EF could predict individual difficulties to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Weak evidence of deficits in shifting and inhibition in individuals of higher Body Mass Index (BMI) have been observed. The objective was to clarify the relationship between inhibition and shifting regarding weight status group differences in healthy adults. Two neuropsychological tests from the Test of Attentional Performance (TAP) battery were used to measure EF performance of three groups of men and women: normal-weight (NW, n = 38), overweight (OW, n = 40) and obesity (OB, n = 37). The results show that individuals with higher BMI have lower inhibition capacities and that classically used weight status categories might not capture cognitive variability. No differences in shifting were observed concerning weight status nor BMI. This paper provides new insights on cognitive factors in obesity by presenting data from healthy individuals with overweight and obesity. The results support that assessing inhibition capacities might be of interest in a clinical setting for patients with difficulties to lose weight.

Poorer inhibitory control was related to greater food intake across meals varying in portion size: A randomized crossover trial

Individuals eat more food when larger portions are served, and this portion size effect could be influenced by inhibitory control (the ability to suppress an automatic response). Inhibitory control may also relate to obesogenic meal behaviors such as eating faster, taking larger bites, and frequent switching between meal components (such as bites of food and sips of water). In a randomized crossover design, 44 adults ate lunch four times in the laboratory. Lunch consisted of a pasta dish that was varied in portion size (400, 500, 600, or 700 g) along with 700 g of water. Meals were video-recorded to assess meal duration and bite and sip counts, which were used to determine mean eating rate (g/min), mean bite size (g/bite), and number of switches between bites and sips. Participants completed a food-specific stop-signal task, which was used to calculate Stop-Signal Reaction Time (SSRT). Across participants, SSRT values ranged from 143 to 306 msec, where greater SSRT indicates poorer inhibitory control. As expected, serving larger portions increased meal intake (p < 0.0001); compared to the smallest portion, intake of the largest increased by 121 ± 17 g (mean ± SEM). SSRT did not moderate the portion size effect (p = 0.34), but individuals with poorer inhibitory control ate more across all meals: 24 ± 11 g for each one SD unit increase in SSRT (p = 0.035). SSRT was not related to eating rate or bite size (both p > 0.13), but poorer inhibitory control predicted greater switching between bites and sips, such that 1.5 ± 0.7 more switches were made during meals for each one SD unit increase in SSRT (p = 0.03). These findings indicate that inhibitory control can contribute to overconsumption across meals varying in portion size, potentially in part by promoting switching behavior.

Characterizing motor impulsivity of individuals classified as overweight to obese

Deficits in the impulse control system are an important predictor of energy intake and body weight. Adults classified as overweight to obese may possess these deficits as a general behavioral trait or they may be food-specific. The present study assessed motor impulsivity (ability to suppress a pre-potent response) when presented with food and neutral (non-food) cues, testing if deficits in motor impulsivity is specific to food cues or a general trait among participants classified as overweight to obese. The proportion of inhibitory failures to no-go targets following food cues (10.8%) was significantly greater than the proportion of inhibitory failures to no-go targets following neutral cues (1.9%, p ​< ​0.001). These differences remained when covering for sex and hunger. This indicates deficits in food-specific impulse control (as opposed to general impulse control) are present in those classified as overweight to obese. Understanding the specific aspect of impulse control that is present in this population is needed for the development of future impulse control training interventions that seek to change eating behaviors as a means for weight control.

Does inhibitory control spill over to eating behaviors? Two preregistered studies of inhibitory spillover effects on food intake and reactions to food stimuli

Overweight and obesity are worldwide conditions associated with detrimental medical and psychosocial outcomes. As inhibitory control deficits are thought to contribute to weight gain, they are a worthwhile target for new approaches. Previous research has shown that the execution of inhibitory control in one domain leads to a concurrent increase of inhibitory control in another domain, an effect denoted as inhibitory spillover effect (ISE). Therefore, we assumed that exertion of inhibitory control in a food-unrelated domain in overweight and normal weight individuals will decrease food intake in a simultaneous bogus taste test (BTT; study 1) as well as increase food-specific response inhibition ability in a stop signal task (SST; study 2). We assumed stronger effects in overweight individuals. In both studies ISE was induced via cognitive priming and compared to a neutral condition in a group of overweight (OW: n = 46 for study 1, n = 46 for study 2) and normal weight (NW: n = 46 for study 1, n = 46 for study 2) individuals. In the ISE condition with an inhibitory control priming task, participants had to learn and retain control-related words while simultaneously performing a BTT (study 1) or SST (study 2). In the neutral condition, participants followed the same protocol, albeit memorizing neutral (i.e., control-unrelated) words. There was no significant interaction of weight group × cognitive priming condition neither regarding food intake (study 1) nor regarding food-related response inhibition (study 2). Cognitive priming, as implemented in the present studies, does not instigate an ISE strong enough to improve inhibitory control during food intake or food-related response inhibition. Relevant practical and theoretical aspects as well as implications for future research on the ISE are discussed.

Effects of fear of missing out on inhibitory control in social media context: evidence from event-related potentials

The present study aimed to investigate the impact of fear of missing out (FoMO) on inhibitory control in social media context. The present study used a two-choice oddball task combined with event-related potentials (ERPs) technology to measure inhibitory control. Based on the Fear of Missing Out Scale, participants with varying degrees of FoMO were recruited to complete two studies. A total of 78 participants in Study 1 completed a two-choice oddball task (stimuli "W" or "M"). The results showed that FoMO did not have a significant impact on general inhibitory control at both the behavioral and electrophysiological levels. To further examine the effect of FoMO in social media context. In Study 2, 72 participants completed a modified two-choice oddball task with three types of pictures (high and low social media-related and neutral). The behavioral results revealed that as FoMO scores increased, inhibitory control decreased. ERP analysis revealed that with higher FoMO scores, social media-related pictures elicited larger N2 amplitude and smaller P3 amplitude, but not for neutral pictures. This suggests that FoMO undermines inhibitory control by consuming more cognitive resources in the early conflict detection stage and leading to insufficient cognitive resources in the later stages of the inhibitory process. These findings suggest that FoMO can undermine inhibitory control in the social media context. Considering the indispensable use of social media in the digital age, addressing and understanding the influence of FoMO on inhibitory control could be essential for promoting healthy digital behaviors and cognitive functions.

Neural differences of food-specific inhibitory control in people with healthy vs higher BMI

Consistent with the idea that deficits in inhibition limit resistance to tempting, tasty, high-calorie foods, and might result in a higher BMI, we test whether people with higher BMIs (BMI >25 kg/m²) present inefficient inhibitory control over food-related responses. To unpack this association, we also examine individual differences in the neural mechanisms of food inhibitory control in healthy vs higher BMI individuals. We test these aspects with a sample of 109 participants (49 with higher BMI and 60 with healthy BMI) and the food stop-signal task, which was used to examine individuals' inhibitory control. Results demonstrated that people with higher BMI had significantly poorer food inhibitory control than healthy BMI individuals. fMRI results showed that, in both Go (Go_food vs Go_nature) and Stop conditions (Stop_food vs Stop_nature), compared to healthy BMI individuals, individuals with higher BMI had lower activation in the superior frontal gyrus, precuneus, precentral gyrus, and supramarginal gyrus in the food stimulus condition. Moreover, ROI analysis results showed that under the Stop_food condition, the activation in the inferior frontal gyrus in the higher BMI group was significantly negatively correlated with inhibitory control abilities. These results suggest that people with a higher BMI have limited ability to inhibit food impulsions, and that the prefrontal regions and parietal cortex may contribute to the progression of inhibitory control limitations in relation to food.

Anodal stimulation of inhibitory control and craving in satiated restrained eaters

OBJECTIVES

Eating and weight disorders are severe and complex clinical conditions which, among other behaviors, include (attempts at) restrained eating, food avoidance, following dietary rules, and overeating. Comparable to women with obesity, restrained eaters (RE) without formal eating disorder diagnosis are worse at inhibiting their motor responses than unrestrained eaters (URE). According to neuroimaging studies, the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG) is involved in inhibitory control which, in turn, could be improved by neuromodulation such as anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) across rIFG.

METHODS

This double-blind sham-controlled cross-over study was conducted after a standardized breakfast. Normal-weight female RE und URE performed a stop-signal task (SST) with food and non-food stimuli during sham or anodal tDCS. Food craving, hunger, and satiety were self-reported before and after tDCS. We employed a mixed between-subjects (group: RE vs. URE) and within-subjects factorial design (tDCS: anodal tDCS vs. sham; stimuli: food vs. control pictures).

RESULTS

Breakfast consumption was comparable for RE and URE, as well as craving, hunger, and thirst. Regarding inhibitory control, a significant two-way interaction between group and tDCS ermerged: RE had longer stop-signal reaction times (SSRTs) during sham tDCS, but they improved to the level of URE by application of anodal tDCS.

DISCUSSION

Results replicated an inhibitory control deficit in RE with longer SSRTs compared to URE without stimulation. During anodal tDCS to the rIFG, reduced SSRTs in RE indicated an improvement in inhibitory control. The findings suggest a specificity of rIFG stimulation in at-risk groups with regards to inhibitory control irrespective of craving.

Age-related differences in food-specific inhibitory control: Electrophysiological and behavioral evidence in healthy aging

The number of older adults in the United States is estimated to nearly double from 52 million to 95 million by 2060. Approximately 80-85% of older adults are diagnosed with a chronic health condition. Many of these chronic health conditions are influenced by diet and physical activity, suggesting improved diet and eating behaviors could improve health-related outcomes. One factor that might improve dietary habits in older adults is food-related inhibitory control. We tested whether food-related inhibitory control, as measured via behavioral data (response time, accuracy) and scalp-recorded event-related potentials (ERP; N2 and P3 components), differed between younger and older adults over age 55. Fifty-nine older adults (31 females [52.5%], M_age = 64, SD_age = 7.5) and 114 younger adults (82 females [71.9%], M_age = 20.8) completed two go/no-go tasks, one inhibiting to high-calorie stimuli and one inhibiting to low-calorie stimuli, while electroencephalogram (EEG) data were recorded. Older adults had slower overall response times than younger adults, but this was not specific to either food task. There was not a significant difference in accuracy between younger and older adults, but both groups' accuracy and response times were significantly better during the high-calorie task than the low-calorie task. For both the N2 and P3 ERP components, younger adults had larger no-go ERP amplitudes than older adults, but this effect was not food-specific, reflecting overall generalized lower inhibitory control processing in older adults. P3 amplitude for the younger adults demonstrated a specific food-related effect (greater P3 amplitude for high-calorie no-go than low-calorie no-go) that was not present for older adults. Findings support previous research demonstrating age-related differences in inhibitory control though those differences may not be specific to inhibiting towards food.

Reward and inhibition in obesity and cigarette smoking: Neurobiological overlaps and clinical implications

Cigarette smoking and obesity are the leading causes of premature morbidity and mortality and increase the risk of all-cause mortality four-fold when comorbid. Individuals with these conditions demonstrate neurobiological and behavioral differences regarding how they respond to rewarding stimuli or engage in inhibitory control. This narrative review examines the role of reward and inhibition in cigarette smoking and obesity independently, as well as recent research demonstrating an effect of increased body mass index (BMI) on neurocognitive function in individuals who smoke. It is possible that chronic smoking and overeating of highly palatable food, contributing to obesity, dysregulates reward neurocircuitry, subsequently leading to hypofunction of brain networks associated with inhibitory control. These brain changes do not appear to be specific to food or nicotine and, as a result, can potentiate continued cross-use. Changes to reward and inhibitory function due to increased BMI may also make cessation more difficult for those comorbid for obesity and smoking.

Children's eating behaviours and related constructs: conceptual and theoretical foundations and their implications

BACKGROUND

There is a substantial body of research on children's eating behaviours (e.g., food responsiveness and fussiness) and related constructs (e.g., eating in the absence of hunger, appetite self-regulation). This research provides a foundation for understanding children's dietary intakes and healthy eating behaviours, as well as efforts at intervention, whether in relation to food avoidance, overeating and/or trajectories to excess weight gain. The success of these efforts and their associated outcomes is dependent on the theoretical foundation and conceptual clarity of the behaviours and constructs. This, in turn contributes to the coherence and precision of the definitions and measurement of these behaviours and constructs. Limited clarity in these areas ultimately creates uncertainty around the interpretation of findings from research studies and intervention programs. At present there does not appear to be an overarching theoretical framework of children's eating behaviours and associated constructs, or for separate domains of children's eating behaviours/constructs. The main purpose of the present review was to examine the possible theoretical foundations of some of the main current questionnaire and behavioural measures of children's eating behaviours and related constructs.

METHODS

We reviewed the literature on the most prominent measures of children's eating behaviours for use with children aged ~ 0-12 years. We focused on the explanations and justifications for the original design of the measures and whether these included theoretical perspectives, as well as current theoretical interpretations (and difficulties) of the behaviours and constructs.

RESULTS

We found that the most commonly used measures had their foundations in relatively applied or practical concerns rather than theoretical perspectives.

CONCLUSIONS

We concluded, consistent with Lumeng & Fisher (1), that although existing measures have served the field well, to advance the field as a science, and better contribute to knowledge development, increased attention should be directed to the conceptual and theoretical foundations of children's eating behaviours and related constructs. Suggestions for future directions are outlined.

Playing with temptation: Stopping abilities to chocolate are superior, but also more extensive

Cue-specific inhibitory control is assumed to support balanced food intake, but previous studies with established measures showed inconsistent results. We developed a novel kinematic stop task in virtual reality (VR) and report results from trajectory recordings. The primary objective of this explorative study was to assess the interrelationships between validated measures of food-related inhibitory control and novel measures from the VR task. We hypothesized that healthy female participants show worse inhibitory control when grasping attractive virtual chocolate, compared to non-edible color-and-shape matched objects. We further aimed to quantify the construct validity of kinematic measures (e.g., reaching extent/spatial displacement, movement time after stop-signal, velocity) with established measures of inhibitory control in a keyboard-based adaptive stop-signal task (SST). In total, 79 females with varying levels of chocolate craving participated in an experimental study consisting of self-report questionnaires, subjective chocolate craving, the conventional SST and the kinematic task in VR. Results showed superior stopping ability to chocolate in both tasks. In VR, participants successfully interrupted an initiated approach trajectory but terminated slightly closer to chocolate targets. Stop-signal delay (SSD) was adapted relative to movement onset and appeared later in chocolate trials, during which participants still stopped faster, as was also confirmed by shorter stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) in the conventional task. Yet, SSRT did not correlate with stopping in VR. Moreover, SSRT was related to depressive symptoms whereas measures from VR were related to chocolate craving and subjective hunger. Thus, VR stopping can provide deeper insights into healthy weight individuals' capacity to inhibit cue-specific approach behavior towards appetitive stimuli in simulated interactions. Furthermore, the results support a multi-faceted view of food-specific inhibitory control and behavioral impulsivity.

Cognitive Coaching in Special Operations: Design Principles and Best Practices

Cognitive enhancement platforms have received growing interest as a means to improve workplace performance. Among the many commercial and professional organizations exploring cognitive training, the United States military has begun exploring the potential added value of cognitive enhancement tools. Whereas most platforms offer automated or algorithm-based solutions to support cognitive training, special operations have developed the role of a cognitive coach to support training. The current discussion provides several lessons learned when trying to bridge cognitive systems and enhancement tools within military operations that should apply to any organization seeking to improve cognitive performance among already high-performing personnel.

Attention to food cues following media multitasking is associated with cross-sectional BMI among adolescents

Purpose

To measure attention to food cues following a multitask or a sustained attention single task, and further, to examine the associations with current weight status and excess consumption.

Methods

Ninety-six 13-to 17-year-olds were fed a standardized meal and then had their attention to food cues measured following completion of a single sustained attention task, media multitask, or a passive viewing control task. Participants then completed an eating in the absence of hunger paradigm to measure their excess consumption. Adolescents completed each condition on separate visits in randomized order. Attention to food cues was measured by computing eye-tracking measures of attention, first fixation duration, and cumulative fixation duration to distractor images while participants played the video game, Tetris. Participants also had their height and weight measured.

Results

Although not statistically significant, attention to food cues was greatest following a media multitask and weakest following a task that engaged sustained attention when compared to a control. First fixation duration was positively and statistically significantly associated with BMI-Z when measured following a multitask. Cumulative fixation duration was not associated with BMI-Z. There were no associations between BMI-Z and attention to food cues after the attention or control task, nor any association between attention to food cues and eating in the absence of hunger.

Conclusion

Among adolescents, we found that current adiposity was related to attention to food cues following a multitask. Multitasking may perturb the cognitive system to increase attention to food cues.

A Tailored Gender-Sensitive mHealth Weight Loss Intervention (I-GENDO): Development and Process Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Given the increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity worldwide, the number of digital weight loss interventions has also risen. However, these interventions often lack theoretical background and data on long-term effectiveness. The consideration of individual and gender differences in weight-related psychological parameters might enhance the efficacy and sustainability of mobile-based weight loss interventions.

OBJECTIVE

This paper presented an introduction to and the process evaluation of a 12-week gender-sensitive mobile health (mHealth) weight loss intervention (I-GENDO) combining computer-based and self-tailoring features.

METHODS

Between August 2020 and August 2021, individuals with overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9 kg/m²), those with obesity class I (BMI 30.0-34.9 kg/m²), and those with obesity class II (BMI 35.0-39.9 kg/m²) were recruited to the I-GENDO project, a multicenter study in Germany. The mHealth intervention aimed at targeting individual psychological factors associated with the development and persistence of overweight and obesity (eg, emotional eating) using computer-based tailoring. Moreover, the intervention took a gender-sensitive approach by implementing self-tailoring of gender-targeted module versions. The computer-based assignment of the main modules, self-selection of gender-targeted module versions, and use patterns were evaluated while considering gender. Moreover, gender differences in the usability assessment were analyzed.

RESULTS

Data from the intervention arm of the study were processed. A total of 116 individuals with overweight and obesity (77/116, 66.4% women; age mean 47.28, SD 11.66 years; BMI mean 33.58, SD 3.79 kg/m2) were included in the analyses. Overall, the compliance (90/109, 82.6%) and satisfaction with the app (mean 86% approval) were high and comparable with those of other mobile weight loss interventions. The usability of the intervention was rated with 71% (5.0/7.0 points) satisfaction. More women obtained the main module that focused on emotion regulation skills. Most men and women selected women-targeted versions of the main modules. Women used the app more frequently and longer than men. However, women and men did not differ in the progress of use patterns throughout the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

We developed a tailored gender-sensitive mHealth weight loss intervention. The usability of and engagement with the intervention were satisfactory, and the overall satisfaction with the intervention was also high. Gender differences must be considered in the evaluation of the effectiveness and sustainability of the intervention.

Seeing attractive faces challenges inhibitory control, especially when mindful

Previous studies have suggested positive effects of mindfulness on inhibitory control (stopping behaviour). However, scarce previous studies suggest the relationship may depend on context. We provide first evidence that inhibitory control is challenged when perceiving attractive faces, especially when being mindful. Specifically, we investigated the relationship between mindfulness and inhibitory control and the moderating role of a social reward context (being exposed to attractive opposite sex faces). Participants (n = 50) between 18–43 years old (M = 25, SD = 5.4) filled out questionnaires assessing standard demographic variables and dispositional mindfulness. Subsequently, they performed a Go/No-go task with a neutral condition and attractive faces condition. Results showed that inhibitory control was challenged in the attractive condition relative to the neutral condition, p = 0.019. Dispositional mindfulness was negatively correlated with inhibitory performance, but only in the attractive faces condition (r = -0.32, p = 0.024). Results did not support a moderating role of gender. Finally, though post-hoc, higher mindfulness was associated with reduced perceived attractiveness of presented faces (r = -0.33, p = 0.019). However, the relationship between mindfulness and reduced inhibitory control could not be explained by mindfulness associated reduced attractiveness. Taken together, results show that mindfulness challenges inhibitory control when perceiving attractive faces. This implies that mindfulness interventions aimed at enhancing inhibitory control, may not render the desired effect in a context of being exposed to attractive faces. Though certainly plausible, it remains an open question whether results generalize to other reward contexts as well.

Efficacy of a food response and attention training treatment for obesity: A randomized placebo controlled trial

Elevated brain reward and attention region response, and weaker inhibitory region response to high-calorie foods has predicted future weight gain, suggesting that an intervention that reduces reward and attention region response and increases inhibitory region response to such foods might reduce overeating. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to test whether a multi-faceted food response and attention training protocol with personalized high- and low-calorie food images would reduce body fat and valuation and reward region response to high-calorie foods compared to a placebo control training protocol with non-food images in an effort to replicate findings from two past trials. Participants were community-recruited adults with overweight/obesity (N = 179; M age = 27.7 ± 7.0) who completed assessments at pretest, posttest, 3-month, 6-month, and 12-month follow-ups. Participants randomized to the food response inhibition and attention training showed significantly greater increases in palatability ratings of low-calorie foods than controls (d = 0.27) at posttest, but did not show body fat loss, reductions in palatability ratings and monetary valuation, or reward region response, to high-calorie foods. The lack of expected effects appears to be related to weaker learning compared to the learning in past trials, potentially because we used more heterogenous high-calorie and low-calorie food images in the present training.

Metabolic Food Waste as Food Insecurity Factor—Causes and Preventions

The Metabolic Food Waste MFW (kg of food) first developed in 2016 as a new indicator by Serafini and Toti, indicates the amount of food consumed above the nutritional requirements, and the impact of this overconsumption on the environment. It is necessary to identify the causes and to develop potential methods to prevent and reduce MFW, at the same time as increasing consumer awareness about unsustainable diets and changing diet habits towards more environmentally conscious consumption patterns. This study was conducted by collecting and analysing existing reports and studies regarding nutritional requirements, consumer behaviour related to food consumption and food waste, environmental impacts of food waste, and the concept of Metabolic Food Waste. The process of data collection involved searching the studies available online, using keywords related to the subject of MFW and overconsumption. The references in the initial studies consulted were also analysed in order to further identify new data relevant to overconsumption and MFW. The materials studied and analysed related to the environmental impact of MFW were published by E. Toti and M. Serafini in 2016 and 2019; additionally, in order to understand the causes of overconsumption numerous studies were reviewed regarding consumer behaviour, the relationship between economic development and overconsumption, mental health and dietary habits, physical context and dietary habits, genetic predisposition, also childhood and early adulthood environment. By analysing and corroborating external data available for food waste, nutritional requirements, and the environmental impact of food waste and consumer behaviour, we identified as primary causes for MFW the lack of nutritional education and little understanding of the nutritional requirements amongst all categories of consumers, poor access to appropriate food resources or reduced availability of fresh produced food. We conclude that for the quantification of the negative impact of MFW on both the environment and human health we need decisive action to raise consumer awareness for healthy and sustainable diets, together with a uniform worldwide distribution system for nutritious food.

Obesity and Neurocognitive Performance of Memory, Attention, and Executive Function

Background: Obesity has been linked to an increased risk of dementia in the future. Obesity is known to affect core neural structures, such as the hippocampus, and frontotemporal parts of the brain, and is linked to memory, attention, and executive function decline. The overwhelming majority of the data, however, comes from high-income countries. In undeveloped countries, there is little evidence of a link between obesity and neurocognition. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of BMI on the key cognitive functioning tasks of attention, memory, and executive function in a South African cohort. Methods: A total of 175 females (NW: BMI = 18.5–24.9 kg/m2 and OB: BMI > 30.0 kg/m2) aged 18–59 years (M = 28, SD = 8.87 years) completed tasks on memory, attention, and executive functioning. Results: There was a statistically significant difference between the groups. The participants who had a BMI corresponding with obesity performed poorly on the tasks measuring memory (p = 0.01), attention (p = 0.01), and executive function (p = 0.02) compared to the normal-weight group. Conclusions: When compared to normal-weight participants, the findings confirm the existence of lowered cognitive performance in obese persons on tasks involving planning, decision making, self-control, and regulation. Further research into the potential underlying mechanism by which obesity impacts cognition is indicated.

Executive Function and Social Media Addiction in Female College Students: The Mediating Role of Affective State and Stress

Social media addiction is the emerging occurrence in which individuals develop psychological dependencies on microblog, wechat, Tik Tok and so on. Existing research has demonstrated the possible relationship between mobile social media addiction and disordered eating attitudes/behavior. In this study, we investigated the relationship between executive function, especially food-inhibitory control, affective state/stress, and mobile social media addiction among female college students as all play predictive roles in food addiction. A structural equation model was used to examine the mediation model hypothesis, and the results confirmed the mediating role of affective state and stress between executive function, especially inhibitory control over high-calorie food, and mobile social media addiction among Chinese female college students. The results verify the correlation between social media addiction and disordered eating attitudes/behavior from the perspective of psychological mechanisms. These proposals emphasize the significance of improving inhibitory control over high-calorie food and the importance of providing psychological counseling to intervene in negative emotions and stress management in female college students.

Dispositional Mindfulness and Inhibitory Control after Perceiving Neutral, Food and Money Related Stimuli

Previous studies have shown that dispositional mindfulness is positively associated with cognitive performance, including the ability to stop behavioral actions (formally called inhibitory control). However, some studies suggest that the relationship may be context dependent. The current study addressed previous limitations and focused on the role of reward context regarding the relationship between mindfulness and inhibitory control. Seventy-five participants (31 men, 44 women) between 18-50 years old (M = 30, SD = 9) were included in the final sample. Participants filled out a self-report measure of mindfulness and performed a stop signal task with three conditions that varied in terms of reward context. In the neutral condition, go stimuli (stimuli to which a response was required) were letters; in the food and money condition, these were pictures of food and money, respectively. Results showed that inhibitory control was reduced in the money condition relative to the neutral condition (p = 0.012). Mindfulness was positively correlated with inhibitory control, but only in the money condition (p = 0.001). However, results might differ when inhibitory control is required while perceiving a learned reward-related stimulus. The latter represents an open question for future research.

The relationship between reward context and inhibitory control, does it depend on BMI, maladaptive eating, and negative affect?

BACKGROUND

Recent studies suggest that higher Body Mass Index (BMI) is associated with reduced inhibitory control in contexts of palatable food. However, due to limitations of previous studies, it remained the question whether this reduction is specific to food contexts, and whether it generalizes to other contexts of reward, such as money. This main question was addressed in the current study. In addition, we explored the effect of maladaptive eating and stress regarding inhibitory control across the contexts that differed in terms of reward.

METHODS

In total, 46 participants between 19 and 50 years old (39% males and 61% females) with an average BMI of 23.5 (SD = 3.9) participated. Participants filled out questionnaires and performed a go/no-go task (indexing inhibitory control) with three conditions (neutral, food, and money condition).

RESULTS

Relatively high (above median) BMI was associated with challenged inhibitory control in the food relative to the neutral context, but not in the money relative to neutral context. Explorative analyses suggested that maladaptive eating and stress were associated with reduced inhibitory control in the food context. Only rumination was associated with reduced inhibitory control in the money context.

CONCLUSIONS

The effects of BMI, maladaptive eating behavior, and stress on inhibitory control were specific to the food context, and did not generalize to a non-intrinsic reward condition, operationalized with money pictures. Our results imply that (research on) interventions directed at improving inhibitory control in relation to overweight and obesity, should consider food-reward context.

Exercise Increases Attentional Bias Towards Food Cues in Individuals Classified as Overweight to Obese

BACKGROUND

The obesity epidemic continues to be a major public health concern. Although exercise is the most common weight loss recommendation, weight loss outcomes from an exercise program are often suboptimal. The human body compensates for a large percentage of the energy expended through exercise to maintain energy homeostasis and body weight. Increases in energy intake appear to be the most impactful compensatory behavior. Research on the mechanisms driving this behavior has not been fully elucidated.

PURPOSE

To determine if exercise influences the attentional processing towards food cues (attentional bias) and inhibitory control for food cues among individuals classified as overweight to obese who do not exercise.

METHODS

Thirty adults classified as overweight to obese participated in a counterbalanced, crossover trial featuring two assessment visits on separate days separated by at least one week. Attentional bias and inhibitory control towards food cues was assessed prior to and after a bout of exercise where participants expended 500 kcal (one assessment visit) and before and after a 60 min bout of watching television (second assessment visit). Attentional bias was conceptualized as the percentage of time fixated on food cues when both food and neutral (non-food) cues were presented during a food-specific dot-probe task. Inhibitory control, specifically motor impulsivity, was assessed as percentage of inhibitory failures during a food-specific Go/NoGo task.

RESULTS

A significant condition by time effect was observed for attentional bias towards food cues, independent of hunger, whereas attentional bias towards food cues was increased pre-post exercise but not after watching TV. Inhibitory control was not affected by exercise or related to attentional bias for food cues.

CONCLUSIONS

An acute bout of exercise increased attentional bias for food cues, pointing to a mechanism that may contribute to the weight loss resistance observed with exercise. Future trials are needed to evaluate attentional bias towards food cues over a longitudinal exercise intervention.

The relationship between acute stress and neurophysiological and behavioral measures of food-related inhibitory control: An event-related potential (ERP) study

Stress influences many health-related behaviors including diet and nutrition intake, often resulting in increased calorie intake, fewer healthy eating behaviors, and poorer nutrition. Food intake is modulated by inhibitory control and has important implications for our physical, mental, and emotional health. Yet, little is known about the relationship between stress and food-related inhibitory control. We tested the influence of a short-term experimental stressor on behavioral and event-related potential (ERP; N2 and P3 components) measures of food-related inhibitory control. Ninety-seven healthy participants were randomly assigned to complete the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) (n = 48, 27 females [52.9%]) or a neutral control condition (n = 49, 35 females [70%]) immediately followed by food-specific go/no-go and neutral go/no-go tasks while electroencephalogram (EEG) data were recorded. Stress levels were successfully manipulated, with heightened self-report and physiological measures (heart rate and systolic blood pressure) of the stress response in individuals who completed the TSST compared to control. As expected, the high calorie food-specific go/no-go task elicited larger N2 amplitude than the neutral task. N2 component amplitude was also significantly larger following the TSST relative to the control task. There were no significant between-group or task differences for P3 amplitude or behavioral measures. Findings suggest heightened N2 amplitude following psychological stress that is not specific to food or inhibition processes and may reflect heightened arousal following stress. Future research in individuals with overweight/obesity or experiencing chronic stress will further clarify the role of stress in food-related inhibitory control.

Young Children's Eating in the Absence of Hunger: Links With Child Inhibitory Control, Child BMI, and Maternal Controlling Feeding Practices

This study aimed to gain a better understanding of the associations between young children’s eating in the absence of hunger (EAH), inhibitory control, body mass index (BMI) and several maternal controlling feeding practices (food as reward, restriction for health, restriction for weight control). In addition, to more properly assess the relationship between children’s and maternal variables, the link between EAH and restriction was explored separately in two directionalities: “child to parent” or “parent to child.” To do this, mothers of 621 children aged 2.00–6.97years (51% boys, M=4.11years, SD=1.34) filled in a questionnaire with items from validated questionnaires. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the data. The results showed, whatever the directionality considered, a positive association between children’s eating in the absence of hunger and their BMI z-scores. Restriction for health and restriction for weight control were differently linked to EAH and to children’s BMI z-scores. Namely, low child inhibitory control, food as reward and restriction for health were identified as risk factors for EAH. Restriction for weight control was not linked to EAH, but was predicted by child BMI z-scores. Interventions aiming to improve children’s abilities to self-regulate food intake could consider training children’s general self-regulation, their self-regulation of intake, and/or promoting adaptive parental feeding practices.

The development of selective stopping: Qualitative and quantitative changes from childhood to early adulthood

Although progress has been made in elucidating the behavioral and neural development of global stopping across the lifespan, little is known about the development of selective stopping. This more complex form of inhibitory control is required in real-world situations where ongoing responses must be inhibited to certain stimuli but not others, and can be assessed in laboratory settings using a stimulus selective stopping task. Here we used this task to investigate the qualitative and quantitative developmental changes in selective stopping in a large-scale cross-sectional study with three different age groups (children, preadolescents, and young adults). We found that the ability to stop a response selectively to some stimuli (i.e., use a selective strategy) rather than non-selectively to all presented stimuli (i.e., use a global, non-selective strategy) is fully mature by early preadolescence, and remains stable afterwards at least until young adulthood. By contrast, the efficiency or speed of stopping (indexed by a shorter stop-signal reaction time or SSRT) continues to mature throughout adolescence until young adulthood, both for global and selective implementations of stopping. We also provide some preliminary findings regarding which other task variables beyond the strategy and SSRT predicted age group status. Premature responding (an index of "waiting impulsivity") and post-ignore slowing (an index of cognitive control) were among the most relevant predictors in discriminating between developmental age groups. Although present results need to be confirmed and extended in longitudinal studies, they provide new insights into the development of a relevant form of inhibitory control.

Can sweet food-specific inhibitory control training via a mobile application improve eating behavior in children with obesity?

OBJECTIVES

Consumption of excess sugar, a common energy-dense nutrient-poor food, is a risk factor for obesity in school-aged children. Food-specific inhibition training, where responses to palatable food stimuli, such as sweet foods, are consistently and repeatedly inhibited, reduces sweet food intake in adults. However, no studies have yet examined the effectiveness of inhibitory control training specifically targeting sweet foods among children with high sugar cravings. We examined whether sweet food-specific inhibitory control training (SF-ICT), administered via a mobile app, reduced choice and consumption of sweet foods, and weight in a sample of children aged 7-11 with overweight or obesity and who had high sugar cravings (N = 46).

DESIGN

This study was designed as a 2 × 3 between-within design.

METHODS

Participants were randomly allocated to a single-blind design with two conditions: they either received 7 sessions of active or control go/no-go training in which either sweet foods or non-food cues were paired with no-go signals. Participants' weight, sweet food choice, and consumption were measured pre and post-training, and at three-month follow-up.

RESULTS

The results revealed that participants in the active group showed a significant reduction in sweet food choice and intake from pre to post-training relative to the control group. The effects of the training on reducing sweet food intake persisted over the 3-month follow-up No significant changes in weight loss were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide preliminary evidence that sweet food-specific inhibitory control training (SF-ICT) via a mobile app is effective in modifying eating behavior among children with excessive consumption of sugary foods. Further research is required to clarify under what conditions the benefits of training would expand to weight loss.

Fluctuations in attentional bias for food and the role of executive control

Research has shown repeatedly that overweight and obesity are associated with more fluctuations in attentional bias (AB), as reflected in trial-level bias scores (TL-BS). More specifically, people with a high BMI more frequently alternate their attention towards and away from food over time. The current study proposed and tested a model on the mechanism behind the positive association between variability of AB for food and BMI. It was hypothesized that poor executive control (poor response inhibition and lower sustained attention) would be related to both higher BMI and more fluctuations in AB for food and this would, at least partly, explain the significant relationship between variability of AB for food and BMI. To test our hypotheses, 99 female participants completed both an online food dot-probe task and an online stop-signal task. It was found that response inhibition was significantly related to BMI, whereas, contrary to our hypotheses, variability of AB for food was not related to BMI nor to executive control. In conclusion, this study revealed a relation between poor inhibitory control and higher BMI. However, a role of executive control in fluctuations in attention for food could not be established.

Inhibitory Performance in Smokers Relative to Nonsmokers When Exposed to Neutral, Smoking- and Money-Related Pictures

INTRODUCTION

Smoking is associated with significant negative health consequences. It has been suggested that deficient inhibitory control may be implicated in (nicotine) addiction, but its exact role has not yet been elucidated. In the current study, our aim was to investigate the role of inhibitory control in relation to nicotine addiction in contexts that differ in terms of reward.

METHODS

Participants filled out questionnaires and performed a go/no-go task with three conditions. In one condition, the stimuli were neutral color squares, and in the reward conditions, these were smoking-related pictures and money-related pictures, respectively. In total, 43 non-abstinent individuals that smoke and 35 individuals that do not smoke were included in the sample.

RESULTS

The main results showed that individuals that smoke, relative to individuals that do not smoke, had reduced inhibitory control in both reward contexts, relative to a neutral context. The reductions in inhibitory control were mirrored by speeded responses.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals that smoke seem to present with reduced inhibitory control, which is most pronounced in contexts of reward. Consistent with incentive sensitization theory, the reduced inhibitory control may be (at least partly) due to the heightened approach bias to reward-related stimuli as indicated by the speeded responses.

Metabolic Syndrome and Cognitive Function in Midlife

OBJECTIVE

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors associated with cognitive decline. We investigated the relationship between MetS and cognition in middle-aged adults. We hypothesized that higher numbers of MetS components will relate to poorer performance on executive function (EF) tasks as frontal lobe regions critical to EF are particularly vulnerable to cardiovascular disease.

METHODS

197 adults (ages 40-60) participated. MetS was evaluated using established criteria. Composite scores for cognitive domains were computed as follows: Global cognitive function (subtests from the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, 2nd Edition), EF (Stroop Color Word, Digit Span Backward, and Trails A and B), and memory (California Verbal Learning Test, 2 Edition).

RESULTS

Higher number of MetS components was related to weaker EF-F(4, 191) = 3.94, p = .004, MetS components ß = -.14, p = .044. A similar relationship was detected for tests of memory-F(4, 192) = 7.86, p < .001, MetS components ß = -.15, p = .032. Diagnosis of MetS was not significantly associated with EF domain score (ß = -.05, p = .506) but was significantly associated with memory scores-F(4, 189) = 8.81, p < .001, MetS diagnosis ß = -.19, p = .006.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support prior research linking MetS components at midlife to executive dysfunction and demonstrate that MetS, and its components are also associated with poorer memory function. This suggests that cognitive vulnerability can be detected at midlife. Interventions for MetS at midlife could alter cognitive outcomes.

Obesity and Gray Matter Volume Assessed by Neuroimaging: A Systematic Review

Obesity has become a major public and individual health problem due to its high worldwide prevalence and its relation with comorbid conditions. According to previous studies, obesity is related to an increased risk of cognitive impairment and dementia. This systematic review aims to further examine the present state of the art about the association between obesity and gray matter volume (GMV) as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A search was conducted in Pubmed, SCOPUS and Cochrane of those studies released before 1 February 2021 including MRIs to assess the GMVs in obese participants. From this search, 1420 results were obtained, and 34 publications were finally included. Obesity was mainly measured by the body mass index, although other common types of evaluations were used (e.g., waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and plasma leptin levels). The selected neuroimaging analysis methods were voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and cortical thickness (CT), finding 21 and 13 publications, respectively. There were 30 cross-sectional and 2 prospective longitudinal studies, and 2 articles had both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Most studies showed a negative association between obesity and GMV. This would have important public health implications, as obesity prevention could avoid a potential risk of GMV reductions, cognitive impairment and dementia.

Children's inhibitory control abilities in the presence of rewards are related to weight status and eating in the absence of hunger

The Reflective-Impulsive Dual Processes Model suggests that overeating occurs when the temptation to consume food overrides inhibitory control processes. However, how rewards interact with inhibitory control and their relation to children's weight status and food intake is not understood. Here, 7-to-11-year-old children (n = 66; 32 overweight/obese) completed two versions (baseline [i.e., non-reward incentivized/control] and reward incentivized [food, money, no reward]) of a Go/Nogo task. Intake of palatable foods in the absence of hunger (i.e., eating in the absence of hunger-EAH) was measured following a standardized meal. A drift diffusion model was used to characterize children's performance parameters on the Go/Nogo. On the baseline Go/Nogo, children with higher weight status responded more cautiously, but on reward trials for food/money children were more cautions and made more false alarms relative to the no reward condition. Energy intake during EAH positively correlated with FA errors for food and money vs. no reward, but sex moderated this effect such that FA positively associated with EAH in girls but not boys. Independent of sex, FA for money vs. no reward and food vs. money were both positively associated with energy consumed during EAH. These results suggest that the presence of food and money rewards impair inhibitory control processing, especially in children with higher weight status. Further, increased inhibitory control impairment in response to food rewards, specifically, may be a risk factor for disinhibited eating in girls. Though preliminary, results may be useful in the development of targeted treatments to help moderate excess consumption in children.

Food-related inhibitory control training reduces food liking but not snacking frequency or weight in a large healthy adult sample

Inhibitory control training has recently been used as an intervention to aid healthy eating and encourage weight loss. The aim of this pre-registered study was to explore the effects of training on food liking, food consumption and weight loss in a large (n = 366), predominantly healthy-weight sample. Participants received four training sessions within a week, in which they had to inhibit their responses to either energy-dense foods (active group) or non-food images (control group). Subjective food ratings, food consumption frequency and weight were measured pre- and post-training. At two-weeks post-training, the active group reported a greater reduction in liking for energy-dense foods, compared to the control group. Active participants also reported a significantly greater increase in healthy food liking, immediately post-training, relative to the control group. There was no statistically significant difference between groups for the change in consumption of trained foods or for weight loss. These findings are partially consistent with previous research conducted in smaller, more overweight samples. Exploratory analyses suggest that some effects of training may be driven by awareness effects. Methodological differences across findings and avenues for future investigation are discussed.

Effects of Acute Alcohol Consumption on Food Intake and Pictorial Stroop Response to High-Calorie Food Cues

AIMS

We examined (a) the effect of an acute dose of alcohol on the consumption of energy-dense food and (b) on cognitive bias towards high-energy-dense food cues and (3) whether the effect of an acute dose of alcohol on the consumption of energy-dense food would be mediated by cognitive bias towards high-energy-dense food cues.

METHODS

Heavy social drinkers (n = 40) abstained from drinking for 12 hours before testing. On the test day, participants completed pre-challenge measures of alcohol and food craving, and cognitive bias towards alcohol in a placebo-controlled, double-blind design. Participants performed post-challenge measures of alcohol and food craving, ad lib energy-dense food consumption and cognitive bias.

RESULTS

We did not observe any of the hypothesized interactions between challenge condition, consumption of energy-dense food and cognitive bias towards high-energy-dense food cues.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that acute alcohol consumption does not influence the consumption of energy-dense food or cognitive bias towards high-energy-dense food cues. These findings may reflect that alcohol does not increase the appetitive value of food and food-related cues or that the measures used in this study were not sensitive to detect an effect. Further research is required to determine whether alcohol at higher doses and/or food cues that are frequently paired with alcohol intake stimulates changes in food intake and the reward value of food cues.

A Systematic Review of Obesity and Binge Eating Associated Impairment of the Cognitive Inhibition System

Altered functioning of the inhibition system and the resulting higher impulsivity are known to play a major role in overeating. Considering the great impact of disinhibited eating behavior on obesity onset and maintenance, this systematic review of the literature aims at identifying to what extent the brain inhibitory networks are impaired in individuals with obesity. It also aims at examining whether the presence of binge eating disorder leads to similar although steeper neural deterioration. We identified 12 studies that specifically assessed impulsivity during neuroimaging. We found a significant alteration of neural circuits primarily involving the frontal and limbic regions. Functional activity results show BMI-dependent hypoactivity of frontal regions during cognitive inhibition and either increased or decreased patterns of activity in several other brain regions, according to their respective role in inhibition processes. The presence of binge eating disorder results in further aggravation of those neural alterations. Connectivity results mainly report strengthened connectivity patterns across frontal, parietal, and limbic networks. Neuroimaging studies suggest significant impairment of various neural circuits involved in inhibition processes in individuals with obesity. The elaboration of accurate therapeutic neurocognitive interventions, however, requires further investigations, for a deeper identification and understanding of obesity-related alterations of the inhibition brain system.

Preserved Inhibitory Control Deficits of Overweight Participants in a Gamified Stop-Signal Task: Experimental Study of Validity

Background

Gamification in mental health could increase training adherence, motivation, and transfer effects, but the external validity of gamified tasks is unclear. This study documents that gamified task variants can show preserved associations between markers of behavioral deficits and health-related variables. We draw on the inhibitory control deficit in overweight populations to investigate effects of gamification on performance measures in a web-based experimental task.

Objective

This study tested whether associations between inhibitory control and overweight were preserved in a gamified stop-signal task (SST).

Methods

Two versions of an adaptive SST were developed and tested in an online experiment. Participants (n=111) were randomized to 1 of the 2 task variants and completed a series of questionnaires along with either the gamified SST or a conventional SST. To maximize its possible effects on participants’ inhibitory control, the gamified SST included multiple game elements in addition to the task itself and the stimuli. Both variants drew on the identical core mechanics, but the gamified variant included an additional narrative, graphical theme, scoring system with visual and emotional feedback, and the presence of a companion character. In both tasks, food and neutral low-poly stimuli were classified based on their color tone (go trials), but responses were withheld in 25% of the trials (stop trials). Mean go reaction times and stop-signal reaction times (SSRT) were analyzed as measures of performance and inhibitory control.

Results

Participants in the gamified SST had longer reaction times (803 [SD 179] ms vs 607 [SD 90] ms) and worse inhibitory control (SSRT 383 [SD 109] ms vs 297 [SD 45] ms). The association of BMI with inhibitory control was relatively small (r=.155, 95% CI .013-.290). Overweight participants had longer reaction times (752 [SD 217] ms vs 672 [SD 137] ms) and SSRTs (363 [SD 116] ms vs 326 [SD 77] ms). Gamification did not interact with the effect of overweight on mean performance or inhibitory control. There were no effects of gamification on mood and user experience, despite a negative effect on perceived efficiency.

Conclusions

The detrimental effects of heightened BMI on inhibitory control were preserved in a gamified version of the SST. Overall, the effects of overweight were smaller than in previously published web-based and laboratory studies. Gamification elements can impact behavioral performance, but gamified tasks can still assess inhibitory control deficits. Although our results are promising, according validations may differ for other types of behavior, gamification, and health variables.

Emotional reactivity, suppression of emotions and response inhibition in emotional eaters: A multi-method pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Emotional eating has been associated with high emotional reactivity, suppression of negative emotions and inhibitory control difficulties. The current study aimed to address the association of these factors and their combined effect on emotional eating.

METHOD

Twenty-eight participants conducted an emotional Go/Nogo task including pictures of neutral, negative and positive scenes and an additional emotion suppression condition. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was recorded continuously. Emotional eating and habitual emotion suppression were assessed through questionnaires. Emotional reactivity to affective pictures was measured through a visual analogue scale and the amplitude of the electrophysiological late positive potential (LPP). Inhibition parameters were assessed behaviorally (i.e., commission errors) and through event-related potentials of the EEG (i.e., N2/P3-amplitudes).

RESULTS

The trait questionnaire data revealed that emotional eating was not correlated with habitual emotion suppression. During the emotional Go/Nogo paradigm, higher emotional eating scores were positively related to higher LPP amplitudes in response to negative affective scenes. Inhibitory control capacities were not related to emotional eating while watching neutral or negative pictures, but higher emotional eating scores were associated with more commission errors when negative emotions were suppressed.

DISCUSSION

Emotional eating tendencies seem to be related to higher reactivity when confronted with negative affective information and inhibitory control deficits may arise especially when an effort is made to suppress these negative emotions. Therefore, a focus on adaptive emotion regulation in treatments of emotional eating seems to be important; solely targeting inhibitory control capacities may not be sufficient in order to help people with emotional eating to regulate their food intake.

Relationship between body image, anxiety, food-specific inhibitory control, and emotional eating in young women with abdominal obesity: a comparative cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Abdominal fat deposition is a key component of obesity, which is associated with an increased risk for a number of mental disorders. The current study aims to explore the relationship between body image, anxiety, food-specific inhibitory control, and emotional eating in young women with abdominal obesity.

METHOD

A total of 224 participants were recruited: 168 were non-abdominal obesity and 56 were abdominal obesity. Participants completed the following questionnaires and behavioral tests: the Body Mass Index (BMI) -based Silhouette-Matching Test (SMT), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Food Stop Signal Task (SST), the Emotional Eating Scale (EES).

RESULTS

Abdominal obesity women had significantly higher levels of trait anxiety, cognitive difference, expectational difference in body image but lower self-reported emotional eating level compared to the control group. Anxiety mediated the relationship between cognitive difference of body image and depression eating in young females with abdominal obesity. In addition, only among abdominal obesity individuals, expectational difference of body image were significantly and positively correlated with food-specific inhibitory control and trait/state anxiety.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest it is of critical importance to promote a healthy body image recognition and expectation and improve mood regulation for young females with abdominal obesity high in trait anxiety.

Examining cognitive bias modification interventions for reducing food value and choice: Two pre-registered, online studies

There is considerable interest in Cognitive Bias Modification (CBM) as a potential treatment for overweight/obesity. Inhibitory Control Training (ICT: also known as motor response training) and Evaluative Conditioning (EC) are two popular paradigms which rely on associatively learned responses (unhealthy food - > inhibition, or unhealthy food- > negative stimulus, respectively) through repeated cue-response contingencies. Both ICT and EC have demonstrated some effectiveness for reducing food intake, value and/or choice, when administered in the laboratory and online. However, studies have been criticised for inconsistencies in design (e.g. use of inadequate control groups) which makes it difficult to draw robust conclusions. In two pre-registered, online studies our aim was to examine active ICT (study 1: N = 170) and EC (study 2: N = 300) in multiple groups where the cue- > response contingencies were systematically varied (100%, 75%, 50%, 25%), before examining food-cue valuations and hypothetical food choice. In both studies varying the cue- > response contingencies did not lead to significant changes in food-cue devaluation following training. ICT did not substantially influence hypothetical food choice, whereas there was weak evidence that EC reduced choice for unhealthy foods, compared to a control group with 50% cue-response contingencies. Taken together both studies provide limited evidence for online CBM as a viable psychological treatment - at least through the mechanism of food-cue devaluation or changes in healthy and unhealthy food choice. Future research is needed to investigate the factors that contribute towards successful CBM training to critically evaluate the potential for these strategies within interventions.

The Influence of Response Inhibition Training on Food Consumption and Implicit Attitudes toward Food among Female Restrained Eaters

Restrained eaters display difficulties engaging in self-control in the presence of food. Undergoing cognitive training to form associations between palatable food and response inhibition was found to improve self-control and influence eating behaviors. The present study assessed the impact of two such response inhibition trainings on food consumption, food-related anxiety, and implicit attitudes toward food among female restrained eaters (Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire-restrained eating subscale ≥ 2.5). In Experiment 1, 64 restrained eaters completed either one of two training procedures in which they were asked to classify food vs. non-food images: a food-response training, in which stop cues were always associated with non-food images, or a balanced food-response/inhibition training, in which participants inhibited motor actions to food and non-food stimuli equally. The results revealed reduced snack consumption following the food-response/inhibition training compared to the food-response training. The food-response training was associated with increased levels of food-related anxiety. In Experiment 2, the same training procedures were administered to 47 restrained eaters, and implicit attitudes toward palatable foods were assessed. The results revealed an increase in positive implicit attitudes toward palatable foods in the food-response/inhibition group but not in the food-response training group. The results suggest that balancing response inhibition and execution across food and non-food stimuli may reduce overeating while retaining positive attitudes toward food among female restrained eaters.

Attentional bias and disengagement as a function of Body Mass Index in conditions that differ in anticipated reward

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Previous studies suggest that attentional bias and disengagement may vary as a function of Body Mass Index (BMI), most notably in a palatable food related context. Though this could indeed represent a food context specific effect, it could also represent a general reward related context effect. In addition, though mindfulness and stress have both been reported to affect attention, it is not yet clear whether these moderate the relationship between BMI and attention as a function of reward context. In the current study we addressed these questions. It was hypothesized that BMI would be positively associated with bias in a food context and money context relative to a neutral context. The inverse was expected for disengagement. It was expected that mindfulness would decrease these relationships and for stress the inverse was expected.

METHODS

In the current online study, eighty-seven participants (24 males and 63 females; age: M = 30.1, SD = 8.3; BMI: M = 24.2, SD = 4.67), filled out questionnaires and completed a visuospatial cueing task measuring attention and disengagement of attention in a neutral, food-related, and money-related condition.

RESULTS

There was no association between BMI and attentional bias. Higher BMI was associated with faster responses to money pictures presented opposite to a cued location as compared to money pictures that did not follow a predictive cue. Our results do not support a clear moderating role of mindfulness and stress.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Our results imply faster processing and associated quicker responding to unanticipated reward-related stimuli in individuals with overweight or obesity.