Radical scavenging activity of Crocus sativus L. extract and its bioactive constituents

Effect of naringenin on post-thaw quality, fertility-associated gene expression and fertilization potential of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) bull sperm

Our objectives were to explore the effect of naringenin addition in the semen extender on the post-thaw 1) sperm quality, 2) fertility-associated gene expression, and 3) fertilization potential of buffalo bull sperm. In experiment 1, semen samples (n = 32) from four Nili-Ravi buffalo bulls were pooled (n = 8) and diluted with the tris-citric acid (TCF-EY) extender containing different concentrations of naringenin, i.e., placebo (DMSO), 0 (control), 50, 100, 150 and 200 μM naringenin. After dilution, semen samples were packed in 0.5 mL French straws, cryopreserved and analyzed for post-thawed sperm quality and gene expression. Computer-assisted Semen Analysis, Hypo-osmotic Swelling test, Normal Apical Ridge assay, Rhodamine 123, Acridine orange, Propidium iodide staining and Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances assay were performed to assess sperm motility parameters, plasma membrane functionality, acrosome integrity, mitochondrial membrane potential, DNA integrity, viability and lipid peroxidation, respectively. Expression levels of sperm acrosome-associated SPACA3, DNA condensation-related PRM1, anti-apoptotic BCL2, pro-apoptotic BAX, and oxidative stress-associated ROMO1 genes were evaluated through qPCR. Results revealed that total and progressive motility, plasma membrane functionality, acrosome integrity, mitochondrial membrane potential, DNA integrity and viability were higher (P < 0.05) with 50, 100 and 150 μM naringenin compared to 200 μM naringenin, placebo and control groups. Moreover, all naringenin-treated groups improved catalase activity, and reduced lipid peroxidation compared to placebo and control groups (P < 0.05). Relative expression levels of SPACA3 and PRM1 genes were higher (P < 0.05) with 150 μM naringenin compared to all groups except 100 μM (P > 0.05). No difference (P > 0.05) in the expression level of BCL2 gene was observed among all groups. Furthermore, BAX gene was expressed higher (P < 0.05) in the 200 μM naringenin group, whereas no difference (P > 0.05) in expression was noticed among the remaining groups. In addition, ROMO1 gene was expressed lower (P < 0.05) in all naringenin-treated groups compared to the control. In experiment 2, the in vivo fertility of semen doses (n = 400; 200/group) containing optimum concentration of naringenin (150 μM; depicted better in vitro sperm quality in experiment 1) was compared with control during the breeding season. Buffaloes were inseminated 24 h after the onset of natural estrus and palpated transrectal for pregnancy at least 60 days post-insemination. The fertility rate of 150 μM naringenin group was higher (P = 0.0366) compared to the control [57.00 ± 0.03 % (114/200) vs. 46.50 ± 0.04 % (93/200), respectively]. Taken together, it is concluded that naringenin supplementation in semen extender improves post-thaw quality, fertility-associated gene expression and fertilization potential of buffalo bull sperm, more apparently at 150 μM concentration.

Molecular and Phytochemical Characteristics of Flower Color and Scent Compounds in Dog Rose (Rosa canina L.)

This study delves into the chemical and genetic determinants of petal color and fragrance in Rosa canina L., a wild rose species prized for its pharmacological and cosmetic uses. Comparative analysis of white and dark pink R. canina flowers revealed that the former harbors significantly higher levels of total phenolics (TPC) and flavonoids (TFC), while the latter is distinguished by elevated total anthocyanins (TAC). Essential oils in the petals were predominantly composed of aliphatic hydrocarbons, with phenolic content chiefly constituted by flavonols and anthocyanins. Notably, gene expression analysis showed an upregulation in most genes associated with petal color and scent biosynthesis in white buds compared to dark pink open flowers. However, anthocyanin synthase (ANS) and its regulatory gene RhMYB1 exhibited comparable expression levels across both flower hues. LC-MS profiling identified Rutin, kaempferol, quercetin, and their derivatives as key flavonoid constituents, alongside cyanidin and delphinidin as the primary anthocyanin compounds. The findings suggest a potential feedback inhibition of anthocyanin biosynthesis in white flowers. These insights pave the way for the targeted enhancement of R. canina floral traits through metabolic and genetic engineering strategies.

Phytotherapeutic approach for conquering menopausal syndrome and osteoporosis

Women face a significant change in their reproductive health as menopause sets in. It is marred with numerous physiological changes that negatively impact their quality of life. This universal, transition phase is associated with menopausal and postmenopausal syndrome, which may spread over 2-10 years. This creates a depletion of female hormones causing physical, mental, sexual and social problems and may, later on, manifest as postmenopausal osteoporosis leading to weak bones, causing fractures and ultimately morbidity and mortality. Menopausal hormone therapy generally encompasses the correction of hormone balance through various pharmacological agents, but the associated side effects often lead to cessation of therapy with poor clinical outcomes. However, it has been noticed that phytotherapeutics is trusted by women for the amelioration of symptoms related to menopause and for improving bone health. This could primarily be due to their reduced side effects and lesser costs. This review attempts to bring forth the suitability of phytotherapeutics/herbals for the management of menopausal, postmenopausal syndrome, and menopausal osteoporosis through several published research. It tries to enlist the available botanicals with their key constituents and mechanism of action for mitigating symptoms associated with menopause as well as osteoporosis. It also includes a list of a few herbal commercial products available for these complications. The article also intends to collate the findings of various clinical trials and patents available in this field and provide a window for newer research avenues in this highly important yet ignored health segment.

Therapeutic potential of saffron in brain disorders: From bench to bedside

Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus L., which has been used for centuries as a coloring and flavoring agent, as well as a source of medicinal compounds. Saffron contains various bioactive constituents, such as crocin, crocetin, safranal, picrocrocin, and kaempferol, that have shown potential benefits for human health. Among them, crocin is the most abundant and characteristic constituent of saffron, responsible for its bright red color and antioxidant properties. One of the most promising applications of saffron and its constituents is in the prevention and treatment of neurological disorders, such as depression, anxiety, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other brain disorders. Saffron and its constituents have been reported to exert neuroprotective effects through various mechanisms, such as modulating neurotransmitters, enhancing neurogenesis, reducing neuroinflammation, regulating oxidative stress, activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway, and modulating epigenetic factors. Several clinical and preclinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy and safety of saffron and its constituents in improving cognitive function, mood, and other neurological outcomes. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on the therapeutic potential of saffron and its constituents in neurological disorders, from bench to bedside. We also discuss the challenges and future directions for the development of saffron-based therapies for brain health.

Saffron stigma extract and crocin play an important neuroprotective role in therapeutic measures against benzo[a]pyrene-induced behavioral alterations in zebrafish

Saffron is a well-known expensive spice, which has many pharmacological properties against a variety of ailments. Saffron stigma and leaf contain apocarotenoids and bioactive phytochemicals having therapeutic potential against human disorders. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the most common toxins in today's aquatic environment. Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), a high molecular weight PAHs prototype, and reported as a potent neurotoxicant, which is profoundly contaminating the environment. The present study investigated the therapeutic efficacy of Saffron stigma extracts and crocin, on B[a]P-induced behavioral changes, altered antioxidant activities, and neurodegeneration in zebrafish. The behavioral responses monitored through the light-dark preference test and novel tank diving test suggested that B[a]P treated zebrafish group showed alteration in anxiolytic-like behavior. Animals exhibited their native behavior when treated alone with Saffron Stigma Extract (SSE) and crocin, an apocarotenoid which also reduced the altered behavior induced by B[a]P. The SSE and crocin stimulated the antioxidant activities with an accumulation of reduced glutathione and catalase enzymes, indicating a protective role against B[a]P-induced oxidative stress and behavioral deficits. The histopathological studies showed the percentage change of pyknotic cell counts in the Periventricular Gray Zone region of the Optic Tectum was 1.74 folds high in B[a]P treated animals as compared to control. Furthermore, the treatment of SSE and crocin reduced the pyknosis process induced by B[a]P-mediated neurodegeneration, possibly due to a better protective mechanism. Future studies may reveal the detailed mechanisms of action of potent SSE and crocin like bioactive compounds having neuroprotective potentials against neurodegenerative diseases.

Effect of crocin supplementation in the extender on the quality of chilled canine semen

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of crocin on canine sperm quality parameters during prolonged storage at 4 °C. Ejaculates from 10 dogs were diluted in a TRIS- egg yolk extender supplemented with 0 (control group), 0.5, 1, and 2 mM crocin and stored at 4 °C. Sperm membrane functional integrity, motility, and kinetics were assessed after 3 h, 24 h, 4 days and 7 days of storage. Based on the results, the more efficient concentration of crocin (0.5 mM) was chosen to evaluate sperm intracellular ROS levels, lipid peroxidation, and DNA fragmentation vs. the control. Semen with the addition of 0.5 mM crocin with respect to the control exhibited: i) increased (P < 0.05) sperm membrane functionality at 4 and 7 days of storage; ii) higher (P < 0.05) average path (VAP), straight-line velocities (VSL), and beat cross frequency (BCF) at 4 d of storage at 4 °C; iii) decreased (P < 0.05) intracellular ROS levels after 3 and 24 h storage. No differences in lipid peroxidation and DNA fragmentation were recorded between the control and C0.5 groups at any time point. Lipid peroxidation did not increase over time, while DNA fragmentation increased (P < 0.05) in both groups after 4 days of storage. The results demonstrated that the enrichment of extender with crocin improves to a certain extent canine semen quality, particularly after 4 days of storage at 4 °C.

Novel frontiers in neuroprotective therapies in glaucoma: Molecular and clinical aspects

In the last years, neuroprotective therapies have attracted the researcher interests as modern and challenging approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, aimed at protecting the nervous system from injuries. Glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive excavation of the optic nerve head, retinal axonal injury and corresponding vision loss that affects millions of people on a global scale. The molecular basis of the pathology is largely uncharacterized yet, and the therapeutic approaches available do not change the natural course of the disease. Therefore, in accordance with the therapeutic regimens proposed for other neurodegenerative diseases, a modern strategy to treat glaucoma includes prescription of drugs with neuroprotective activities. With respect to this, several preclinical and clinical investigations on a plethora of different drugs are currently ongoing. In this review, first, the conceptualization of the rationale for the adoption of neuroprotective strategies for retina is summarized. Second, the molecular aspects highlighting glaucoma as a neurodegenerative disease are reported. In conclusion, the molecular and pharmacological properties of most promising direct neuroprotective drugs used to delay glaucoma progression are examined, including: neurotrophic factors, NMDA receptor antagonists, the α2-adrenergic agonist, brimonidine, calcium channel blockers, antioxidant agents, nicotinamide and statins.

Prevention of neurotoxicity and cognitive impairment induced by zinc nanoparticles by oral administration of saffron extract

The accumulation of relatively higher dose of zinc oxide nanoparticles in brain was reported to produce neurotoxicity. Indeed, nanoparticles have a high ability to penetrate biological membranes and be uptaken by cells, which may cause cell disorders and physiological dysfunctions. The aim of the current study was to evaluate, whether oral administration of saffron extract, in rats, can protect from neurotoxicity and behavioural disturbances induced by chronic administration of ZnO-NPs. Daily oral administration of ZnO-NPs was performed for 21 consecutive days to induce oxidative stress-like situation. Then after the saffron extract was concomitantly administrated in several rat groups to overcome the nanotoxicological effect induced by ZnO-NPs. In the frontal cortex, the hippocampus and the cerebellum, ZnO-NPs induced a H2 O2 -oxydative stress-like effect reflected in reduced enzymatic activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione S-transferase, and decreased acetylcholinesterase activity. In addition, increased levels of proinflammatory interleukins IL-6 and IL-1-⍺ occurred in the hippocampus, reveal the existence of brain inflammation. The concomitant administration of saffron extract to animals exposed to ZnO-NPs prevented the enhanced anxiety-related to the behaviour in the elevated plus-maze test, the open field test and preserved spatial learning abilities in the Morris water maze. Moreover, animals exposed to ZnO-NPs and saffron showed abnormal activity of several antioxidant enzymes as well as acetylcholinesterase activity, an effect that may underly the preserved anxiety-like behaviour and spatial learning abilities observed in these animals. Saffron extract has a potential beneficial therapeutic effect: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective agent.

A review of how the saffron (Crocus sativus) petal and its main constituents interact with the Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways

The primary by-product of saffron (Crocus sativus) processing is saffron petals, which are produced in large quantities but are discarded. The saffron petals contain a variety of substances, including alkaloids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, glycosides, kaempferol, and minerals. Pharmacological investigations revealed the antibacterial, antidepressant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antinociceptive, antispasmodic, antitussive, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and renoprotective properties of saffron petals, which are based on their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects. The nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway protects against oxidative stress, carcinogenesis, and inflammation. Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-ĸB) is a protein complex involved in approximately all animal cells and participates in different biological procedures such as apoptosis, cell growth, development, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) transcription, immune response, and inflammation. The pharmacological properties of saffron and its compounds are discussed in this review, along with their associated modes of action, particularly the Nrf2 and NF-ĸB signaling pathways. Without considering a time constraint, our team conducted this review using search engines or electronic databases like PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Saffron petals and their main constituents may have protective effects in numerous organs such as the brain, colon, heart, joints, liver, lung, and pancreas through several mechanisms, including the Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) signaling cascade, which would then result in its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and therapeutic effects.

Plasma fatty acid profile in Italian Holstein-Friesian dairy cows supplemented with natural polyphenols from the olive plant Olea Europaea L

This study evaluated the effects of supplementing with natural functional feed on the plasma fatty acid profile of lactating Italian Holstein-Friesian dairy cows. Thirty cows in mid-lactation received the natural olive extract PHENOFEED DRY (500 mg/cow/day) which mainly comprises hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol and verbascoside. The total content of polyphenols and the antioxidant power of standard feed, enriched feed and pure extract was evaluated respectively by Folin-Ciocalteu and DPPH assay, and a characterization in HPLC-UV (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Ultraviolet) of bioactive molecules present in the extract PHENOFEED DRY was performed. PHENOFEED DRY was provided for 60 days, and the plasma profile of fatty acids was determined by Gas Chromatography. The administration of enriched feed resulted in an increase in the ratio of Omega-6 to Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from 3:1 to 4:1 (p<0.001). This was not influenced by the calving order. The addition of polyphenols helped to keep monounsaturated (MUFA) and saturated (SFA) levels constant and results in a significant increase in polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acid after 15 days of administration. The Omega-6/Omega-3 ratio was in the optimal range. The findings show that inclusion of natural functional food such as plant polyphenols helps to maintain a healthy blood fatty acid profile in lactating dairy cows.

Cistus albidus L.-Review of a Traditional Mediterranean Medicinal Plant with Pharmacological Potential

Cistus albidus L. (Cistaceae) is a medicinal plant that has been used therapeutically since ancient times in the Mediterranean basin for its important pharmacological properties. The ability of C. albidus to produce large quantities of a wide range of natural metabolites makes it an attractive source of raw material. The main constituents with bioactive functions that exert pharmacological effects are terpenes and polyphenols, with more than 200 identified compounds. The purpose of this review is to offer a detailed account of the botanical, ethnological, phytochemical, and pharmacological characteristics of C. albidus with the aim of encouraging additional pharmaceutical investigations into the potential therapeutic benefits of this medicinal plant. This review was carried out using organized searches of the available literature up to July 2023. A detailed analysis of C. albidus confirms its traditional use as a medicinal plant. The outcome of several studies suggests a deeper involvement of certain polyphenols and terpenes in multiple mechanisms such as inflammation and pain, with a potential application focus on neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. Other diseases such as prostate cancer and leukemia have already been researched with promising results for this plant, for which no intoxication has been reported in humans.

Exploring the Potential of Extracts from Sloanea medusula and S. calva: Formulating Two Skincare Gels with Antioxidant, Sun Protective Factor, and Anti-Candida albicans Activities

Sloanea is a plant genus, native to tropical regions, used in medicinal practices for its anti-inflammatory properties. This study aimed to determine the antioxidant activity, sun protective factor (SPF), and antifungal of extracts obtained from two species of Sloanea and to develop extract-based gels with antioxidants, photoprotective, and anti-Candida albicans effects. Ethanolic extracts from S. medusula and S. calva collected in Chocó, Colombia, were used for antioxidant activity and SPF determination using the DPPH assay and the Mansur equation, respectively. Extracts were characterized using HPLC-MS and used to prepare the gels. The viscosity of the extract-based gels was evaluated using an MCR92 rheometer. In addition, the anti-Candida activity of extracts against five yeasts and anti-C. albicans of gels were evaluated following the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute M27, 4th Edition. High DPPH radical scavenging activity (42.4% and 44.7%) and a high SPF value (32.5 and 35.4) were obtained for the extracts of S. medusula and S. calva, respectively. Similarly, extract-based gels showed significant DPPH radical scavenging activity of 54.5% and 53.0% and maximum SPF values of 60 and 57. Extract from S. medusula showed an important antifungal activity against C. albicans (minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 2 µg/mL). In contrast, S. calva extract was active against C. krusei, C. albicans (MIC of 2 µg/mL) and C. tropicalis (MIC of 4 µg/mL). Sloanea medusula gel (0.15%) exhibited an important C. albicans growth inhibition (98%), while with S. calva gel (0.3%) growth inhibition was slightly lower (76%). Polyphenolic and triterpenoid compounds were tentatively identified for S. medusula and S. calva, respectively. Both extracts can be considered promising sources for developing photoprotective gels to treat skin infections caused by C. albicans.

Alzheimer's disease: Molecular aspects and treatment opportunities using herbal drugs

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also called senile dementia, is the most common neurological disorder. Around 50 million people, mostly of advanced age, are suffering from dementia worldwide and this is expected to reach 100-130 million between 2040 and 2050. AD is characterized by impaired glutamatergic and cholinergic neurotransmission, which is associated with clinical and pathological symptoms. AD is characterized clinically by loss of cognition and memory impairment and pathologically by senile plaques formed by Amyloid β deposits or neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) consisting of aggregated tau proteins. Amyloid β deposits are responsible for glutamatergic dysfunction that develops NMDA dependent Ca2+ influx into postsynaptic neurons generating slow excitotoxicity process leading to oxidative stress and finally impaired cognition and neuronal loss. Amyloid decreases acetylcholine release, synthesis and neuronal transport. The decreased levels of neurotransmitter acetylcholine, neuronal loss, tau aggregation, amyloid β plaques, increased oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, bio-metal dyshomeostasis, autophagy, cell cycle dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and endoplasmic reticulum dysfunction are the factors responsible for the pathogenesis of AD. Acetylcholinesterase, NMDA, Glutamate, BACE1, 5HT6, and RAGE (Receptors for Advanced Glycation End products) are receptors targeted in treatment of AD. The FDA approved acetylcholinesterase inhibitors Donepezil, Galantamine and Rivastigmine and N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist Memantine provide symptomatic relief. Different therapies such as amyloid β therapies, tau-based therapies, neurotransmitter-based therapies, autophagy-based therapies, multi-target therapeutic strategies, and gene therapy modify the natural course of the disease. Herbal and food intake is also important as preventive strategy and recently focus has also been placed on herbal drugs for treatment. This review focuses on the molecular aspects, pathogenesis and recent studies that signifies the potential of medicinal plants and their extracts or chemical constituents for the treatment of degenerative symptoms related to AD.

Identification of Compounds of Crocus sativus by GC-MS and HPLC/UV-ESI-MS and Evaluation of Their Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Anticoagulant, and Antidiabetic Properties

In order to valorize the species Crocus sativus from Morocco and to prepare new products with high added value that can be used in the food and pharmaceutical industry, our interest was focused on the phytochemical characterization and the biological and pharmacological properties of the stigmas of this plant. For this purpose, the essential oil of this species, extracted by hydrodistillation and then analyzed by GC-MS, revealed a predominance of phorone (12.90%); (R)-(-)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane-4-methanol (11.65%); isopropyl palmitate (9.68%); dihydro-β-ionone (8.62%); safranal (6.39%); trans-β-ionone (4.81%); 4-keto-isophorone (4.72%); and 1-eicosanol (4.55%) as the major compounds. The extraction of phenolic compounds was performed by decoction and Soxhlet extraction. The results of the determination of flavonoids, total polyphenols, condensed tannins, and hydrolyzable tannins determined by spectrophotometric methods on aqueous and organic extracts have proved the richness of Crocus sativus in phenolic compounds. Chromatographic analysis by HPLC/UV-ESI-MS of Crocus sativus extracts revealed the presence of crocin, picrocrocin, crocetin, and safranal molecules specific to this species. The study of antioxidant activity by three methods (DPPH, FRAP, and total antioxidant capacity) has proved that C. sativus is a potential source of natural antioxidants. Antimicrobial activity of the aqueous extract (E0) was investigated by microdilution on a microplate. The results have revealed the efficacy of the aqueous extract against Acinetobacter baumannii and Shigella sp. with MIC ≤ 600 µg/mL and against Aspergillus niger, Candida kyfer, and Candida parapsilosis with MIC = 2500 µg/mL. Measurements of pro-thrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) in citrated plasma obtained from routine healthy blood donors were used to determine the anticoagulant activity of aqueous extract (E0). The anticoagulant activity of the extract (E0) studied showed that this extract can significantly prolong the partial thromboplastin time (p < 0.001) with a 359 µg/mL concentration. The antihyperglycemic effect of aqueous extract was studied in albino Wistar rats. The aqueous extract (E0) showed strong in vitro inhibitory activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase compared with acarbose. Thus, it very significantly inhibited postprandial hyperglycemia in albino Wistar rats. According to the demonstrated results, we can affirm the richness of Crocus sativus stigmas in bioactive molecules and its use in traditional medicine.

Crocin Attenuates NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation by Inhibiting Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species and Ameliorates Monosodium Urate-Induced Mouse Peritonitis

Crocin is a hydrophilic carotenoid pigment found in the stigma of Crocus sativus or the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides. In this study, we investigated the effects of Crocin on the activation of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in J774A.1 murine macrophage cells and monosodium urate (MSU)-induced peritonitis. Crocin significantly inhibited Nigericin-, adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-, MSU-induced interleukin (IL)-1β secretion, and caspase-1 cleavage without affecting pro-IL-1β and pro-caspase-1. Crocin also suppressed gasdermin-D cleavage and lactate dehydrogenase release and enhanced cell viability, indicating that Crocin reduces pyroptosis. Similar effects were observed in primary mouse macrophages. However, Crocin did not affect poly(dA:dT)-induced absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) and muramyl dipeptide-induced NLRP1 inflammasomes. Crocin decreased Nigericin-induced oligimerization and the speck formation of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC). Crocin also dramatically alleviated the ATP-induced production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS). Finally, Crocin ameliorated the MSU-induced production of IL-1β and IL-18 and the recruitment of neutrophils during peritoneal inflammation. These results suggest that Crocin suppresses NLRP3 inflammasome activation by blocking mtROS production and ameliorates MSU-induced mouse peritonitis. Thus, Crocin may have therapeutic potential in various NLRP3 inflammasome-related inflammatory diseases.

Therapeutic implications of crocin in Parkinson's disease: A review of preclinical research

Parkinson's disease is among the most common forms of neurodegenerative illness, with present treatment being primarily symptomatic and frequently coming with substantial adverse effects. Neuronal degeneration may arise due to a variety of pathological events, like inflammatory responses, neurotransmitter dysregulation, oxidative damage, mitochondrial malfunction, apoptosis, and genetic factors. The health issue and financial burden brought on by Parkinson's disease can worsen as the population ages. In the search for new and secure therapeutic agents for Parkinson's disease, several natural compounds have been shown to exert considerable neuroprotective benefits. Crocin, a naturally occurring carotenoid molecule, was found to have neuroprotective potential in the therapy of this disorder. Taking into account, the outcomes of various studies and the restorative actions of crocin, the present study emphasized the protective ability of crocin in this disease. Given the strong evidence supporting the neuroprotective ability of crocin, it is inferred that crocin inhibits inflammatory, apoptotic, and antioxidant processes through multiple mechanisms. Therefore, this compound is considered a safe and effective therapeutic choice for neurodegenerative illnesses like Parkinson's disease. However, more research on its efficacy as a treatment of Parkinson's disease is needed, specifically examining its mechanisms and the results obtained in clinical trials.

The effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on glycemia, lipid profile, and antioxidant status in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized placebo-controlled trial

In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effect of saffron supplementation on glycemic status, lipid profile, atherogenic indices, and oxidative status in patients with type-2 diabetes (T2DM). In a randomized, double-blind controlled trial, 70 patients were randomly allocated into two groups (n = 35, each) and received 100 mg/day of saffron or placebo for eight weeks. Dietary intake, weight, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumferences (WC and HC), waist to hip ratio (WHR), fasting blood sugar (FBS), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), insulin, and Homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), lipid profile, atherogenic indices, oxidative status, and liver enzymes were determined before and after the intervention. At the end of the eighth week, saffron intervention could significantly reduce FBS (7.57%), lipid profile (except high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C]), atherogenic indices, and liver enzymes (p < .05). Moreover, saffron could improve oxidative status (nitric oxide [NO] and malondialdehyde [MDA] reduced by 26.29% and 16.35%, respectively). Catalase (CAT) concentration remained unchanged. Saffron supplementation may alleviate T2DM by improving glycemic status, lipid profile, liver enzymes, and oxidative status. Further investigation is necessary to assess possible side effects and confirm the positive effect of saffron as a complementary therapy in clinical recommendations for T2DM.

Effect of crocin of Crocus sativus L. on serum inflammatory markers (IL-6 and TNF-α) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Different factors, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, extracellular matrix degradation and apoptosis, affect the pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), as a progressive disease characterised by permanent airflow limitation. Herbal supplements with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties can help treat certain chronic diseases. The current study aimed at investigating the preventive effects of crocin supplementation on the serum concentrations of IL-6, TNF-α, exercise capacity and pulmonary function tests (PFT) in patients with COPD. The present prospective randomised clinical trial equally divided fifty-seven patients with COPD into a placebo and an intervention group, who respectively received a placebo and crocin (15 mg twice day for 12 weeks) as a supplement. ELISA was used to measure serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, also PFT and exercise capacity based on 6-min walking distance test (6MWD), which was performed at the beginning and end of the study. Crocin improved the results of PFT (P < 0·05) and 6-MWD (P < 0·001) and exerted preventive effects by increasing the serum levels of IL-6 in patients with COPD compared with those in the placebo group (P < 0·05). Intervention with crocin significantly lowered serum levels of TNF-α at the end of the study (P < 0·01). The present findings suggest crocin supplementation improves exercise capacity and PFT in patients with COPD by reducing serum levels of inflammatory factors.

Application of Nanoliposomes Containing Nisin and Crocin in Milk

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the effects of nanoliposomes containing crocin and nisin in milk samples as a food model. Therefore, three formulations were prepared and compared, including (1) milk samples containing free nisin and crocin, (2) samples with nanoliposomes containing nisin and crocin, and (3) nisin and crocin-loaded nanoliposomes coated with chitosan. Methods: In order to find the optimum amount of both bioactives within nanoliposomes, analyses of size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency were accomplished. Then, the best formulated nanoliposome was evaluated and compared with a solution containing free bioactives and nanoliposomes coated with chitosan using other experiments, including antioxidant and antibacterial activities, viscosity, colorimetric and bacterial growth. Results: The best nanoliposomal system based on the factors of size, PDI, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency was related for the nanocarrier with 4 mg crocin, 4.5 mg nisin, and 40 mg lecithin. Based on the results obtained, both nanoliposome (a*=5.41) and chitosancoated nanoliposome (a*=5.09) solutions could significantly (P<0.05) reduce the redness of milk induced by free bioactives (a*=12.32). However, viscosity of milk in chitosan-coated nanoliposome solution was found to be higher (3.42 cP) than other formulations (viscosity of samples with free bioactives was 1.65 cP and viscosity of samples containing nanoliposome was 1.71 cP). In addition, chitosan-coated nanoliposomes could inhibit the growth of Listeria monocytogenes stronger than other samples. Conclusion: Encapsulation of nisin and crocin in nanoliposomes showed promising results for preserving food safety and quality.

Antidepressant Effect of Crocin in Mice with Chronic Mild Stress

This study aimed to investigate the antidepressant property of crocin (Crocetin digentiobiose ester) using a chronic mild stress (CMS)-induced depression model in experimental mice. The tail suspension test (TST) and the sucrose preference test were used to evaluate the antidepressant effect on albino mice of either sex after three weeks of CMS. The period of immobility in the TST and percentage preference for sucrose solution were recorded. By monitoring brain malondialdehyde (MDA) level, catalase (CAT) activity, and reduced glutathione (GSH) level, the antioxidant potential was assessed. Three dosages of crocin (4.84, 9.69, and 19.38 mg/kg) were evaluated. When compared to controls, animals that received crocin administration during three periods of CMS had considerably shorter immobility times during the TST. Crocin treatment also raised the percentage preference for sucrose solution in a dose-dependent manner, bringing it to parity with the conventional antidepressant, imipramine. Animals that received a high dose of crocin had a much greater spontaneous locomotor activity. Furthermore, a high dose of crocin remarkably lowered plasma corticosterone and nitrite levels brought on by CMS. Additionally, high doses of crocin given during CMS greatly enhanced reduced glutathione levels while considerably reducing the brain’s MDA and catalase activities. In conclusion, high doses of crocin may have an antidepressant effect in an animal model through several mechanisms. However, further studies should be carried out to explore the role of neurotransmitters for their antidepressant property.

Crocin molecular signaling pathways at a glance: A comprehensive review

Crocin is a hydrophilic carotenoid that is synthesized in the flowers of the Crocus genus. Numerous in vitro and in vivo research projects have been published about the biological and pharmacological properties and toxicity of crocin. Crocin acts as a memory enhancer, anxiolytic, aphrodisiac, antidepressant, neuroprotective, and so on. Here, we introduce an updated and comprehensive review of crocin molecular mechanisms based on previously examined and mentioned in the literature. Different studies confirmed the significant effect of crocin to control pathological conditions, including oxidative stress, inflammation, metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. The neuroprotective effect of crocin could be related to the activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), Notch, and cyclic-AMP response element-binding protein signaling pathways. The crocin also protects the cardiovascular system through the inhibitory effect on toll-like receptors. The regulatory effect of crocin on PI3K/AKT/mTOR, AMP-activated protein kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor pathways can play an effective role in the treatment of metabolic disorders. The crocin has anticancer activity through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MAPK, vascular endothelial growth factor, Wnt/β-catenin, and Janus kinases-signal transducer and activator of transcription suppression. Also, the nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 and p53 signaling pathway activation may be effective in the anticancer effect of crocin. Finally, among signaling pathways regulated by crocin, the most important ones seem to be those related to the regulatory effect on the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.

Saffron, Its Active Components, and Their Association with DNA and Histone Modification: A Narrative Review of Current Knowledge

Intensive screening for better and safer medications to treat diseases such as cancer and inflammatory diseases continue, and some phytochemicals have been discovered to have anti-cancer and many therapeutical activities. Among the traditionally used spices, Crocus sativus (saffron) and its principal bioactive constituents have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and chemopreventive properties against multiple malignancies. Early reports have shown that the epigenetic profiles of healthy and tumor cells vary significantly in the context of different epigenetic factors. Multiple components, such as carotenoids as bioactive dietary phytochemicals, can directly or indirectly regulate epigenetic factors and alter gene expression profiles. Previous reports have shown the interaction between active saffron compounds with linker histone H1. Other reports have shown that high concentrations of saffron bind to the minor groove of calf thymus DNA, resulting in specific structural changes from B- to C-form of DNA. Moreover, the interaction of crocin G-quadruplex was reported. A recent in silico study has shown that residues of SIRT1 interact with saffron bio-active compounds and might enhance SIRT1 activation. Other reports have shown that the treatment of Saffron bio-active compounds increases γH2AX, decreases HDAC1 and phosphorylated histone H3 (p-H3). However, the question that still remains to be addressed how saffron triggers various epigenetic changes? Therefore, this review discusses the literature published till 2022 regarding saffron as dietary components and its impact on epigenetic mechanisms. Novel bioactive compounds such as saffron components that lead to epigenetic alterations might be a valuable strategy as an adjuvant therapeutic drug.

A review of the anti-diabetic potential of saffron

Diabetes mellitus is one of the most prevalent metabolic disorders that affect people of all genders, ages, and races. Medicinal herbs have gained attention from researchers and have been widely investigated for their antidiabetic potential. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its main constituents, that is, crocin and crocetin, are natural carotenoid compounds, widely known to possess a wide spectrum of properties and induce pleiotropic anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and neuro-protective effects. An increasing number of experimental, animal and human studies have investigated the effects and mechanism of action of these compounds and their potential therapeutic use in the treatment of diabetes. This narrative review presents the key findings of published clinical studies that examined the effects of saffron and/or its constituents in the context of diabetes mellitus. Moreover, an overview of the proposed underlying mechanisms mediating these effects, the medicinal applications of saffron, and the new findings regarding its effect on diabetes and various cellular and molecular mechanisms of action will be debated.

An In Vitro Study of Saffron Carotenoids: The Effect of Crocin Extracts and Dimethylcrocetin on Cancer Cell Lines

Crocus sativus L. has various pharmacological properties, known for over 3600 years. These properties are attributed mainly to biologically active substances, which belong to the terpenoid group and include crocins, picrocrocin and safranal. The aim of the current work was to examine the effects of crocins (CRCs) and their methyl ester derivate dimethylcrocetin (DMCRT) on glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in terms of cytotoxicity and gene expression, implicated in proapoptotic and cell survival pathways. Cell cytotoxicity was assessed with Alamar Blue fluorescence assay after treatment with saffron carotenoids for 24, 48 and 72 h and concentrations ranging from 22.85 to 0.18 mg/mL for CRCs and 11.43 to 0.09 mg/mL for DMCRT. In addition, BAX, BID, BCL2, MYCN, SOD1, and GSTM1 gene expression was studied by qRT-PCR analysis. Both compounds demonstrated cytotoxic effects against glioblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. They induced apoptosis, via BAX and BID upregulation, MYCN and BCL-2, SOD1, GSTM1 downregulation. The current research denotes the possible anticancer properties of saffron carotenoids, which are considered safe phytochemicals, already tested in clinical trials for their health promoting properties.

Effect of Crocin From Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Supplementation on Oxidant/Antioxidant Markers, Exercise Capacity, and Pulmonary Function Tests in COPD Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Background: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive and chronic respiratory disorder characterized by reversible airflow limitation and lung parenchyma destruction. The main feature of COPD is inflammation and disturbance of the oxidant/antioxidant balance in the airways. The therapeutic use of herbal supplements with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties seems to be very useful in the medical management of patients with COPD. Method: COPD patients were divided into placebo and intervention groups (each group n = 23) in a clinical trial study. The intervention group received crocin supplementation (30 mg/day for 12 weeks), and the control group received a placebo. Pre- and after the intervention, pulmonary function tests (PFTs), exercise capacity (using a 6-min walking distance test (6MWD)), and serum levels of total oxidant status (TOS), total antioxidant capacity (TAOC), and NF-kB were assessed using the ELISA test. Results: Intervention with crocin for 12 weeks in COPD patients decreased serum levels of TOS and NF-κB as well as increased TAOC. In addition, the results of the 6MWD test reveal an improvement in patients' exercise capacity. Conclusion: Crocin supplementation appears to effectively establish oxidant/antioxidant balance and improve inflammatory conditions in patients with COPD.

Nutraceutical Molecules Slow Down Retinal Degeneration, in Tvrm4 Mice a Model of Retinitis Pigmentosa, by Genetic Modulation of Anti-oxidant Pathway

Rhodopsin (RHO) mutations are responsible for 25–40% of the dominant cases of retinitis pigmentosa (RP) with different severity and progression rates. The Tvrm4 mice, heterozygous for an I307N dominant mutation of RHO, display a normal retinal phenotype when raised in ambient light conditions, but undergo photoreceptor degeneration when briefly exposed to strong white light. Here, The Tvrm4 mice is pre-treated with naringenin 100 mg/kg/die, quercetin 100 mg/kg/die, naringenin 50 + quercercetin 100 mg/kg/die or vehicle dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO 0.025%) in the drinking water for 35 days. On the 30th day, retinal degeneration was induced by exposure for 1 min to the white light of 12,000 lux intensity, and the treatment was repeated for another 5 days. At the end of the protocol retinal functionality was tested by recording an electroretinogram (ERG). The retinal tissue was collected and was used for further analyses, including immunohistochemically, biochemical, and molecular biology assays. The data obtained show that treatment with nutraceutical molecules is effective in counteracting retinal degeneration by preserving the functionality of photoreceptors and increasing the antioxidant and anti-apoptotic pathways of retinal cells. The present data confirm that nutraceutical molecules are effective in slowing photoreceptor degeneration in a mutation-independent way by modulating the antioxidant response of the retina at the gene expression level.

Crocin attenuates inflammation of lung tissue in ovalbumin-sensitized mice by altering the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of asthma. The present study aimed to investigate the reducing or suppressing effects of crocin in ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized mice on ER stress markers. Mice were divided into six groups (n = 5 per group) including control, OVA-sensitized (OVA), OVA-treated crocin (OVA-Cr25, OVA-Cr50, and OVA-Cr100 mg/kg), and OVA-treated dexamethasone (1 mg/kg), (OVA-Dexa) groups. Animals 5 later groups were sensitized to OVA and the treatment groups received intraperitoneally crocin/dexamethasone in the last 5 days of the model. At the end of the study, lung tissue was evaluated for airway inflammation, caspase 12 and CHOP protein levels, and expression of ER stress markers using real-time-PCR. Sensitization with OVA significantly caused airway inflammation and induction of ER stress in mice compared to the control group based on the elevated inflammatory cells and ER stress markers in the lung tissue. Treatment with crocin and dexamethasone reduced airway inflammation and suppressed ER stress markers. Interestingly, in the OVA-Cr100 group, the suppressive effects on ER stress apoptotic markers were comparable to the OVA-Dexa group. The results suggest that crocin mediates maladaptive ER stress conditions possibly by creating adaptive ER stress status and driving protein folding correctly.

The Pharmacological Activities of Crocus sativus L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents

Crocus species are mainly distributed in North Africa, Southern and Central Europe, and Western Asia, used in gardens and parks as ornamental plants, while Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is the only species that is cultivated for edible purpose. The use of saffron is very ancient; besides the use as a spice, saffron has long been known also for its medical and coloring qualities. Due to its distinctive flavor and color, it is used as a spice, which imparts food preservative activity owing to its antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. This updated review discusses the biological properties of Crocus sativus L. and its phytoconstituents, their pharmacological activities, signaling pathways, and molecular targets, therefore highlighting it as a potential herbal medicine. Clinical studies regarding its pharmacologic potential in clinical therapeutics and toxicity studies were also reviewed. For this updated review, a search was performed in the PubMed, Science, and Google Scholar databases using keywords related to Crocus sativus L. and the biological properties of its phytoconstituents. From this search, only the relevant works were selected. The phytochemistry of the most important bioactive compounds in Crocus sativus L. such as crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal and also dozens of other compounds was studied and identified by various physicochemical methods. Isolated compounds and various extracts have proven their pharmacological efficacy at the molecular level and signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, toxicity studies and clinical trials were analyzed. The research results highlighted the various pharmacological potentials such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, antidepressant, hypolipidemic, and antihyperglycemic properties and protector of retinal lesions. Due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, saffron has proven effective as a natural food preservative. Starting from the traditional uses for the treatment of several diseases, the bioactive compounds of Crocus sativus L. have proven their effectiveness in modern pharmacological research. However, pharmacological studies are needed in the future to identify new mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetic studies, new pharmaceutical formulations for target transport, and possible interaction with allopathic drugs.

In vitro evaluation of the protective effect of crocin on human erythrocytes

The interactions and the protective effect of the carotenoid crocin (CRO) on human erythrocytes (RBC) and molecular models of its membrane were investigated. The latter consisted of bilayers of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) and dimyristoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE), representative of phospholipid classes located in the outer and inner monolayers of the RBC membrane, respectively. X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and electronic paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) showed that CRO produced structural perturbations in DMPC bilayers and in isolated unsealed human erythrocyte membranes. On the other hand, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that CRO induced shape changes in the RBC from their normal discoid form to echinocytes. This result indicates that the CRO molecules were mainly localized in the outer monolayer of the RBC membrane. The assessment of the protective capacity of CRO was revealed by the carotenoid inhibition of the morphological alterations caused by hypochlorous acid (HOCl) to RBC.

Preparation and evaluation of crocin loaded in nanoniosomes and their effects on ischemia-reperfusion injuries in rat kidney

As a powerful antioxidant compound, crocin can partially protect against renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injuries. The encapsulation of components in niosomes (non-ionic surfactant-based vesicle) as nano-sized carrier systems has been proposed as they improve the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of drugs. Herein, the encapsulation of crocin in nano-niosomes and the effects of crocin-loaded nano-niosomes on renal ischemia/reperfusion-induced damages were evaluated. Nano-niosomes containing crocin were formulated by a modified heating method and were characterized for their physicochemical characteristics. Ischemia was induced by clamping the renal artery for 30 min followed by 1 or 24 h of reperfusion. Rats received an intra-arterial injection of nano-niosome-loaded crocin at the outset of reperfusion. Blood samples were taken after reperfusion to measure urea, creatinine (Cr), malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. The right kidney was removed for histological examination. The results showed that crocin-contain nano-niosomes have appropriate size and morphology, acceptable encapsulation efficiency, and a proper release pattern of crocin. I/R enhanced creatinine (Cr), urea, and malondialdehyde (MDA) serum levels and reduced SOD activity and histological damages in the renal tissue.

Phytochemistry, pharmacology, and potential clinical applications of saffron: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Saffron, the dried red stigma of the perennial herb Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae), is one of the most important and expensive spices in the world. It is used as a traditional Chinese medicine with demonstrated effects in promoting blood circulation and suppressing blood stasis, cooling blood detoxification, and relieving depression. It is mainly used for the treatment of depression, irregular menstruation, postpartum thrombosis, and bruises.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review aims to provide a systematic and up-to-date overview of the phytochemistry, pharmacology, and clinical applications of saffron. We hope it could provide useful references and guidance for the future directions of research on saffron.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The online database, such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, SpringerLink, Wiley Online Library, SciFinder and Chemical book, and CNKI were used to collect relevant literature. And the classic books about Chinese herbal medicine were also being referenced.

RESULTS

More than 150 chemical compounds, including carotenoids, flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides, monoterpenes and monoterpenoid derivatives, monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, amino acids, alkaloids and others, were revealed. The pharmacological activities study of saffron were focused on the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antidepressant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, memory-enhancing, and so on. Currently, saffron is mainly used for the treatment of diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, depression, anxiety disorders, cardiovascular diseases, learning and memory disorders, cancer, and other conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemical and pharmacological analyses of saffron have been revealed in recent studies. However, clinical studies have focused mainly on AD, depression and anxiety disorders. Therefore, a large number of clinical trials are needed to study the efficacy of saffron and its major chemical components against other diseases including hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and cancer. Further studies of the mechanism of action and toxicological properties of saffron are also required, especially research to establish an effective dose of saffron and its long-term toxicity in vivo.

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects of crocin against doxorubicin-induced myocardial toxicity in rats

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a well-known chemotherapeutic drug for most malignancies including breast cancer and leukemia whilst the usage of DOX is limited owing to its cardiotoxicity. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of crocin on doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in rats. Forty rats were randomly divided into four groups: (a) control [received normal saline as a dose of 1 ml/kg by intraperitoneal injection (ip) for 15 days], (b) crocin (received crocin as a dose of 40 mg/kg/24h by ip for 15 days), (c) DOX (received DOX as a dose of 2 mg/kg/48h by ip in six injection, cumulative dose 12 mg/kg), and (d) DOX+crocin (received DOX as a dose of 2 mg/kg/48h by ip in six injection, and crocin as a dose of 40 mg/kg/24h i.p for 15 days). As compared to the controls, the results showed that DOX administration caused significant increases in lipid indices [triglyseride (TG), low-dencity lipoproteins (LDL) (p<0.001), and very low-dencity lipoproteins (VLDL) (p<0.005)], oxidative stress parameters [malondialdehyde (MDA) and total oxidant status (TOS) (p<0.001)] and cardiac markers [creatine kinase-muscle/brain (CK-MB) and cardiac troponin I (cTnI) (p<0.001)]. Besides, significant decreases in antioxidant defense systems [glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and total antioxidant status (TAS) (p<0.001)] were observed. The present study also demonstrated that co-administration of crocin with DOX significantly ameliorated the lipid profile (p<0.005), cardiac markers (p<0.005), and oxidative stress indices (p<0.001) as compared to DOX group. Histopathologically, significant increase in the mean histopathological damage score (MHDS) was found in the DOX group as compared to the controls (p<0.001). In contrast, the administration of crocin with DOX alleviated MHDS in myocardium (p<0.001). Taken together, our results reveal that crocin might be a cardioprotective agent in DOX-treated patients for cancer.

Multivariate Statistical Analysis Uncovers Spectrum–Effect Relationship between HPLC Fingerprints and Antioxidant Activity of Saffron

Crocus sativus L. is commonly used as functional food and medicinal herb in traditional Chinese medicine. In this study, the spectrum–effect relationship was established between HPLC fingerprints and in vitro antioxidant activity of saffron to improve the quality evaluation method of saffron. The fingerprints of 21 batches of saffron collected from different regions were assessed, and the data were further analyzed by chemometric methods, including similarity analysis, hierarchical clustering analysis, principal component analysis, and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis. The spectrum–effect relationship between fingerprints and antioxidant effect of saffron was analyzed by grey relational analysis and partial least square methods to figure out the antioxidant component of saffron. Thirteen common peaks of 21 batches of saffron were included in the analysis, and peak 3 (picrocrocin), peak 7 (crocin I), and peak 10 (crocin II) were identified as the main active components responsible for antioxidant efficacy. Besides, a multi-index quality control method was developed for simultaneous determination of these three antioxidant components in saffron. Taken together, this study provided new strategies for the quality control and the development of new bioactive products of saffron in the future.

Protective effects of safranal on hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced injury in H9c2 cardiac myoblasts via the PI3K/AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway

Safranal (SFR), an active ingredient extracted from saffron, exhibits a protective effect on the cardiovascular system. However, the mechanism of SFR against hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R)-induced cardiomyocyte injury has previously not been investigated in vitro. The aim of the present study was therefore to observe the protective effects of SFR on H/R-induced cardiomyocyte injury and to explore its mechanisms. A H/R injury model of H9c2 cardiac myoblasts was established by administering 800 µmol/l CoCl₂ to H9c2 cells for 24 h and reoxygenating the cells for 4 h to induce hypoxia. H9c2 cardiac myoblasts were pretreated with SFR for 12 h to evaluate the associated protective effects. A Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was used for cell viability detection, and the expression levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA) and caspase-3, and the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration were measured using the corresponding commercial kits. Levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cells were detected using 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate. Flow cytometry was used to determine the degree of apoptosis and the level of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Moreover, the expression levels of phosphorylated (p-)PI3K, AKT, p-AKT, glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), p-GSK3β, Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3 and cleaved caspase-3 were measured using western blot analysis. Results of the present study demonstrated that the H9c2 cardiac myoblasts treated with SFR exhibited significantly improved levels of viability and significantly reduced levels of ROS, compared with the H/R group. Furthermore, compared with the H/R group, SFR treatment significantly increased the MMP levels and antioxidant enzyme levels, including CAT, SOD and GSH-px; whereas the levels of CK-MB, LDH, MDA and intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration were significantly decreased. Moreover, the results of the present study demonstrated that SFR significantly reduced caspase-3, cleaved caspase-3 and Bax protein expression levels, but upregulated the Bcl-2 protein expression levels. SFR also increased the protein expressions of PI3K/AKT/GSK3β. In summary, the results suggested that SFR may exert a protective effect against H/R-induced cardiomyocyte injury, which occurs in connection with the inhibition of oxidative stress and apoptosis via regulation of the PI3K/AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway.

Is Saffron Able to Prevent the Dysregulation of Retinal Cytokines Induced by Ocular Hypertension in Mice?

Cytokine- and chemokine-mediated signalling is involved in the neuroinflammatory process that leads to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) damage in glaucoma. Substances with anti-inflammatory properties could decrease these cytokines and chemokines and thus prevent RGC death. The authors of this study analysed the anti-inflammatory effect of a hydrophilic saffron extract standardized to 3% crocin content, focusing on the regulation of cytokine and chemokine production, in a mouse model of unilateral laser-induced ocular hypertension (OHT). We demonstrated that following saffron treatment, most of the concentration of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-17), anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10), Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), and fractalkine were unaffected in response to laser-induced OHT in both the OHT eye and its contralateral eye. Only IL-6 levels were significantly increased in the OHT eye one day after laser induction compared with the control group. These results differed from those observed in animals subjected to unilateral OHT and not treated with saffron, where changes in cytokine levels occurred in both eyes. Therefore, saffron extract regulates the production of proinflammatory cytokines, VEGF, and fractalkine induced by increasing intraocular pressure (IOP), protecting the retina from inflammation. These results indicate that saffron could be beneficial in glaucoma by helping to reduce the inflammatory process.

Protective effects of crocin on testicular torsion/detorsion in rats

Oxidative stress, caused by extreme accumulation of un-scavenged reactive oxygen species, plays an integral role in the Ischemia-Reperfusion (I/R) injury to the testicles following testicular torsion. The current research aimed to examine the protective effects of crocin as a natural antioxidant on testicular I/R injury in rats. Animals were divided randomly into five groups (seven each): (1) sham group, (2) torsion/detorsion (T/D) group, (3) intact group with 100 mg/kg crocin, (4) and (5) T/D groups followed by treatment with two different doses of crocin (50 and 100 mg/kg (IP)). I/R injury was induced by 720° clockwise torsion of the left testicles for 2 h. After 24 h of reperfusion, blood samples and epididymal sperms were collected to measure biochemical (GPx, SOD, and MDA), hormonal (testosterone), and sperm parameters (total sperm recovery, motility, viability, and morphology). Moreover, affected testicles were subjected to histopathology examination. I/R injury caused a significant reduction in sperm characteristics (except for morphology) (P < 0.05), which could not be significantly improved by crocin administration at either dose (P > 0.05). Johnsen's testicular score, mean seminiferous tubular diameter, and germinal epithelial cell thickness were significantly decreased in the T/D group compared to the intact and sham groups. However, crocin could significantly improve the histopathological parameters in both treatment groups compared to the T/D group (P < 0.05). T/D reduced SOD and GPx activity and testosterone level significantly (except for GPx) compared to the sham group (P < 0.05). However, crocin administration could significantly reverse them. Also, crocin reduced the amount of MDA significantly in the high-dose treatment group in comparison to T/D group (P < 0.05). The results of the current study revealed that crocin could be a promising agent to protect against I/R injury following surgical correction of the testicular torsion.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and health outcomes: a meta-research review of meta-analyses and an evidence mapping study

BACKGROUND

Although a number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) have been published, no study has comprehensively summarized the clinical evidence from meta-analyses, or assessed the reporting or methodological quality of these reviews.

PURPOSE

The present meta-research study was designed to fill the gaps in knowledge to inform future studies and allow enhanced clinical decision-making on saffron.

METHODS

The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, and CNKI databases were systematically searched from inception to April 3 rd, 2021, for meta-analyses of clinical trials that assessed the efficacy and safety of saffron. PRISMA 2009 and AMSTAR-2 were employed to assess the reporting and methodological quality of meta-analyses identified in the search, respectively. The present study was registered on PROSPERO with registration number CRD42020220274.

RESULTS

Nineteen eligible systematic reviews with meta-analyses published in English were identified from 235 records. These meta-analyses were published in 12 peer-reviewed journals from 2013 to 2021. The heterogeneous results indicated that saffron significantly reduced fasting blood glucose, waist circumference, diastolic blood pressure, concentrations of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and improved symptoms of depression, cognitive function and sexual dysfunction compared with controls (mainly placebos). Common side effects of saffron consumption included nausea, dry mouth, poor appetite, and headache, but no serious adverse reactions were reported. Primary analysis and sensitivity analysis confirmed that the reporting and methodological quality of reviews included in the study were highly correlated (p < 0.001). The quality of meta-analyses of saffron requires improvement by including a structured abstract, a prospective protocol and registration, explanation of the study designs within each study that is reviewed, the searches, risk of bias assessment, literature selection, and reporting of funding sources.

CONCLUSION

The available evidence indicates that saffron is a safe plant for administration as a medicine and can improve diverse clinical outcomes, but the scientific quality of the published systematic reviews needs to be improved. Moreover, the clinical effects of saffron need to be confirmed through high-quality randomized trials in multiple countries with large sample sizes.

Protective Effect of Crocin against Mitochondrial Damage and Memory Deficit Induced by Beta-amyloid in the Hippocampus of Rats

Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia among the elderly. This progressive neurodegenerative disorder affects brain regions that control cognition, memory, language, speech, and awareness. As a potent antioxidant, crocin has been proposed to effectively manage the neurodegenerative disease. In this study, the recovery effects of crocin on the memory deficits caused by the intra-hippocampal injection of amyloid beta1-42 (Aβ1-42) were evaluated in rats. We also considered the protective effects of crocin on the mitochondrial damage caused by Aβ1-42. We examined the memory deficits of rats with the help of the Morris water maze. Then, we determined different mitochondrial toxicity endpoints caused by Aβ1-42, including mitochondrial ROS formation, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial membrane potential collapse, mitochondrial outer membrane integrity, and cytochrome c release. Our results demonstrated that the behavioral signs of memory deficiency caused by Aβ1-42 significantly (P < 0.01) reduced by both pretreatment and post-treatment with crocin (30 mg/kg). Furthermore, crocin prevented all the Aβ1-42 induced above referenced mitochondrial upstream toxic events leading to neuronal apoptosis. These results demonstrated that crocin is a promising preventive candidate for the potential treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, it seems that the antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of crocin are better seen when the compound is pretreated beforehand rather than introduced afterward in Aβ1-42 exposed mitochondria.

The therapeutic potential of Crocus sativus Linn.: A comprehensive narrative review of clinical trials

Crocus sativus Linn. (Saffron) is valued worldwide for its potential use in the management of various degenerative disorders, including cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), diabetes, cancer, metabolic syndrome (MetS), neurodegenerative diseases, immune disorders, and sexual dysfunction. Previous reports, based on clinical trials, suggest that crocetin, crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal are the main bioactive components of saffron with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects. In this comprehensive narrative review, we studied the recent clinical trials, investigating the medicinal applications of saffron and/or its components. The present results can provide important insights into the potential of saffron in preventing and treating different disorders, with a special focus on the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. However, further high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of saffron in treating some degenerative diseases.

The cardiovascular-protective properties of saffron and its potential pharmaceutical applications: A critical appraisal of the literature

Saffron, the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L., is used in traditional medicine for its healing properties and the treatment of various pathological conditions. The present literature review aimed to summarize and evaluate the preclinical and clinical data regarding the protective effects and mechanisms of saffron and its main components (crocin, crocetin, safranal) on cardiovascular risk factors and diseases. Many in vitro and animal studies have been conducted implicating antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-diabetic, and antiinflammatory impact of saffron and its constituents. Notably, there is evidence of direct atherosclerosis regression and stabilization in valid atherosclerosis-prone animal models. However, current clinical trials have shown mostly weak effects of saffron and its constituents on cardiovascular risk factors: (a) Modest lowering of fasting blood glucose, without significant reduction of HbA1c in type 2 diabetic patients, (b) moderate/controversial hypolipidemic effects, (c) negligible hypotensive effect, and (d) inconsistent modification of metabolic syndrome parameters. There are important drawbacks in clinical trial design, including the absence of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic tests, the wide variance of doses and cohorts' characteristics, the small number of patients, the short duration. Therefore, large, properly designed, high-quality clinical trials, focusing on specific conditions are required to evaluate the biological/pharmacological activities and firmly establish the clinical efficacy of saffron and its possible therapeutic uses in cardiovascular diseases.

Development of New Extracts of Crocus sativus L. By-Product from Two Different Italian Regions as New Potential Active Ingredient in Cosmetic Formulations

This project aimed to apply eco-friendly extraction methods to Crocus sativus L. by-product (flowers without stigmas i.e., tepals composed of petals and sepals) to recover extracts with high antioxidant capacity and polyphenol content, to be used in cosmetic products. Flowers grown in two different Italian regions (Sample 1—Alba in Piemonte, north of Italy and Sample 2—Sibillini in Marche, centre of Italy) were subjected for the first time to different eco-friendly microwave-mediated green solvents extractions (MGSE) andquali-quantitative determination in antioxidant molecules. Firstly, the extracts from Sample 1 were selected according to their total phenol content (TPC) by Folin–Ciocalteu’s assay and antioxidant capacity (AC) by spectrophotometric assays. Then, according to preliminary results, MGSE carried out in ethanol 70°, water, and glycerin were selected as the most performing methods and applied to both Samples 1 and 2. The best results were obtained using green solvents, such as water or ethanol 70°, for the samples coming from Marche. The identification and quantification of phenolic compounds, belonging to anthocyanins and flavonols classes, was performed by using UPLC-DAD-ESI-MS. Concerning flavonols content, the most abundant analyte is kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside and the extract in water from Sample 1 showed the higher amount of flavonols, reaching the concentration of 25.35 mg of kaempferol 3-O-glucoside equivalent per gram of tepals DW of raw material. Among anthocyanins, the most abundant was delphinidin 3,5-O-diglucoside and the high concentration of anthocyanin was detected in water and ethanol extract. Two new compounds, myricetin-di-glucoside and primflasine, were identified for the first time in Crocus sativus L. by-product by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The green batches obtained by extraction were thus characterized and evaluated for their biological potential and safety in keratinocyte HaCaT cells. The extracts were not cytotoxic up to 0.03 mg/mL. The water and ethanol 70° extracts were the most effective in counteracting oxidative stress induced by H2O2 and UVA exposure and reduced cytotoxicity induced by UVB exposure. The water extract was also able to significantly reduce cytotoxicity induced by sodium dodecyl sulphate-induced damage. Taken together, these results suggest a potential use of these waste materials as cosmeceutical preparations such as antiaging, and as anti-skin irritation formulation by-products.

Searching for the Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Neuroprotective Potential of Natural Food and Nutritional Supplements for Ocular Health in the Mediterranean Population

Adherence to a healthy diet offers a valuable intervention to compete against the increasing cases of ocular diseases worldwide, such as dry eye disorders, myopia progression, cataracts, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, or age macular degeneration. Certain amounts of micronutrients must be daily provided for proper functioning of the visual system, such as vitamins, carotenoids, trace metals and omega-3 fatty acids. Among natural foods, the following have to be considered for boosting eye/vision health: fish, meat, eggs, nuts, legumes, citrus fruits, nuts, leafy green vegetables, orange-colored fruits/vegetables, olives-olive oil, and dairy products. Nutritional supplements have received much attention as potential tools for managing chronic-degenerative ocular diseases. A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, hand-searched publications and historical archives were performed by the professionals involved in this study, to include peer-reviewed articles in which natural food, nutrient content, and its potential relationship with ocular health. Five ophthalmologists and two researchers collected the characteristics, quality and suitability of the above studies. Finally, 177 publications from 1983 to 2021 were enclosed, mainly related to natural food, Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) and nutraceutic supplementation. For the first time, original studies with broccoli and tigernut (chufa de Valencia) regarding the ocular surface dysfunction, macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy and glaucoma were enclosed. These can add value to the diet, counteract nutritional defects, and help in the early stages, as well as in the course of ophthalmic pathologies. The main purpose of this review, enclosed in the Special Issue "Health Benefits and Nutritional Quality of Fruits, Nuts and Vegetables," is to identify directions for further research on the role of diet and nutrition in the eyes and vision, and the potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of natural food (broccoli, saffron, tigernuts and walnuts), the Mediterranean Diet, and nutraceutic supplements that may supply a promising and highly affordable scenario for patients at risk of vision loss. This review work was designed and carried out by a multidisciplinary group involved in ophthalmology and ophthalmic research and especially in nutritional ophthalmology.

Six Common Herbs with Distinctive Bioactive, Antioxidant Components. A Review of Their Separation Techniques

Rosemary, oregano, pink savory, lemon balm, St. John’s wort, and saffron are common herbs wildly grown and easily cultivated in many countries. All of them are rich in antioxidant compounds that exhibit several biological and health activities. They are commercialized as spices, traditional medicines, or raw materials for the production of essential oils. The whole herbs or the residues of their current use are potential sources for the recovery of natural antioxidant extracts. Finding effective and feasible extraction and purification methods is a major challenge for the industrial production of natural antioxidant extracts. In this respect, the present paper is an extensive literature review of the solvents and extraction methods that have been tested on these herbs. Green solvents and novel extraction methods that can be easily scaled up for industrial application are critically discussed.