Differential Behavioral Pathways Linking Personality to Leadership Emergence and Effectiveness in Groups

This study integrates leadership process models with process models of personality and behavioral personality science to examine the behavioral-perceptual pathways that explain interpersonal personality traits' divergent relation to group leadership evaluations. We applied data from an online group interaction study (N = 364) alternately assigning participants as leaders conducting brief tasks. We used four variable types to build the pathways in multiple mediator models: (a) Self-reported personality traits, (b) video recordings of expressed interpersonal behaviors coded by 6 trained raters, (c) interpersonal impressions, and (d) mutual evaluations of leadership emergence/effectiveness. We find interpersonal big five traits to differently relate to the two leadership outcomes via the behavioral-perceptual pathways: Extraversion was more important to leadership emergence due to impressions of assertiveness evoked by task-focused behavior being strongly valued. Agreeableness/emotional stability were more important to leadership effectiveness due to impressions of trustworthiness/calmness evoked by member-focused/calm behavior being stronger valued.

Interpersonal Problem Profiles of Personality and Psychopathology Constructs in Chinese Undergraduates and Offenders

The interpersonal problem circumplex is extensively used in the field as an assessment framework for understanding the interpersonal implications of a range of personality and psychopathology constructs. The vast majority of this large literature has been conducted in Western convenience and clinical samples. We computed interpersonal problem structural summary parameters for a range of personality and psychopathology variables in two Chinese offender samples (N = 424 and N = 555) and one undergraduate sample (N = 511) to test how well findings from Western samples generalize to Chinese undergraduates and offenders. The results showed that findings in Western samples generalized reasonably well to Chinese young adult and forensic contexts, although the interpersonal profiles of external variables were less specific in Chinese samples. Compared with undergraduates, interpersonal distress has stronger associations with the mental health of offenders. This study further elaborates the interpersonal correlates of individual differences in personality and psychopathology across cultures and assessment contexts, and it also extends the literature examining interpersonal problems in forensic settings.

Daily general discrimination predicts changes in trait negative affectivity: A 30-year cohort longitudinal study using a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model

OBJECTIVE

Increasing evidence indicates discrimination is an emerging risk factor for reducing psychological well-being. Negative affectivity is a personality trait that has been associated with discrimination. Yet, few studies to date have examined the longitudinal relationship between discrimination and personality. The current study addresses this gap by examining how general discrimination and negative affectivity influence each other longitudinally.

METHOD

The Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) dataset was used for the current study. The MIDUS sample (N = 4244) was predominately white (90.7%), 52% female, and had an average age of 46 years old. Individuals completed follow-up measures 10 and 20 years after baseline. Data were analyzed using a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model.

RESULTS

Individuals that scored higher on trait negative affectivity also tended to score higher on perceived daily discrimination. We found general perceived discrimination at age 55 unidirectionally predicted changes in negative affectivity around retirement age, but not from age 45 to 55. In contrast, negative affectivity did not significantly predict increases in perceived discrimination at any timepoint.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that perceived discrimination has pernicious impacts on well-being up to a decade later and may do so by increasing an individual's tendency to experience negative emotions (i.e., negative affectivity).

A motivational framework of personality development in late adulthood

Meta-analytic evidence shows that most personality traits tend to increase through early adulthood and middle age but decrease in late adulthood, whereas Emotional Stability continues to increase throughout late adulthood. We propose that these normative patterns of personality development can be explained by motivational theories of aging. Specifically, decreases in Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience may reflect a reduced capacity to control one's environment, whereas continued increases in Emotional Stability reflect increases in individual's ability to compensate and cope with age-graded losses. Pairing motivational theories of aging with longitudinal evidence in personality science provides an explanation for empirical patterns of personality trait development and raises interesting possibilities to promote healthy aging.

Narcissistic and dependent traits and behavior in four archetypal 2-person, 2-choice games

Introduction

The characteristic behaviors we use to define personality pathology arise from specific interpersonal interactions. In an effort to create a laboratory-based context in which behavior might be expected to be influenced by particular personality traits, we used four 2-person, 2-choice games (the Prisoner's Dilemma, Chicken, Leader, and Hero games) to create a simulated interaction and focused specifically on narcissism and dependency.

Method

An online sample of 1137 (35% male, M age = 38.46 years, SD age = 13.20) participants completed brief, self-reported measures of trait narcissism and dependency and played one of the four games. Before deciding how to act or react, participants received either no message, a promise to cooperate, or a threat to defect from a (confederate) partner.

Results

When receiving no message, those who cooperated in the Prisoner's Dilemma had lower trait narcissism, while those who defected in the Chicken and Leader games had higher trait narcissism. Also with no message, participants who cooperated in the Hero game had higher trait dependency. Promises only affected the relationship between trait narcissism in the Leader game while threats only affected the relationship between trait dependency in the Chicken game.

Discussion

These findings add to the limited behavioral research on personality pathology and largely support established interpersonal conceptualizations and models. Future work might extend these findings using even more ecologically valid approaches to explore the behavioral correlates of personality traits that have important implications for interpersonal interactions.

Development and Validation of the Certainty About Mental States Questionnaire (CAMSQ): A Self-Report Measure of Mentalizing Oneself and Others

The Certainty About Mental States Questionnaire (CAMSQ) is a self-report measure of the perceived capacity to understand mental states of the self and others (i.e., mentalizing). In two studies (total N = 1828), we developed the CAMSQ in both English and German as a two-dimensional measure of Self- and Other-Certainty, investigated associations with other measures of mentalizing, and explored relationships to personality functioning and mental health. The CAMSQ performed well in terms of convergent and discriminant validity, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and measurement invariance across the United States and Germany. The present research indicates that the CAMSQ assesses maladaptive forms of having too little or too much certainty about mental states (consistent with hypomentalizing and hypermentalizing). A psychologically adaptive profile of perceived mentalizing capacity appears to be characterized by high Self-Certainty that exceeds Other-Certainty, suggesting that imbalances between Self-Certainty and Other-Certainty (Other-Self-Discrepancy) play an important role within personality pathology.

Discovering trends of social interaction behavior over time: An introduction to relational event modeling : Trends of social interaction

Real-life social interactions occur in continuous time and are driven by complex mechanisms. Each interaction is not only affected by the characteristics of individuals or the environmental context but also by the history of interactions. The relational event framework provides a flexible approach to studying the mechanisms that drive how a sequence of social interactions evolves over time. This paper presents an introduction of this new statistical framework and two of its extensions for psychological researchers. The relational event framework is illustrated with an exemplary study on social interactions between freshmen students at the start of their new studies. We show how the framework can be used to study: (a) which predictors are important drivers of social interactions between freshmen students who start interacting at zero acquaintance; (b) how the effects of predictors change over time as acquaintance increases; and (c) the dynamics between the different settings in which students interact. Findings show that patterns of interaction developed early in the freshmen student network and remained relatively stable over time. Furthermore, clusters of interacting students formed quickly, and predominantly within a specific setting for interaction. Extraversion predicted rates of social interaction, and this effect was particularly pronounced on the weekends. These results illustrate how the relational event framework and its extensions can lead to new insights on social interactions and how they are affected both by the interacting individuals and the dynamic social environment.

Smoking behavior among junior high school students based on the theory of planned behavior in Madura, Indonesia

OBJECTIVE

This research aimed to assess attitudes, subjective norms, and intentions about early smoking behavior among junior and senior high school students in Sampang, Madura, Indonesia.

CONTENT

Teenagers' smoking behavior is a phenomenon that needs careful examination and is easily recognized today. In Indonesia, the frequency of teenage smokers aged 10-18 years is growing every year. This age group is essential since most regular smokers start to smoke at this age. Although the Indonesian government has made preventive efforts, the prevalence of tobacco use remains high and continues to rise among younger age citizens. This research employed descriptive analysis with a cross-sectional approach. A total of 174 teenagers were chosen to participate in this study using a purposive sampling approach among junior high and high school students in Sampang District who smoke. Data were collected using questionnaires and evaluated with statistical regression tests with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

SUMMARY

The findings revealed that attitudes, subjective norms, and intentions were linked to early smoking behavior in teenagers in the Sampang District, Madura. The results were attitude (OR=5.27, 95% CI: 4.89-5.61), subjective norm (OR=1.78, 95% CI: 1.51-2.05), PBC (OR=2.05, 95% CI: 1.66-2.40), and intention (OR=4.16, 95% CI: 3.86-4.47). Early smoking behavior in Sampang is primarily driven by the impression of poor parental disruptive behavior and a strong urge to smoke among teenagers, along with significant peer support.

OUTLOOK

These findings can be utilized to address some of the key issues identified in order to prevent smoking in teenagers by establishing an atmosphere that avoids the stimulation in smoking behavior.

Filling gaps in the nomological networks for dominance and affiliation by examining self-informant agreement on momentary interpersonal behavior

Interpersonal functioning involves an interplay of subjective perceptions and overt behavior. This study examines alignment between self and informant perceptions of momentary behavior to enrich the nomological networks for the domains of dominance and affiliation. We studied a sample of romantic couples ( N = 210 individuals) who rated their own and their partner’s interpersonal behavior during a 21-day ambulatory assessment (AA) protocol. We used multi-level structural equation modeling to estimate self-informant agreement on averages and variability of dominance and affiliation (between-person level) and on situational shifts in behavior (within-person level). We also examined convergence between self- and informant reported behavior measured by AA with cross-sectional self-report trait dominance, affiliation, and interpersonal problems. Results showed no self-informant agreement on dominance measured by AA, but moderate to strong agreement on affiliation at the between- and within-person levels. Self- and informant reported average affiliation measured by AA correlated with self-reports of trait affiliation, but only AA self-reports correlated with affiliation problems. Both self- and informant report dominance variability, and informant report affiliation variability, correlated with self-report interpersonal distress. Evidence for (mis)alignment in how dominance and affiliation are perceived by self and others have important implications for the role of these behaviors in everyday interpersonal functioning.

Interpersonal problems and recognition of facial emotions in healthy individuals

Background

Recognition of emotions in faces is important for successful social interaction. Results from previous research based on clinical samples suggest that difficulties in identifying threat-related or negative emotions can go along with interpersonal problems. The present study examined whether associations between interpersonal difficulties and emotion decoding ability can be found in healthy individuals. Our analysis was focused on two main dimensions of interpersonal problems: agency (social dominance) and communion (social closeness).

Materials and methods

We constructed an emotion recognition task with facial expressions depicting six basic emotions (happiness, surprise, anger, disgust, sadness, and fear) in frontal and profile view, which was administered to 190 healthy adults (95 women) with a mean age of 23.9 years (SD = 3.8) along with the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems, measures of negative affect and verbal intelligence. The majority of participants were university students (80%). Emotion recognition accuracy was assessed using unbiased hit rates.

Results

Negative correlations were observed between interpersonal agency and recognition of facial anger and disgust that were independent of participants' gender and negative affect. Interpersonal communion was not related to recognition of facial emotions.

Discussion

Poor identification of other people's facial signals of anger and disgust might be a factor contributing to interpersonal problems with social dominance and intrusiveness. Anger expressions signal goal obstruction and proneness to engage in conflict whereas facial disgust indicates a request to increase social distance. The interpersonal problem dimension of communion appears not to be linked to the ability to recognize emotions from facial expressions.

Individual differences in relational body image: Within-person variability predicts maladaptive trait body image

Findings have been mixed as to whether individual differences in within-person variability in body image predict maladaptive body image and eating behaviors. The current study aimed to resolve this ambiguity by addressing limitations of past research. First, we measured within-person variability in body image across the context-sensitive domain of relationships. Second, we incorporated the latest statistical methods to increase the robustness of the results. Online, 189 female-identified undergraduates completed seven baseline measures of trait body image. At least three days later, in-lab, participants were guided to generate a list of the most important people in their lives (i.e., friends, family members, close others) using egocentric network methods. Participants then completed a set of three relationship-specific measures in which they reported on their typical body image with 10 people from their list, one by one. Multiverse analysis tested the hypothesis that, across combinations of measures, within-person variability in relational body image would positively predict indicators of maladaptive body image. In 84 regression analyses, permutation testing supported our overall hypothesis (p = .006); however, results varied across different model specifications. Results provide further evidence for the predictive power of within-person variability in body image and yield valuable methodological and statistical recommendations.

Using passive sensor data to probe associations of social structure with changes in personality: A synthesis of network analysis and machine learning

Social network analysis (SNA) is an increasingly popular and effective tool for modeling psychological phenomena. Through application to the personality literature, social networks, in conjunction with passive, non-invasive sensing technologies, have begun to offer powerful insight into personality state variability. Resultant constructions of social networks can be utilized alongside machine learning-based frameworks to uniquely model personality states. Accordingly, this work leverages data from a previously published study to combine passively collected wearable sensor information on face-to-face, workplace social interactions with ecological momentary assessments of personality state. Data from 54 individuals across six weeks was used to explore the relative importance of 26 unique structural and nodal social network features in predicting individual changes in each of the Big Five (5F) personality states. Changes in personality state were operationalized by calculating the weekly root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) in 5F state scores measured daily via self-report. Using only SNA-derived features from wearable sensor data, boosted tree-based machine learning models explained, on average, approximately 28-30% of the variance in individual personality state change. Model introspection implicated egocentric features as the most influential predictors across 5F-specific models, with network efficiency, constraint, and effective size measures among the most important. Feature importance profiles for each 5F model partially echoed previous empirical findings. Results support future efforts focusing on egocentric components of SNA and suggest particular investment in exploring efficiency measures to model personality fluctuations within the workplace setting.

Attachment Manifestations in Daily Interpersonal Interactions

The predominant focus in attachment research on trait-like individual differences has overshadowed investigation of the ways in which working models of attachment represent dynamic, interpersonally responsive socio-affective systems. Intensive longitudinal designs extend previous work by evaluating to what extent attachment varies over social interactions and the functional processes that underlie its fluctuation. We examined momentary activation of attachment orientations in the stream of peoples' daily lives and how those patterns were linked to interpersonal behavior. Based on an event-contingent, ambulatory 7-day assessment protocol (N=263; 3,971 interactions) operationalized using Contemporary Integrative Interpersonal Theory, we examined whether contextually activated working models accounted for patterns of interpersonal (anti-)complementarity. Our analyses revealed that the situational activation of working models varied as a function of interpersonal perceptions of warmth, which were linked to greater state security and lower levels of anxious or avoidant expectations. These reactivity patterns, in turn, accounted for interpersonal complementarity. Avoidant attachment was linked to diminished and secure attachment to enhanced expressions of warmth. The analyses were robust even when controlling for momentary positive and negative affect and closeness of the relationship. Attachment expectations wax and wane across daily social interactions, and such fluctuations are reflective primarily of a process in which perceptions of others' warmth activate secure attachment expectations and lower insecure ones.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42761-022-00117-6.

Development and Validation of a Measure of Passive Aggression Traits: The Passive Aggression Scale (PAS)

Although passive aggression is known as a pathological personality trait, the concept is unclear, and there is a lack of tools to measure it comprehensively. Thus, this study developed and validated a tool for measuring passive-aggressive behaviors. Data on basic information about passive aggression traits were collected from 20 experts using open-ended questions. To verify content validity, Delphi surveys were conducted twice with five experts. Data for item analysis were collected from 123 Korean adults. Reliability and validity were analyzed using data obtained from 408 Korean adults. The three-factor model for the passive aggression scale (PAS) showed satisfactory model fits. Cronbach’s αs for inducing criticism, avoiding/ignoring, and sabotaging subscales, and the total PAS, were 0.91, 0.91, 0.92, and 0.93, respectively. The test–retest coefficient of the PAS also indicates that this tool is reliable. Analyses of the criterion-related validity revealed that the PAS was closely correlated with the scores of some scales that measure passive aggression with a single factor. In addition, the correlations between the PAS, Cook-Medley Hostility Scale, and State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory scores supported our understanding of the concept of passive aggression. This study highlights the utility of PAS as a useful and comprehensive measure of passive-aggressive behaviors to be adopted by researchers and clinicians.

Preliminary Steps Toward Extracting the Specific Alternative Model for Personality Disorders Diagnoses From Criteria A and B Self-Reports

The Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD) retains six specific personality disorders (PDs) that can be diagnosed based on Criterion A level of impairment and Criterion B maladaptive facets. Those specific diagnoses are still underresearched, despite the preference expressed by most PD scholars for a mixed/hybrid classification. This study explores the possibility of using Criterion A and B self-report questionnaires to extract the specific AMPD diagnoses. Plausible prevalence estimates were found in three samples (outpatient PD, private practice, community; N = 766) using the facet score ≥ 2 and t score > 65 methods for determining the presence of a Criterion B facet; diagnoses had meaningful correlations with external variables. This study provides evidence-albeit preliminary-that the extraction of the specific AMPD PDs from self-report questionnaires might be a viable avenue. Ultimately, it could promote the use and dissemination of those diagnoses for screening purposes in clinical and research settings.

Why, How, and When to Integrate Narrative Identity Within Dimensional Approaches to Personality Disorders

Researchers and clinicians are beginning to adopt dimensional approaches in the study and treatment of personality disorders (PD). Although dimensional approaches in the DSM-5 and ICD-11 hold considerable benefit, they need to better incorporate an appreciation of individuals' life stories, or narrative identities. Doing so will be necessary to flesh out the emphasis that both frameworks place on the role of identity in personality pathology. In this article, the authors review why, how, and when narrative identity theory and research can be integrated within dimensional approaches to PD. The authors describe established ways to assess narrative identity, review extant research on this construct in relation to PD, and signal areas crucial for future research. Stories lie at the heart of what it means to be human. The authors conclude that a greater consideration of the ways in which the self is storied can help further understanding and treatment of PD.

Experimental Manipulation of the BFI-2, IPIP-NEO-120, and the IPC-5

Research assessing the relationship of the five-factor model (FFM) to personality disorder symptomatology has generally been confirmatory, with three exceptions. The exceptions have been failures to confirm associations of conscientiousness with the obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, agreeableness with dependent, and openness with schizotypal. Haigler and Widiger demonstrated empirically years ago that this was occurring because the predominant FFM measure at that time, the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised, does not include a sufficient representation of maladaptive variants of the respective FFM personality trait domains. Research since their study has continued to fail to confirm the FFM hypotheses, using other measures of the FFM. The current study extended the work of Haigler and Widiger by considering three additional FFM measures, the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2), the International Item Pool-NEO-120 (IPIP-NEO-120), and the Inventory of Personal Characteristics-5 (IPC-5). Data were obtained from a community sample of adults with experience of mental health treatment. The results confirmed an improvement in the FFM-personality disorder relationships when the experimentally manipulated versions of the BFI-2, IPIP-NEO-120, and IPC-5 were used. The implications of the findings for existing and future FFM-personality disorder research are discussed.

Associations Between Personality Functioning, Childhood Trauma and Non-adherence in Cardiovascular Disease: A Psychodynamically-Informed Cross-Sectional Study

Objective

Although treatment adherence and lifestyle changes significantly improve the prognosis of cardiovascular disease, many patients do not comply with clinician recommendations. Personality functioning appears to be of importance and is hypothesized to be superior to symptom-based measures in explaining individual differences in non-adherence.

Methods

194 cardiology inpatients (mean age = 70.6 years, 60% male) were assessed using self-report measures in a cross-sectional design. Patients were assessed using the short version of the Operationalized Psychodynamic Diagnosis Structure Questionnaire (OPD-SQS) to measure personality functioning, as well as the Childhood Trauma Screener (CTS), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) for symptoms of depression, and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 (GAD-7). To assess non-adherence we introduced a brief, novel scale.

Results

Non-adherence correlated significant with personality functioning (r = 0.325), childhood trauma (r = 0.204) and depressiveness (r = 0.225). In a stepwise multiple regression analysis with socio-demographic variables inputted into the model, higher deficits in personality functioning, higher levels of childhood trauma, and male gender were associated with non-adherence (adjusted R2 = 0.149, F(3,190) = 12.225, p < 0.01). Level of depressive symptoms, anxiety, age, education, and income showed no significant additional predictive value and were excluded from the model.

Conclusion

In cardiovascular disease, personality functioning, childhood trauma and male gender are associated with non-adherence and appear to be more important than symptom reports of depression and anxiety. This highlights the relevance of basic impairments in intra- and interpersonal functioning in chronic disease, where the patient’s adherence is central.

Semi-structured interview for self-esteem regulation research

There are numerous controversies in research exploring personality dynamics and intrapsychic processes, e.g. insufficient insight provided by available measures such as self-report questionnaires. As a consequence, new methods are developed. Some of the recent theories indicate that self-esteem is not a stable personality trait, but a dynamic construct fluctuating as a result of (mostly) social interactions. I present a semi-structured interview protocol as a method of data collection which can provide rich verbal and non-verbal material referring to self-esteem regulation. Analysis system is not included as there can be many different approaches to use collected data, e.g. qualitative content analysis or narrative inquiry methods. In this paper, I present exemplary statements of participants corresponding to every part of the interview. The examples are explained considering theoretical background. Finally, the strengths and limitations of presented method are discussed, as well as possible research areas to explore with it.

Daily dynamics of grandiose narcissism: distribution, stability, and trait relations of admiration and rivalry states and state contingencies

On the basis of the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Concept and recent theories on narcissistic pursuit of status, we provide a differentiated analysis of individual differences in the within-person dynamics of grandiose narcissism. In two daily diary studies (Sample 1: 56 days; Sample 2: 82 days; total participants: N = 198; total observations: N = 12,404), we investigated the degree, stability, and trait correlates of individual differences in average narcissism-relevant states (perceived status success, perceived admiration and rejection, positive and negative affect, and assertive and hostile behavior) as well as individual differences in within-person contingencies between these states. The results indicated substantial and stable between-person differences in averaged states that were related to their corresponding narcissism trait self-reports. State contingencies showed substantial strength, significant interindividual differences, and stability across the 56 and 82 days, respectively. We only found weak support for associations between state contingencies and trait narcissism self-reports. These findings support a differentiated approach to the conceptualization and assessment of grandiose state narcissism and call for even more comprehensive and fine-grained investigations.

What does a personality science approach to post-traumatic growth reveal?

Recent research has advocated for the value of conceptualizing post-traumatic growth as positive personality change. However, most research continues to use both methodologically suspect assessment tools and unsupported theoretical assumptions. How can personality psychologists contribute to the pursuit of high-quality research on this topic? The current special issue, which grew out of the European Association for Personality Psychology (EAPP) expert meeting on “Integrating Post-Traumatic Growth and Personality Change”, held at the University of Nottingham, on September 16–17, 2019, includes 15 papers that (1) examine short-term change in multiple personality constructs after adversity, (2) highlight the limitations of only assessing post-traumatic growth with retrospective questionnaires, and (3) provide theoretical and methodological recommendations for the continued advancement of the study of post-traumatic growth through the lens of personality psychology. While these papers all address specific ways to advance the personality science of post-traumatic growth, collectively they highlight the many unanswered questions that future research should tackle.

Five Approaches to Understanding Interpersonal Competence: A Review and Integration

Social connectedness has been linked to beneficial outcomes across domains, ages, and cultures. However, not everyone receives these benefits, as there are large individual differences in the capacities required to create and sustain functional interpersonal relationships. A great deal of research has been devoted to assessing and understanding these differences, often focusing on how competent interpersonal behavior renders it more likely that one will succeed interpersonally. The current paper examines five relevant approaches that have emerged from personality (global traits), social (social cognition), clinical (social skills interventions), developmental (social information processing), and industrial/organizational (situation judgment) areas of psychology. A comparison of these approaches highlights important considerations related to bandwidth and fidelity, whether the focus should be on overt behavior or underlying processes, and whether to emphasize tendencies or their effectiveness. The review concludes with calls for greater integration efforts, which can capitalize on strengths inherent to different approaches.

Assessing Personality Change: Introduction to the Special Section

Both clinical and personality psychologists are interested in assessing personality change, although they have tended to approach the issue in different ways. In this paper we argue that both sub-fields should focus more on basic issues in the assessment of personality change, and that they would make more progress on this issue together than alone. This Special Section on the Assessment of Personality Change includes four papers by researchers working primarily in basic personality science. Each paper addresses specific ways to advance the assessment of personality change that have both basic and applied clinical relevance, but collectively they show how far the field still has to go.

Why are you (un)conscientious? The dynamic interplay of goals, states, and traits in everyday life

Personality involves both trait and state components, personal goals serving a crucial regulatory function for the expression of personality states. The present study investigates the dynamic interplay between conscientiousness-related goals, conscientious personality states, and trait conscientiousness. A sample of 244 community participants responded to a baseline survey (T1), a 5-times-a-day Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) for 15 days, and a post-EMA survey (T2). Pre-registered multilevel analyses indicated significant contemporaneous positive and negative associations between momentary conscientious and unconscientious goals and state conscientiousness, respectively. Cross-lagged associations also emerged, with goals predicting future states of conscientiousness. A latent growth model was fitted on a subsample of participants (N = 159). Results indicated that change in trait conscientiousness from T1 to T2 was explained by growth in conscientiousness-related goals during the EMA phase, with a mediating effect of growth in state conscientiousness. Overall, the results corroborate the importance of goals for modeling contemporaneous and cross-lagged personality dynamics, both in short and longer timeframes.

Pathways From Narcissism to Leadership Emergence in Social Groups

Narcissists successfully emerge as leaders. However, the processes by which this occurs are mostly unknown. Following a dual-pathway approach and differentiating between agentic (narcissistic admiration) and antagonistic (narcissistic rivalry) narcissism, we investigated the behavioral processes underlying narcissists’ leadership emergence in social groups. We applied data from a multimethodological laboratory study ( N = 311) comprising three groups of variables: personality traits, expressed interaction behaviors, and interpersonal perceptions. Prior to the laboratory sessions, participants provided self-reported answers to various narcissism measures. Interpersonal perceptions were obtained from round-robin ratings after participants completed the Lost on the Moon task in small groups. Participants’ behaviors during the group discussion were videotaped and coded by trained raters. Results supported the notion of a pathway from agentic narcissism to leadership (measured as target effects of being seen as a leader) determined by narcissistic admiration, dominant-expressive behavior, and being seen as assertive. To clarify narcissism’s relationship to leadership emergence, the effects were (a) contrasted with narcissism’s effects on popularity and (b) set in relation to process pathways leading from intelligence and physical attractiveness to leadership. The findings underscore the benefits of a behavioral pathway approach for unravelling the impact of narcissism on leadership emergence.

Integrating and distinguishing personality and psychopathology

OBJECTIVE

We asked authors of this Special Issue to answer the following four questions: (1) Is there evidence that personality and psychopathology can be integrated? (2) Is integration important? (3) Can they be distinguished? and (4) How can the difference be measured?

METHOD

We review each of the papers and place the special issue in a historical context.

RESULTS

Authors uniformly agreed that personality and psychopathology can be integrated within a common structure and that this is important. The third and fourth questions were more challenging. Though authors generally agreed that there is a distinction between the person and their mental health problems, articulations of that distinction were fuzzy and it is clear that current methods cannot adequately delineate these domains.

CONCLUSIONS

We summarize the issue by offering five directions for future research: (1) develop measurement tools that distinguish between the person, the context, and their transaction, (2) measure behavior and context at multiple timescales, (3) distinguish behavior and dysfunction in measurement, (4) use multimethod data to tap different levels of behavior, and (5) examine person-specific processes. Each of these directions comes with challenges, but the payoff of resolving them will be a more principled, evidence-based, and clinically useful model for the distinction between personality and psychopathology.

Development and Psychometric Properties of the Test of Passive Aggression

Background: To date, most research on aggression in mental disorders focused on active-aggressive behavior and found self-directed and other-directed active aggression to be a symptom and risk-factor of psychopathology. On the other hand, passive-aggressive behavior has been investigated less frequently and only in research on psychodynamic defense mechanisms, personality disorders, and dysfunctional self-control processes. This small number of studies primarily reflects a lack of a reliable and valid clinical assessment of passive-aggressive behavior. To address this gap, we developed the Test of Passive Aggression (TPA), a 24-item self-rating scale for the assessment of self-directed and other-directed passive-aggressive behavior. Method: Study 1 examined the internal consistency and factorial validity of the TPA in an inpatient sample (N = 307). Study 2 investigated the retest-reliability, internal consistency, and construct validity (active aggression, personality traits, impulsivity) of the TPA in a student sample (N = 180). Results: In line with our hypothesis, Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling revealed an acceptable to good fit of a bi-factorial structure of the TPA (Chi-square-df-ratio = 1.98; RMSR = 0.05, fit.off = 0.96). Both TPA scales showed good to excellent internal consistency (α = 0.83-0.90) and 4-week retest-reliability (r tt = 0.86). Correlations with well-established aggression scales, measures of personality, and impulsivity support discriminant and convergent validity of the TPA. Conclusions: The TPA is a reliable and valid instrument for the assessment of self-directed and other-directed passive-aggressive behavior.

A response surface analysis investigation of the effects of (mis)alignment between interpersonal values and efficacies on interpersonal problems

OBJECTIVE

In this study we examined whether discrepancies between interpersonal values and interpersonal efficacies are associated with distress, and provide a framework through which similar questions regarding intrapersonal alignment may be investigated.

METHOD

Using interpersonal circumplex scales, we assessed interpersonal values and efficacies in two large samples (undergraduate N = 1,453, community N = 1,099) and used response surface analysis to model the alignment of these variables and their association with interpersonal distress.

RESULTS

We found that there were significant positive relationships between larger mismatches and greater distress. We also found that extremity in both matches and mismatches predicted more distress. At a more specific level, people who valued warmth but reported low efficacy for warm behavior reported problems related to being too cold to others.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the value of elaborating within-person discrepancies across personality levels, provides a model for doing so organized around the interpersonal circumplex, and specifies connections between value-efficacy discrepancies and interpersonal distress.

A meta-analysis on individual differences in primary emotional systems and Big Five personality traits

The Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS) were constructed as a self-report assessment to measure individual differences in Jaak Panksepp's cross-species primary emotional systems: SEEKING, PLAY, CARE (positive emotions) and FEAR, SADNESS, ANGER (negative emotions). Beginning with the first published work on the ANPS in 2003, individual differences on the ANPS measures of these six primary emotional systems have been consistently linked to Big Five personality traits. From a theoretical perspective, these primary emotional systems arising from subcortical regions, shed light on the nature of the Big Five personality traits from an evolutionary perspective, because each of these primary emotional systems represent a tool for survival endowing mammalian species with inherited behavioral programs to react appropriately to complex environments. The present work revisited 21 available samples where both ANPS and Big Five measures have been administered. Our meta-analytical analysis provides solid evidence that high SEEKING relates to high Openness to Experience, high PLAY to high Extraversion, high CARE/low ANGER to high Agreeableness and high FEAR/SADNESS/ANGER to high Neuroticism. This seems to be true regardless of the ANPS inventory chosen, although much more work is needed in this area. Associations between primary emotional systems and Conscientiousness were in the lower effect size area across all six primary emotions, thereby supporting the idea that Conscientiousness rather seems to be less directly related with the subcortical primary emotions and likely is the most cognitive/cortical personality construct out of the Big Five. In sum, the present work underlines the idea that individual differences in primary emotional systems represent evolutionarily ancient foundations of human personality, given their a) meaningful links to the prominent Big Five model and b) their origins lying in subcortical areas of the human brain.

Six assumptions of contemporary integrative interpersonal theory of personality and psychopathology

Contemporary integrative interpersonal theory is an evidence-based model of personality, psychopathology, and intervention. In this article, we review six assumptions of contemporary integrative interpersonal theory that distinguish it from other frameworks and suggest five particularly promising and important areas for future research.

Using idiographic models to distinguish personality and psychopathology

OBJECTIVE

While the overlap between personality and psychopathology is well documented, few studies examine how the two overlap at a lower, moment-to-moment level. We took an idiographic approach to examine personality and psychopathology processes at the individual level. Doing so offers a unique perspective by incorporating both dynamic time and structural analysis, two components that are traditionally examined separately when investigating the overlap between personality and psychopathology.

METHOD

Two experience sample studies measured personality states and personality problems up to four-times a day over a two-week period (Study 1 N = 349, observations = 11,124; Study 2 N = 161, observations = 8,261).

RESULTS

For some, personality states and personality problems are deeply intertwined, mirroring existing between-person findings. But for others the two are separate, indicating it is possible to separate personality (states) from a person's problems. Between-person differences in levels of depression had no association with the idiographic structure, indicating that between-person constructs operate separately from within-person processes. Finally, situations that are more likely to bring out personality problems did not alter the association between personality states and personality problems.

CONCLUSIONS

This method provides a novel conceptualization of personality-psychopathology overlap, bringing the focus beyond mostly static, between-person models to more dynamic, individual-level models.

The dynamics, processes, mechanisms, and functioning of personality: An overview of the field

Personality psychology has long focused on structural trait models, but it can also offer a rich understanding of the dynamics, processes, mechanisms, and functioning of individual differences or entire persons. The field of personality dynamics, which works towards such an understanding, has experienced a renaissance in the last two decades. This review article seeks to act as a primer of that field. It covers its historical roots, summarizes current research strands - along with their theoretical backbones and methodologies - in an accessible way, and sketches some considerations for the future. In doing so, we introduce relevant concepts, give an overview of different topics and phenomena subsumed under the broad umbrella term 'dynamics', and highlight the interdisciplinarity as well as applied relevance of the field. We hope this article can serve as a useful overview for scholars within and outside of personality psychology who are interested in the dynamic nature of human behaviour and experience.

Practices of Claiming Control and Independence in Couple Therapy With Narcissism

Four couple therapy first consultations involving clients with diagnosed narcissistic problems were examined. A sociologically enriched and broadened concept of narcissistic disorder was worked out based on Goffman’s micro-sociology of the self. Conversation analytic methods were used to study in detail episodes in which clients resist to answer a therapist’s question, block or dominate the development of the conversation’s topic, or conspicuously display their interactional independence. These activities are interpreted as a pattern of controlling practices that were prompted by threats that the first couple therapy consultation imposes upon the clients’ self-image. The results were discussed in the light of contemporary psychiatric discussions of narcissism; the authors suggest that beyond its conceptualization as a personality disorder, narcissism should be understood as a pattern of interactional practices.

Why is an evidence-based classification of personality disorder so elusive?

Despite recent revisions, the classification of personality disorder remains a matter of dispute, and there is little evidence of consistent progress toward an evidence-based system. This essay examines four issues impeding taxonomic progress and explores how they might be addressed. First, the phenomenological and aetiological complexity of personality disorder poses a formidable challenge to traditional taxonomic methods. Second, current classifications incorporate assumptions such as a stringent version of medical model and an essentialist philosophy that are inconsistent with empirical evidence. Third, despite the claims of trait psychology, a viable alternative to categorical diagnosis is not available. Contemporary trait models have not gained widespread clinical acceptance and substantial conceptual and methodological limitations compromise their clinical value. Finally, the processes used to revise official classifications are biased toward conservative revisions and difficult to shield from non-scientific influences. It is suggested that rather making further attempts to develop a general monolithic classification that meets all needs, consideration be given to developing a more flexible and multifaceted framework that combines diagnosis and assessment. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Case Report: Pathological Personality Traits Through the Lens of the ICD-11 Trait Qualifiers and the DSM-5 Section III Trait Model: Two Patients Illustrating the Clinical Utility of a Combined View

We report on two individuals presenting for treatment as part of everyday clinical practice, comparing their pathological personality traits through the lens of the ICD-11 trait qualifiers and the DSM-5 Section III personality trait model. We compare higher order pathological personality domains and lower order pathological personality trait facets of patient M (diagnosed with borderline personality traits according to DSM-5 Section II), and patient L (diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive personality traits according to DSM-5 Section II) with normative data and with each other. Findings highlight the clinical utility of a ICD-11/DSM-5 combined view, including: (1) the Disinhibition/Anankastia personality domain distinction as advocated in the ICD-11 model, (2) the Psychoticism personality domain as conceptualized in the DSM-5 Section III personality trait model, as well as (3) the use of lower order personality trait facets within each higher order personality domain.

Development of a Short and ICD-11 Compatible Measure for DSM-5 Maladaptive Personality Traits Using Ant Colony Optimization Algorithms

While Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders–Fifth edition (DSM-5) Section III and ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases 11th–Revision) both allow for dimensional assessment of personality pathology, the models differ in the definition of maladaptive traits. In this study, we pursued the goal of developing a short and reliable assessment for maladaptive traits, which is compatible with both models, using the item pool of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). To this aim, we applied ant colony optimization algorithms in English- and German-speaking samples comprising a total N of 2,927. This procedure yielded a 34-item measure with a hierarchical latent structure including six maladaptive trait domains and 17 trait facets, the “Personality Inventory for DSM-5, Brief Form Plus” (PID5BF+). While latent structure, reliability, and criterion validity were ascertained in the original and in two separate validation samples (n = 849, n = 493) and the measure was able to discriminate personality disorders from other diagnoses in a clinical subsample, results suggest further modifications for capturing ICD-11 Anankastia.

Personality Disorders in Time of Pandemic

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We report evidence on the negative psychological effects of pandemics in people with personality disorders (PDs) and on the role of personality pathology in compliance with mitigation-related behaviors. Considering the paucity of studies, after a description of the main features of PDs, on the basis of the current literature on pandemic and quarantine mental health impact, we trace some clinical hypotheses.

RECENT FINDINGS

Paranoid traits and detachment (cluster A) might lead to worse psychological outcomes. Cluster B patients may show more intense stress-related reactions and react strongly to social distancing, especially considering borderline personality disorder. Cluster C patients might be particularly prone to anxiety and stress due to fear of contagion and may be less flexible in adaptation to new routines. Evidence on compliance with mitigation measures is mixed, with lower compliance in cluster B patients and higher in cluster C ones. We suggest that PD patients might be particularly affected by pandemics. Furthermore, they might react differently, according to their main diagnosis. Similarly, compliance with mitigation measures may differ according to specific PDs. Our results should be considered as a starting point to reflect on therapeutic strategies to be adopted in the post-COVID-19 situation.

Evaluating Stable and Situational Expressions of Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder: A Multimethod Experience Sampling Case Study

Passive-aggressive (PA) personality traits have received increasing attention in the research literature and are known to interfere with treatment engagement and recovery. Theoretical disagreements about PA, combined with its omission from the DSM-5, have left open many questions regarding its dynamic structure and temporal stability. Our goal in the present case study was to use a multimethod, experience sampling assessment framework for a single research subject enrolled in long-term residential treatment who exhibited significant PA traits to provide a complex portrait of daily interpersonal behaviors and experiences across a range of contexts. We review data gathered over a year of residential treatment to identify changes in self and interpersonal functioning and to deepen our understanding of the dynamic motivational structure of PA over time. Our findings expand understanding of both PA dynamics and provide support for integrating multimethod assessment into routine clinical practice.

Personalized models of personality disorders: using a temporal network method to understand symptomatology and daily functioning in a clinical sample

BACKGROUND

An ongoing challenge in understanding and treating personality disorders (PDs) is a significant heterogeneity in disorder expression, stemming from variability in underlying dynamic processes. These processes are commonly discussed in clinical settings, but are rarely empirically studied due to their personalized, temporal nature. The goal of the current study was to combine intensive longitudinal data collection with person-specific temporal network models to produce individualized symptom-level structures of personality pathology. These structures were then linked to traditional PD diagnoses and stress (to index daily functioning).

METHODS

Using about 100 daily assessments of internalizing and externalizing domains underlying PDs (i.e. negative affect, detachment, impulsivity, hostility), a temporal network mapping approach (i.e. group iterative multiple model estimation) was used to create person-specific networks of the temporal relations among domains for 91 individuals (62.6% female) with a PD. Network characteristics were then associated with traditional PD symptomatology (controlling for mean domain levels) and with daily variation in clinically-relevant phenomena (i.e. stress).

RESULTS

Features of the person-specific networks predicted paranoid, borderline, narcissistic, and obsessive-PD symptom counts above average levels of the domains, in ways that align with clinical conceptualizations. They also predicted between-person variation in stress across days.

CONCLUSIONS

Relations among behavioral domains thought to underlie heterogeneity in PDs were indeed associated with traditional diagnostic constructs and with daily functioning (i.e. stress) in person-specific networks. Findings highlight the importance of leveraging data and models that capture person-specific, dynamic processes, and suggest that person-specific networks may have implications for precision medicine.

Tracking Fluctuations in Psychological States using Social Media Language: A Case Study of Weekly Emotion

Personality psychologists are increasingly documenting dynamic, within–person processes. Big data methodologies can augment this endeavour by allowing for the collection of naturalistic and personality–relevant digital traces from online environments. Whereas big data methods have primarily been used to catalogue static personality dimensions, here we present a case study in how they can be used to track dynamic fluctuations in psychological states. We apply a text–based, machine learning prediction model to Facebook status updates to compute weekly trajectories of emotional valence and arousal. We train this model on 2895 human–annotated Facebook statuses and apply the resulting model to 303 575 Facebook statuses posted by 640 US Facebook users who had previously self–reported their Big Five traits, yielding an average of 28 weekly estimates per user. We examine the correlations between model–predicted emotion and self–reported personality, providing a test of the robustness of these links when using weekly aggregated data, rather than momentary data as in prior work. We further present dynamic visualizations of weekly valence and arousal for every user, while making the final data set of 17 937 weeks openly available. We discuss the strengths and drawbacks of this method in the context of personality psychology's evolution into a dynamic science. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology

Disinhibition and Detachment in Adolescence: A Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective on the Alternative Model for Personality Disorders

Personality pathology often emerges during adolescence, but attempts to understand its neurocognitive basis have traditionally been undermined by problems associated with the categorical classification of personality disorders. In contrast, dimensional models of personality pathology, such as the Alternative Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD) in DSM-5, may provide a stronger foundation for neurobiological investigations of maladaptive individual differences in personality. As an example, we review studies of the adolescent development of reward processing and cognitive control and connect these systems to the normal personality hierarchy and to two dimensions included in the AMPD - Detachment and Disinhibition. We argue that by linking developmental changes in these systems to the AMPD, researchers will be better positioned to understand the relationship between neurocognitive development and the expression of personality pathology in adolescence and early adulthood.

Longitudinal Experience–Wide Association Studies—A Framework for Studying Personality Change

The importance of personality for predicting life outcomes in the domains of love, work, and health is well established, as is evidence that personality traits, while relatively stable, can change. However, little is known about the sources and processes that drive changes in personality traits and how such changes might impact important life outcomes. In this paper, we make the case that the research paradigms and methodological approaches commonly used in personality psychology need to be revised to advance our understanding of the sources and processes of personality change. We propose Longitudinal Experience–Wide Association Studies as a framework for studying personality change that can address the limitations of current methods, and we discuss strategies for overcoming some of the challenges associated with Longitudinal Experience–Wide Association Studies. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology

Stuck in an Existential Quagmire: The Role of Perceived True Self-Knowledge in Client Stuckness

Introduction: Research suggests that perceived true self-knowledge is important for well-being. However, less discussion exists about how perceived true self-knowledge affects therapy outcomes. We suggest that perceived true self-knowledge may be important when attempting to address client stuckness (i.e., lack of progress in therapy; Beaudoin, 2008). We argue that when clients perceive a lack of true self-knowledge, they are unable to draw upon the true self-concept as a source of meaning. This may hinder therapeutic progress and contribute to client stuckness.

Methods: We present theoretical evidence for the role of perceived true self-knowledge in experiences of stuckness. Then, we present case studies of two stuck clients and their therapeutic interventions as preliminary evidence for our model.

Results: Direct strategies geared at enhancing true self-knowledge by helping the client construct coherent self-concepts worked for one client, but not for the other. Indirect strategies, grounded in social psychological research, are outlined as a method of enhancing perceptions of true self-knowledge for clients who do not benefit from direct strategies.

Discussion: Potential moderators for the effectiveness of direct versus indirect strategies to enhance true self-knowledge are discussed. We then outline promising avenues for future research that include attempts to investigate the prevalence of self-alienation in clinical populations, and the effectiveness of strategies aimed at enhancing perceived true self-knowledge among clients experiencing stuckness.