Thymol, thyme, and other plant sources: Health and potential uses

Investigating the effects of Thymus vulgaris essential oil, Allium cepa extract, and their active compounds (thymol and quercetin) on expression profile of genes related to Alzheimer's disease in PC12 model cell

Thymus vulgaris and Allium cepa are plants with great medicinal importance. Thymol monoterpene and quercetin, which are present in these plants, have anti-Alzheimer's and antioxidant effects. The objectives of this research were investigating the effects of these compounds on the pathogenesis and progress of Alzheimer's disease in cells modeled by formaldehyde. MTT, flow cytometry, and RT-PCR were used to investigate the toxicity, survival rate and apoptosis of the cells, and the expression level of PP2A, GSK3, NMDAR, BACE1, and APP genes, respectively. Also, the total antioxidant capacity of the modeled cells was measured. The results showed that the two compounds as well as the plants extract and essential oil were able to increase the percentage of cell survival; among them, Thymus vulgaris essential oil had the greatest effect (93.55316 % in 48 h exposure). In addition, quercetin was able to reduce the rate of apoptosis in Alzheimer's cells (4.73 %) which was greater than the effects of other compounds. In general, the essential oil of Thymus vulgaris compared to thymol; and quercetin compared to Allium cepa extract showed more improving effects on the expression of genes involved in the disease. All four compounds increased the antioxidant capacity of the modeled cells compared to the control group, and these effects were almost equal between the compounds. According to the obtained results, both plants, especially Thymus vulgaris can be proposed as candidates to be included in the diet of Alzheimer's patients. In addition, polyphenols thymol and quercetin as derivates from the studied plants can be used in new drugs development for Alzheimer's disease, with greater safety than currently used drugs. These results are significant because most of the drug for Alzheimer's treatments such as cholinesterases (e.g. rivastigmine and donepezil) and memantine are chemically based and have many side effects.

Growth enhancement, metabolic profile improvement, and DXR and TPS2 gene expression changes in Thymus vulgaris L. by cyanobacterial inoculation

BACKGROUND

In recent decades cyanobacterial species have attracted research attention as potential sources of new biostimulants. In this study, the biostimulant effects of five cyanobacterial suspensions on the growth and essential oil composition of Thymus vulgaris L. were evaluated. The expression of key genes involved in the biosynthesis of thymol and carvacrol, such as DXR and TPS2, were investigated.

RESULTS

A pot culture experiment revealed that cyanobacterial application significantly improved T. vulgaris L. growth indices, including plant height, dry and fresh weight, leaf and flower number, leaf area, and photosynthetic pigment content. Total phenol and flavonoid content in inoculated plants also showed a significant increase compared with the control. Anabaena torulosa ISB213 inoculation significantly increased root and shoot biomass by about 65.38% and 92.98% compared with the control, respectively. Nostoc calcicola ISB215 inoculation resulted in the highest amount of essential oil accumulation (18.08 ± 0.62) in T. vulgaris leaves, by about 72.19% compared with the control (10.5 ± 0.50%). Interestingly, the amount of limonene in the Nostoc ellipsosporum ISB217 treatment (1.67%) increased significantly compared with the control and other treatments. The highest expression rates of DXR and TPS2 genes were observed in the treatment of N. ellipsosporum ISB217, with 5.92-fold and 5.22-fold increases over the control, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This research revealed the potential of the cyanobacteria that were studied as promising biostimulants to increase the production of biomass and secondary metabolites of T. vulgaris L., which could be a suitable alternative to chemical fertilizers. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of Thymbra spicata extract and Thymol on morphine withdrawal syndrome in mice (insights to the liver function, antioxidant, and behavioral responses)

Safe chemicals for drug withdrawal can be extracted from natural sources. This study investigates the effects of clonidine and Thymbra spicata extract (TSE) on mice suffering from morphine withdrawal syndrome. Thymol, which is the active constituent in TSE, was also tested. A total of 90 mice were divided into nine groups. Group 1 was the control group, while Group 2 was given only morphine, and Group 3 received morphine and 0.2 mg/kg of clonidine. Groups 4-6 were given morphine along with 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg of TSE, respectively. Groups 7-9 received morphine plus 30, 60, and 90 mg/kg of Thymol, respectively, for 7 days. An oral naloxone challenge of 3 mg/kg was used to induce withdrawal syndrome in all groups. Improvement of liver enzyme levels (aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and alanine transaminase) (p < .01) and behavioral responses (frequencies of jumping, frequencies of two-legged standing, Straub tail reaction) (p < .01) were significantly observed in the groups receiving TSE and Thymol (Groups 4-9) compared to Group 2. Additionally, antioxidant activity in these groups was improved compared to Group 2. Nitric oxide significantly decreased in Groups 4 and 6 compared to Groups 2 and 3 (p < .01). Superoxide dismutase increased dramatically in Groups 5, 8, and 9 compared to Groups 2 and 3 (p < .01). Groups 5-9 were significantly different from Group 2 in terms of malondialdehyde levels (p < .01). Certain doses of TSE and Thymol were found to alleviate the narcotics withdrawal symptoms. This similar effect to clonidine can pave the way for their administration in humans.

The effects of aromatherapy with thyme oil on disease symptoms, vital findings, and hemodynamic parameters in COVID-19 patients

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of aromatherapy with thyme oil on disease symptoms, vital signs, and hemodynamic parameters in COVID-19 patients.

METHODS

We conducted the randomized controlled trial with 140 (experimental group=70, control group=70) COVID-19 patients. Patients admitted to the COVID-19 service of the Batman Training and Research Hospital were included in the sample between 31.01 - 31.08 2022. Patients in the experimental group inhaled thyme oil 3 times a day during 5 days. At the end of day 5, symptoms and hemodynamic parameters were measured as posttest. Vital signs were measured 3 times a day during 5 days. The control group only received routine treatment.

RESULTS

Thyme oil was found to be effective in relieving symptoms of shortness of breath, dizziness, secretion, diarrhea, weakness, loss of appetite, cough, headache and muscle joint pain. Although there was improvement in the symptoms of nausea-vomiting, runny nose and loss of taste-smell, the effect was not statistically significant. Thyme oil significantly decreased body temperature, pulse rate and respiratory rate (p<0.05), increased SPO 2 (p<0.05), and did not affect systolic and diastolic blood pressure (p>0.05). It had a significant effect on the regulation of pH, decreased CO2 and increased O2 significantly (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Thyme oil aromatherapy was effective in reducing symptoms, regulating vital signs and hemodynamic parameters. Accordingly, thyme oil is recommended as non-pharmacological treatment method in COVID-19 patients.

Self-assembled thymol-betaine co-crystals with controlled release and hygroscopic properties as green preservatives for aflatoxin prevention

Mycotoxins are representative contaminants causing food losses and food safety problems worldwide. Thymol can effectively inhibit pathogen infestation and aflatoxin accumulation during grain storage, but high volatility limits its application. Here, a thymol-betaine co-crystal system was synthesized through grinding-induced self-assembly. The THY-TMG co-crystal exhibited excellent thermal stability with melting point of 91.2 °C owing to abundant intermolecular interactions. Remarkably, after 15 days at 30 °C, the release rate of thymol from co-crystal was only 55%, far surpassing that of pure thymol. Notably, the co-crystal demonstrated the ability to bind H2O in the environment while controlling the release of thymol, essentially acting as a desiccant. Moreover, the co-crystals effectively inhibited the growth of Aspergillus flavus and the biosynthesis of aflatoxin B1. In practical terms, the THY-TMG co-crystal was successful in preventing AFB1 contamination and nutrients loss in peanuts, thereby prolonging their shelf-life under conditions of 28 °C and 70% RH.

Discovery of novel piperidine-containing thymol derivatives as potent antifungal agents for crop protection

BACKGROUND

Plant fungal diseases pose a significant threat to crop production. The extensive use of chemical pesticides has led to growing environmental safety risks and pesticide resistance of various plant pathogens. Therefore, it is an urgent task to explore novel eco-friendly fungicidal agents with high efficacy to combat fungal infection.

RESULTS

In this study, we rationally designed a series of novel thymol derivatives by incorporation of the sulfonamide moiety and evaluated their biological activities against plant pathogenic fungi. The bioassay results underscored the remarkable in vitro antifungal activity of compounds 5m and 5t against Phytophthora capsici (P. capsici), with EC50 values of 8.420 and 8.414 μg/mL, respectively. Their efficacies were superior to that of widely used commercial fungicides azoxystrobin (AZO, 20.649 μg/mL) and cabendazim (CAB, 251.625 μg/mL). Furthermore, compound 5v exhibited excellent in vitro antifungal activity against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (S. sclerotiorum), with an EC50 value of 12.829 μg/mL, significantly outperforming AZO (63.629 μg/mL). In vivo bioassays demonstrated the impactful activity of compound 5v against S. sclerotiorum, achieving over 98% curative and protective efficacies at the concentration of 200 μg/mL. Further mechanistic investigations unveiled that compound 5v induced mycelial shrinkage and collapse in S. sclerotiorum, resulting in organelle damage and the accumulation of antioxidant enzyme activity.

CONCLUSION

The significant antifungal efficacy of the prepared thymol derivatives shall encourage further exploration of compound 5v as a promising candidate to develop novel fungicides for crop protection. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Deep learning-based quantification and transcriptomic profiling reveal a methyl jasmonate-mediated glandular trichome formation pathway in Cannabis sativa

Cannabis glandular trichomes (GTs) are economically and biotechnologically important structures that have a remarkable morphology and capacity to produce, store, and secrete diverse classes of secondary metabolites. However, our understanding of the developmental changes and the underlying molecular processes involved in cannabis GT development is limited. In this study, we developed Cannabis Glandular Trichome Detection Model (CGTDM), a deep learning-based model capable of differentiating and quantifying three types of cannabis GTs with a high degree of efficiency and accuracy. By profiling at eight different time points, we captured dynamic changes in gene expression, phenotypes, and metabolic processes associated with GT development. By integrating weighted gene co-expression network analysis with CGTDM measurements, we established correlations between phenotypic variations in GT traits and the global transcriptome profiles across the developmental gradient. Notably, we identified a module containing methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-responsive genes that significantly correlated with stalked GT density and cannabinoid content during development, suggesting the existence of a MeJA-mediated GT formation pathway. Our findings were further supported by the successful promotion of GT development in cannabis through exogenous MeJA treatment. Importantly, we have identified CsMYC4 as a key transcription factor that positively regulates GT formation via MeJA signaling in cannabis. These findings provide novel tools for GT detection and counting, as well as valuable information for understanding the molecular regulatory mechanism of GT formation, which has the potential to facilitate the molecular breeding, targeted engineering, informed harvest timing, and manipulation of cannabinoid production.

Eco-Friendly Sanitization of Indoor Environments: Effectiveness of Thyme Essential Oil in Controlling Bioaerosol Levels and Disinfecting Surfaces

Bioaerosols and pathogens in indoor workplaces and residential environments are the primary culprits of several infections. Techniques for sanitizing air and surfaces typically involve the use of UV rays or chemical sanitizers, which may release chemical residues harmful to human health. Essential oils, natural substances derived from plants, which exhibit broad antimicrobial properties, could be a viable alternative for air and surface sanitation. The objective of this study has been to investigate the efficacy of thyme essential oil (TEO) in environmental sanitation processes. In Vitro assays through agar well diffusion, disk volatilization and tube dilution methods revealed significant antimicrobial activity of TEO 100% against foodborne and environmental isolates, with both bacteriostatic/fungistatic and bactericidal/fungicidal effects. Therefore, aqueous solutions of TEO 2.5% and 5% were formulated for air sanitation through nebulization and surface disinfection via direct contact. Bioaerosol samples and surface swabs were analyzed before and after sanitation, demonstrating the efficacy of aqueous solutions of TEO in reducing mesophilic and psychrophilic bacteria and environmental fungi levels in both air and on surfaces. The obtained results prove the antimicrobial potential of aqueous solutions of TEO in improving indoor air quality and surface cleanliness, suggesting thyme essential oil as an effective and safe natural sanitizer with minimal environmental impact compared to dangerous chemical disinfectants.

Therapeutic Effects of Essential Oils and Their Bioactive Compounds on Prostate Cancer Treatment

Since prostate cancer (PCa) relies on limited therapies, more effective alternatives are required. Essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive compounds are natural products that have many properties including anticancer activity. This review covers studies published between 2000 and 2023 and discusses the anti-prostate cancer mechanisms of the EOs from several plant species and their main bioactive compounds. It also provides a critical perspective regarding the challenges to be overcome until they reach the market. EOs from chamomile, cinnamon, Citrus species, turmeric, Cymbopogon species, ginger, lavender, Mentha species, rosemary, Salvia species, thyme and other species have been tested in different PCa cell lines and have shown excellent results, including the inhibition of cell growth and migration, the induction of apoptosis, modulation in the expression of apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes and the suppression of angiogenesis. The most challenging aspects of EOs, which limit their clinical uses, are their highly lipophilic nature, physicochemical instability, photosensitivity, high volatility and composition variability. The processing of EO-based products in the pharmaceutical field may be an interesting alternative to circumvent EOs' limitations, resulting in several benefits in their further clinical use. Identifying their bioactive compounds, therapeutic effects and chemical structures could open new perspectives for innovative developments in the field. Moreover, this could be helpful in obtaining versatile chemical synthesis routes and/or biotechnological drug production strategies, providing an accurate, safe and sustainable source of these bioactive compounds, while looking at their use as gold-standard therapy in the close future.

Antimicrobial Activity of Individual Volatile Compounds from Various Essential Oils

Interest in natural remedies has grown recently due to a variety of public health concerns such as microbial antibiotic resistance. This global health concern necessitates innovative approaches to combat bacterial infections. Building upon established therapeutic uses of essential oils, this research focused on the volatile constituents of essential oils. The volatile antimicrobial activity of these constituents was studied by employing a derivative of a modified disk diffusion assay for quantitative comparisons. This study emphasizes the significance and value of exploring natural compounds as alternatives to traditional antibiotics and provides insights into their mechanisms and applications in contending with bacterial pathogens.

Inhibitory effect of natural compounds on quorum sensing system in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a helpful promise for managing biofilm community

Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm is a community of bacteria that adhere to live or non-living surfaces and are encapsulated by an extracellular polymeric substance. Unlike individual planktonic cells, biofilms possess a notable inherent resistance to sanitizers and antibiotics. Overcoming this resistance is a substantial barrier in the medical and food industries. Hence, while antibiotics are ineffective in eradicating P. aeruginosa biofilm, scientists have explored alternate strategies, including the utilization of natural compounds as a novel treatment option. To this end, curcumin, carvacrol, thymol, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, coumarin, catechin, terpinene-4-ol, linalool, pinene, linoleic acid, saponin, and geraniol are the major natural compounds extensively utilized for the management of the P. aeruginosa biofilm community. Noteworthy, the exact interaction of natural compounds and the biofilm of this bacterium is not elucidated yet; however, the interference with the quorum sensing system and the inhibition of autoinducer production in P. aeruginosa are the main possible mechanisms. Noteworthy, the use of different drug platforms can overcome some drawbacks of natural compounds, such as insolubility in water, limited oral bioavailability, fast metabolism, and degradation. Additionally, drug platforms can deliver different antibiofilm agents simultaneously, which enhances the antibiofilm potential of natural compounds. This article explores many facets of utilizing natural compounds to inhibit and eradicate P. aeruginosa biofilms. It also examines the techniques and protocols employed to enhance the effectiveness of these compounds.

Characterization and investigation of cytotoxicity and antimicrobial properties of coencapsulated limonene and thymol into the Ferula assafoetida gum microparticles

Thymol (Th) and d-limonene (L) exhibit low stability and are prone to oxidation when exposed to air, light, humidity, and high temperatures. This study examined the coencapsulation of Th and L into Ferula assafoetida gum (AFG) microparticles. Scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) were done to characterize the obtained complexes. Furthermore, the encapsulation efficiency, antibacterial properties, cytotoxicity, and anticancer properties of both the free and encapsulated forms of L and Th were measured. For all samples, by increasing the percentage of bioactive compound (L, Th, and L-Th) from 2.5 to 5 % w/w, the EE was increased. FTIR and XRD analysis results demonstrated that Th and L were successfully incorporated into the AFG. Additionally, thermogravimetric analysis showed that in the thermal graphs of all samples, the first weight loss occurred between 30 °C and 160 °C, which was due to the evaporation of water. In the free L and Th graph, a sharp reduction peak was observed in which 80 % of compounds were lost. These reduction peaks disappeared in the thermal graphs of L: AFG and Th: AFG revealing that the thermal stability of Th and L was significantly increased upon their incorporation into the AFG. The inclusion of Th into the AFG also led to an increase in its antibacterial activity, while L exhibited acceptable antibacterial activity, albeit not as high as Th. Additionally, according to the MIC results, Th: AFG had the best antibacterial activity among all compounds, especially on gram-positive bacteria. According to the result of the MTT assay, there was a significant difference between the IC50 of free Th (123.4 μg/ml) and Th: AFG (2312 μg/ml), and free L (1762 μg/ml) and L: AFG (2480 μg/ml) showing that encapsulated Th and L into the AFG has decreased the cytotoxicity of free compounds against L929 cell line. Also, Th: AFG had the best anticancer activity against Hella and CT26 cell lines among all compounds. Finally, the flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that the encapsulated particles effectively eliminated cancer cells. The outcomes imply that AFG can be employed as a suitable delivery system to enhance the use of Th and L into the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Ippia Alba Essential Oil: A Promising Complementary Therapy for Breast Cancer

Breast cancer remains a pressing global health issue, spurring exploration into innovative therapies. This review focuses on Lippia alba (Mill.) essential oil's potential as a complementary breast cancer treatment. With growing interest in natural approaches, Lippia alba shows promise in breast cancer management. The review will explore Lippia alba's multifaceted role in treatment, highlighting its anticancer effects on breast cancer cells, potential synergy with conventional treatments, safety profiles, and existing clinical evidence. It will also address knowledge gaps, stressing the need for further research to unlock Lippia alba's full therapeutic potential in breast cancer therapy. In a field craving novel therapies, this review offers a timely analysis. Despite the lack of existing reviews on this topic, Lippia alba's significance cannot be understated. As research progresses, this article will be a valuable resource for researchers and healthcare practitioners seeking to augment breast cancer management through complementary therapies.

Nanogel-based composites for bacterial antibiofilm activity: advances, challenges, and prospects

Nano-based approaches, particularly nanogels, have recently emerged as a potential strategy for combating biofilm-related infections. Their exceptional characteristics including biocompatibility, biodegradability, stability, high water content, stimuli-responsiveness, and their nano size (which enables their penetration into biofilms) make nanogels a promising technology in the biomedical field. However, exploring nanogels for biofilm treatment remains in its early stages. This review examined the status of nanogels application for the treatment of bacterial biofilms. Recent investigations studied nanogels derived from natural polymers like chitosan (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA), and alginate, among others, for eliminating and inhibiting biofilms. These nanogels were utilized as carriers for diverse antibiofilm agents, encompassing antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides, natural extracts, and nanoparticles. Utilizing mechanisms like conventional antibody-mediated pathways, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, chemodynamic therapy, and EPS degradation, these nanogels effectively administered antibiofilm drugs, exhibiting efficacy across several bacterial strains, notably Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), and Escherichia coli (E. coli), among others. Despite showing promise, nanogels remain relatively underexplored in biofilm treatment. This review concludes that research gaps are still present in biofilm treatment processes including (i) a better understanding of the stimuli-responsive behaviors of nanogels, (ii) active targeting strategies, and (iii) the narrow spectrum of antibiofilm agents loaded into nanogels. Hence, future studies could be directed towards the following elements: the exploration of multi-strain biofilms rather than single-strain biofilms, other endogenous and exogenous stimuli to trigger drug release, active targeting mechanisms, a broader range of antibiofilm agents when employing nanogels, and fostering more comprehensive and reliable biofilm treatment strategies. This review found that there are currently several research gaps as well in the use of nanogels for biofilm therapy, and these include: (i) very limited exogenous and endogenous stimuli were explored to trigger drug release from nanogels, (ii) the active targeting strategies were not explored, (iii) a very narrow spectrum of antibiofilm agents was loaded into nanogels, and (iv) only biofilms of single strains were investigated.

Immunomodulatory and anticytokine therapeutic potential of three Indian spices constituents and its hyaluronic acid conjugates for prevention and post COVID-19 complications: a computational modeling approach

Targeted drug delivery to SARS-CoV-2 host target proteins for preventing or blocking COVID-19 infection is making serious concern during COVID-19 pandemic and its consequent waves around the globe. People seek reliable, effective folkloric preventive medication for immediate and precautionary relief from COVID-19. These folkloric medicines were effective and saved many patients during the past COVID-19 pandemic. The current research study aims to deliver antiviral Indian spices phytocompounds and their hyaluronic acid conjugates to human host target proteins (ACE-2, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, PAR-1) of SARS-CoV-2 to inhibit virus propagation and also to regulate early clinical complications of COVID-19. Targeted drug delivery of hyaluronic acid conjugated traditional natural bioactive agent produces more effective and fewer side effects in delivering novel drugs to human host proteins of COVID-19. In silico molecular docking study of six phytocompounds from three Indian spices and standard drug atazanavir and its hyaluronic acid conjugates reveals that phytocompounds and its hyaluronic acid conjugates possess high affinity to binding pockets of SARS-CoV-2 human host targets with more binding affinity scores. Most notably HA cyclocurcumin exhibit a docking score -9.9 kcal/mol against ACE-2 (PDB ID 1R42) target protein similarly HA-Hydrazinocurcumin exhibit a docking score -9.8 kcal/mol against PAR-1 (PDB ID 3VW7). ADMET validation of phytocompounds and their hyaluronic acid conjugates reveals its best pharmacokinetic profile over standard antiviral drug especially HA cyclocurcumin conjugate possesses high HIA (86%) and good pharmacokinetic profiles. DFT analysis affirms the reason behind the higher binding affinity of hyaluronic acid conjugates of spices phytocompounds towards all screened target proteins especially HA-hydrazinocurcumin conjugate possess high softness (19.1570 eV) and low hardness (0.0522 eV) values. Finally, MD simulation of best-docked compounds against ACE-2 and PAR-1 target protein revealed that hyaluronic acid conjugates of Indian spices compounds exhibit stable RMSD values and more protein-ligand interactions during simulation than hyaluronic acid conjugates of drug atazanavir.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A novel device for the determination of liposome/water partition coefficients

A novel, cheap and easy-to-construct device and a simple method for partition coefficient determination in liposome/water system based on modified equilibrium dialysis have been developed. The device consists of two vials separated by a semi-permeable membrane, through which the free form of a low molecular weight substance is transported by shaking assisted diffusion. Five test substances, eugenol, carvacrol, thymol, 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (4-HBA) and butylparaben were analyzed after equilibration in aqueous phase by three methods, HPLC-UV, GC-MS and DPV with comparable results. This shows the possibility of using the proposed method in any laboratory with any equipment capable of analyzing the substance under study. The liposome/water partition coefficients (log Pl/w) determined for eugenol (2.39), thymol (2.83), carvacrol (2.78) and butylparaben (3.30) are consistent with previously published data. A strong effect of NaCl on the liposome/water partition coefficient was observed. The value of log Pl/w = 1.06 determined for 4-HBA in the presence of 0.15 mol L-1 NaCl in the partitioning liposomal system was considerably lower than in the absence of the salt (log Pl/w = 2.06). The developed method was used to determine the partition coefficient of morphine in liposome/water system without NaCl (log Pl/w = 2.65) under given conditions.

Effects of Supplementation with Oregano Essential Oil during Late Gestation and Lactation on Serum Metabolites, Antioxidant Capacity and Fecal Microbiota of Sows

A total of 20 healthy white × landrace sows were evenly and randomly divided into two groups, and fed basal diets unsupplemented or supplemented with 500 g/t Meriden-Stim® from day 100 of gestation until day 21 of lactation. Serum and fecal samples were collected from the sows on the final day for subsequent analysis. Compared to the control group, there were no significant differences in the sows' performances; however, an increase was observed in the piglets' weight at weaning (p = 0.08). Moreover, oregano essential oil (OEO) significantly reduced the levels of urea (UREA) (p < 0.01), total cholesterol (TC) (p < 0.05), low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C) (p < 0.05) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (p < 0.05) in serum. In terms of antioxidant indexes in serum, the catalase (CAT) and glutathione (GSH) levels showed significant increases (p < 0.05) while the malondialdehyde (MDA) level exhibited a decrease tendency (p = 0.09). 16S rRNA analysis identified the specific bacteria taxa in feces. OEO significantly decreased the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria at the phylum level (p < 0.05). At the genus level, OEO significantly increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Prevotellaceae UCG 003 and UCG 005, while decreasing that of Escherichia-Shigella (p < 0.05). Taken together, OEO supplementation in maternal diets during late gestation and lactation improved serum metabolites, antioxidant capacity and regulated the intestinal-flora balance of sows, thereby tending to increase the piglets' weight at weaning.

The immunogenic profile and immunomodulatory function of mesenchymal stromal / stem cells in the presence of Ptychotis verticillata

Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) are considered to be a promising immunotherapeutic tool due to their easy accessibility, culture expansion possibilities, safety profile, and immunomodulatory properties. Although several studies have demonstrated the therapeutic effects of MSCs, their efficacy needs to be improved while also preserving their safety. It has been suggested that cell homeostasis may be particularly sensitive to plant extracts. The impact of natural compounds on immunity is thus a fascinating and growing field. Ptychotis verticillata and its bioactive molecules, carvacrol and thymol, are potential candidates for improving MSC therapeutic effects. They can be used as immunotherapeutic agents to regulate MSC functions and behavior during immunomodulation. Depending on their concentrations and incubation time, these compounds strengthened the immunomodulatory functions of MSCs while maintaining their immune-evasive profile. Incubating MSCs with carvacrol and thymol does not alter their hypoimmunogenicity, as no induction of the allogeneic immune response was observed. MSCs also showed enhanced abilities to reduce the proliferation of activated T cells. Thus, MSCs are immunologically responsive to bioactive molecules derived from PV. The bioactivity may depend on the whole phyto-complex of the oil. These findings may contribute to the development of safe and efficient immunotherapeutic MSCs by using medicinal plant-derived active molecules.

Mitigation of high-fat diet-induced hepatic steatosis by thyme (Thymus quinquecostatus Celak) polyphenol-rich extract (TPE): insights into gut microbiota modulation and bile acid metabolism

Our previous study demonstrated that thyme polyphenol-rich extract (TPE) mitigated hepatic injury induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) through the regulation of lipid metabolism, promotion of short-chain fatty acid production, enhancement of intestinal barrier function, and attenuation of inflammation. In this study, we aimed to further elucidate additional mechanisms underlying TPE-mediated preventive effects on hepatic steatosis, with a specific focus on its impact on the gut microbiota and bile acid (BA) metabolism in HFD-fed mice. TPE treatment resulted in a significant reduction in serum total BA levels and a notable increase in fecal total BA levels. In particular, elevations in fecal conjugated BA levels, in turn, impede intestinal farnesoid X receptor (FXR) signaling, thereby enhancing hepatic synthesis and fecal excretion of BAs. The downregulated mRNA expression levels of intestinal Fxr and Fgf15, and hepatic Fgfr4, along with the upregulated mRNA expression levels of Cyp7a1 and Cyp27a1 after TPE treatment also prove the above inference. Meanwhile, TPE appeared to promote BA efflux and enterohepatic circulation, as evidenced by changes in the mRNA levels of Bsep, Ntpc, Shp, Asbt, Ibabp, and Ostα/β. TPE also modulated the gut microbiota and was characterized by an increased relative abundance of Lactobacillus. Furthermore, antibiotic treatment depleted the intestinal flora in mice, also abrogating the hepatoprotective effect of TPE against NAFLD. These findings collectively indicate that TPE effectively mitigates HFD-induced NAFLD by modulating the gut-liver axis, specifically targeting the gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism.

Monoterpenoids: An upcoming class of therapeutic agents for modulating cancer metastasis

Monoterpenoids, a sub-class of terpenoids, are secondary metabolites frequently extracted from the essential oils of aromatic plants. Their antitumor properties including antiproliferative, apoptotic, antiangiogenic, and antimetastatic effects along with other biological activities have been the subject of extensive study due to their diverse characteristics. In recent years, numerous investigations have been conducted to understand its potential anticancer impacts, specifically focusing on antiproliferative and apoptotic mechanisms. Metastasis, a malignancy hallmark, can exert either protective or destructive influences on tumor cells. Despite this, the potential antimetastatic and antiangiogenic attributes of monoterpenoids need further exploration. This review focuses on specific monoterpenoids, examining their effects on metastasis and relevant signaling pathways. The monoterpenoids exhibit a high level of complexity as natural products that regulate metastatic proteins through various signaling pathways, including phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin, mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase/jun N-terminal kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, vascular endothelial growth factor, and epithelial mesenchymal transition process. Additionally, this review delves into the biosynthesis and classification of monoterpenoids, their potential antitumor impacts on cell lines, the plant sources of monoterpenoids, and the current status of limited clinical trials investigating their efficacy against cancer. Moreover, monoterpenoids depict promising potential in preventing cancer metastasis, however, inadequate clinical trials limit their drug usage. State-of-the-art techniques and technologies are being employed to overcome the challenges of utilizing monoterpenoids as an anticancer agent.

Phytochemical Analysis, Antioxidant, Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory, Hemagglutinin and Hemolytic Activities of Chemically Characterized Extracts from Origanum grosii (L.) and Thymus pallidus (L.)

Origanum grosii (L.) and Thymus pallidus (L.) are medicinal plants recognized for their uses in traditional medicine. In this context, the aim of this article is to highlight the results of a phytochemical analysis (HPLC), with particular emphasis on the antioxidant (DPPH, TAC, and FRAP), analgesic, anti-inflammatory, haemagglutinin-test-related, and hemolytic activities of the total extracts of these plants. Phytochemical analysis via HPLC revealed that licoflavone C (30%) is the main compound in Origanum grosii, while hesperidin (43%) is found in T. pallidus. Evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of Origanum grosii and Thymus pallidus using the DPPH, TAC, and FRAP methods revealed an IC50 of the order of 0.085 mg/mL and 0.146 mg/mL, an EC50 of the order of 0.167 mg/mL and 0.185 mg/mL, and a total antioxidant capacity of between 750 mg EQ/g and 900 mg EQ/g, respectively. Analgesic evaluations revealed writhes inhibition of the order of 97.83% for O. grosii and 90% for T. pallidus. In addition, both plant extracts showed limited hemolytic activity, not exceeding 30% at a concentration of 100 mg/mL. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory potential showed edema inhibition of the order of 94% (800 mg/kg) for O. grosii and 86% (800 mg/kg) for T. pallidus. These results highlight the potential applications of these extracts in pharmacological research.

Anti H. pylori, anti-secretory and gastroprotective effects of Thymus vulgaris on ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in Sprague Dawley rats

The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the acute toxicity, gastroprotective, therapeutic, anti-inflammatory and anti H. pylori activities of T. vulgaris total plant extract against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in Sprague Dawley rats. Animals were divided into five groups i.e G-1 (Normal Control), Group 2 (ulcer control) were administered orally with 0.5% Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), Group 3 (omeprazole treated) was administered orally with 20 mg/kg of omeprazole and Groups 4 and 5 (Low dose and High dose of the extract) were administered orally with 250, and 500 mg/ kg of Thymus vulgaris extract, respectively. After 1 hour, the normal group was orally administered with 0.5% CMC (5 ml/kg), whereas absolute alcohol (5ml/ kg) was orally administered to the ulcer control group, omeprazole group, and experimental groups. Stomachs were examined macroscopically and microscopically. Grossly, rats pre-treated with T. vulgaris demonstrated significantly decreased ulcer area and an increase in mucus secretion and pH of gastric content compared with the ulcer control group. Microscopy of gastric mucosa in the ulcer control group showed severe damage to gastric mucosa with edema and leukocytes infiltration of the submucosal layer. However, rats pretreated with omeprazole or Thyme vulgaris exhibited a mild to moderate disruption of the surface epithelium and lower level of edema and leukocyte infiltration of the submucosal layer. The T. vulgaris extract caused up-regulation of Hsp70 protein, down-regulation of Bax protein, and intense periodic acid Schiff uptake of the glandular portion of the stomach. Gastric mucosal homogenate of rats pre-treated with T. vulgaris exhibited significantly increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities while malondialdehyde (MDA) level was significantly decreased. Based on the results showed in this study, Thymus vulgaris extract can be proposed as the safe medicinal plants for use and it has considerable gastroprotective potential via stomach epithelium protection against gastric ulcers and stomach lesions.

Anti-obesity Properties of Phytochemicals: Highlighting their Molecular Mechanisms against Obesity

Obesity is a complex, chronic and inflammatory disease that affects more than one-third of the world's population, leading to a higher incidence of diabetes, dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, and some types of cancer. Several phytochemicals are used as flavoring and aromatic compounds, also exerting many benefits for public health. This study aims to summarize and scrutinize the beneficial effects of the most important phytochemicals against obesity. Systematic research of the current international literature was carried out in the most accurate scientific databases, e.g., Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar, using a set of critical and representative keywords, such as phytochemicals, obesity, metabolism, metabolic syndrome, etc. Several studies unraveled the potential positive effects of phytochemicals such as berberine, carvacrol, curcumin, quercetin, resveratrol, thymol, etc., against obesity and metabolic disorders. Mechanisms of action include inhibition of adipocyte differentiation, browning of the white adipose tissue, inhibition of enzymes such as lipase and amylase, suppression of inflammation, improvement of the gut microbiota, and downregulation of obesity-inducing genes. In conclusion, multiple bioactive compounds-phytochemicals exert many beneficial effects against obesity. Future molecular and clinical studies must be performed to unravel the multiple molecular mechanisms and anti-obesity activities of these naturally occurring bioactive compounds.

Investigation of Volatile Components and Assessment of Antioxidant Potential in Seven Lamiaceae Plant Hydrosols

Aromatic plants of the family Lamiaceae, especially of the genus Thymus, have promising antioxidant applications in pharmacology, medicine, food, cosmetology, and aromatherapy. Hydrosols (HDs) were extracted by hydrodistillation from seven species of Lamiaceae, including Thymus vulgaris, Thymus mongolicus, Mentha × piperita, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinali, Salvia elegans, and Leonurus artemisia. In total, 369 volatile components were determined and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Among them, alcohols (2.86-28.48%), ethers (2.46-10.69%), and phenols (0.11-21.78%) constituted a large proportion, mainly linalool (0.28-19.27%), eucalyptol (0.16-6.97%), thymol (0-19.54%), and carvacrol (0-26.82%). Multivariate statistical analyses were performed and 27 differential metabolites were screened. Three different methods (ABTS+•, DPPH•, and FRAP) were used to determine the in vitro antioxidant activity of seven HDs. Thymus vulgaris hydrosols (Tv HDs) and Thymus mongolicus hydrosols (Tm HDs) had the strongest antioxidant activity and their stronger antioxidant capacity was related to their high levels of phenolic constituents, mainly thymol. The antioxidant activity of the other five Lamiaceae HDs was associated with their high alcohol (mainly linalool and eucalyptol) content, and the alcohol constituents may synergistically affect their antioxidant capacity. Therefore, the present study suggests that Lamiaceae plants can be utilized as antioxidant products or antioxidants in different industrial sectors including pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, and agrochemicals.

Natural Terpenes Inhibit the Cytopathogenicity of Naegleria fowleri Causing Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis in the Human Cell Line Model

Naegleria fowleri is one of the free-living amoebae and is a causative agent of a lethal and rare central nervous system infection called primary amoebic meningoencephalitis. Despite the advancement in antimicrobial chemotherapy, the fatality rate in the reported cases is more than 95%. Most of the treatment drugs used against N. fowleri infection are repurposed drugs. Therefore, a large number of compounds have been tested against N. fowleri in vitro, but most of the compounds showed high toxicity. To overcome this, we evaluated the effectiveness of naturally occurring terpene compounds against N. fowleri. In this study, we evaluated the antiamoebic potential of natural compounds including Thymol, Borneol, Andrographolide, and Forskolin againstN. fowleri. Thymol showed the highest amoebicidal activity with IC50/24 h at 153.601 ± 19.6 μM. Two combinations of compounds Forskolin + Thymol and Forskolin + Borneol showed a higher effect on the viability of trophozoites as compared to compounds alone and hence showed a synergistic effect. The IC50 reported for Forskolin + Thymol was 81.30 ± 6.86 μM. Borneol showed maximum cysticidal activity with IC50/24 h at 192.605 ± 3.01 μM. Importantly, lactate dehydrogenase release testing revealed that all compounds displayed minimal cytotoxicity to human HaCaT, HeLa, and SH-SY5Y cell lines. The cytopathogenicity assay showed that Thymol and Borneol also significantly reduced the host cell cytotoxicity of pretreated amoeba toward the human HaCaT cell line. So, these terpene compounds hold potential as therapeutic agents against infections caused by N. fowleri and are potentially a step forward in drug development against this deadly pathogen as these compounds have also been reported to cross the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, an in vivo study using animal models is necessary to assess the efficacy of these compounds and the need for further research into the intranasal route of delivery for the treatment of these life-threatening infections.

Thyme Extract Alleviates High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity and Gut Dysfunction

Prolonged intake of a high-fat diet (HFD) disturbs the composition of gut microbiota, contributing to the development of metabolic diseases, notably obesity and increased intestinal permeability. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), an aromatic plant, is known for its several therapeutic properties. In this study, we explored the potential of thyme extract (TLE) to mitigate HFD-induced metabolic derangements and improve the gut environment. Eight-week-old C57BL/6 mice were administered 50 or 100 mg/kg TLE for eight weeks. Administration of 100 mg/kg TLE resulted in decreased weight gain and body fat percentage, alongside the regulation of serum biomarkers linked to obesity induced by a HFD. Moreover, TLE enhanced intestinal barrier function by increasing the expression of tight junction proteins and ameliorated colon shortening. TLE also altered the levels of various metabolites. Especially, when compared with a HFD, it was confirmed that 2-hydroxypalmitic acid and 3-indoleacrylic acid returned to normal levels after TLE treatment. Additionally, we investigated the correlation between fecal metabolites and metabolic parameters; deoxycholic acid displayed a positive correlation with most parameters, except for colon length. In contrast, hypoxanthine was negatively correlated with most parameters. These results suggest a promising role for thyme in ameliorating obesity and related gut conditions associated with a HFD.

Tailoring and optimization of a honey-based nanoemulgel loaded with an itraconazole-thyme oil nanoemulsion for oral candidiasis

The use of essential oil-based nanoemulsions (NEs) has been the subject of extensive research on a variety of conditions affecting the oral cavity. NEs are delivery methods that improve the solubility and distribution of lipid medicines to the intended areas. Because of their antibacterial and antifungal properties, itraconazole and thyme oil-based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (ItZ-ThO-SNEDDS) were created to protect oral health against oral microorganisms. The ItZ-ThO-SNEDDS were created utilizing an extreme verices mixture design, and varying concentrations of ThO (10% and 25%), labrasol (40% and 70%), and transcutol (20% and 40%) were used. The ItZ-ThO-SNEDDS had droplet sizes of less than 250 nm, a drug-loading efficiency of up to 64%, and a fungal growth inhibition zone of up to 20 mm. The accepted design was used to obtain the ideal formulation, which contained ThO in the amount of 0.18 g/ml, labrasol 0.62 g/ml, and transcutol 0.2 g/ml. The best ItZ-ThO-SNEDDS formulation was incorporated into a honey-based gel, which demonstrated improved release of ItZ in vitro and improved transbuccal permeation ex vivo. In addition, when compared with various formulations tested in rats, the optimized loaded emulgel decreased the ulcer index. This study therefore demonstrated that the ItZ-ThO-SNEDDS could offer an effective defense against oral diseases caused by microbial infections.

New insights into the cytotoxic effects of Thymus vulgaris essential oil on the human triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231

Essential oils (EOs) are natural products that have gained wide interest due to their biological activities and anticancer properties through various mechanisms. The present study aimed to test the cytotoxicity of Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) EO of Italian origin, rich in thymol (49.6%) and p-cymene (18.8%), towards the triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 and to investigate the biochemical mechanisms underlying its antitumor activity. Thyme EO reduced cancer cell viability in a dose-dependent manner after 24 h treatment, with an IC50 value equal to 75.1 ± 15.2 μg/ml; simultaneously, the inhibition of cancer cell migration and colony formation capacity was evidenced. Thyme EO antiproliferative effects were related to the induction of apoptosis as demonstrated by the increased expression of the pro-apoptotic proteins Bax, cleaved caspase-3, phospho-p53, and SMAC/Diablo and by the reduction of the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, cIAP-1, cIAP-2, HIF-1α, survivin, and XIAP. Thyme EO administration led to the early formation of intracellular ROS, followed by the increment of MDA as an index of lipid peroxidation and by the decreased expression of the antioxidant enzymes catalase and PON2. The upregulation of Nrf2 mRNA expression and the strong induction of HO-1 sustained the activation of the Nrf2 pathway by thyme EO. These data showed that the EO from Thymus vulgaris L. might inhibit the malignant phenotype of MDA-MB-231, thus suggesting potential benefits against human triple-negative breast cancer.

Impact of sodium alginate-based film loaded with resveratrol and thymol on the shelf life of cooked sausage and the inoculated Listeria monocytogenes

In present study, sodium alginate biodegradable films containing different concentrations of resveratrol (RES: 0.002% and 0.004%) or thymol (THY: 0.5% and 1%) and their combinations were prepared, and evaluated for their effects on spoilage-related microbial profile, lipid oxidation, sensory properties, and protective effects against Listeria monocytogenes in beef mortadella sausage during 40 days storage at 4°C. The release rate of phenolic compounds was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu test. To assess the shelf life of the product, changes in total viable count (TVC), lactic acid bacteria count (LAB), psychrotrophic bacteria count (PTC), pH levels, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels, and sensory characteristics (taste, color, odor, and overall acceptability) were evaluated. For the sensory evaluation, a panel of 70 semi-trained judges was selected according to their initial performance. Samples wrapped with sodium alginate films containing 1% THY (alone or combined with different concentrations of RES) exhibited lower bacterial counts compared to other experimental groups at the end of the storage period (6.01-6.35 vs. 6.71-8.17 log10 CFU/g for TVC, 5.37-5.83 vs. 6.07-7.11 log10 CFU/g for LAB, 5.08-5.18 vs. 5.40-7.23 log10 CFU/g for PTC, and 6.53-6.92 vs. 7.23-9.01 log10 CFU/g for inoculated L. monocytogenes). Sodium alginate films containing the combination of 0.004% RES and different concentrations of THY showed higher antioxidant effects than other experimental groups (TBARS values of 1.68-1.99 vs. 2.23-3.80 mg MDA/kg sample). The sodium alginate film containing 0.004% RES + 1% THY exhibited the highest antimicrobial and antioxidant activities and highest sensory scores among all treatments. These findings highlight the potential application of the sodium alginate film containing a combination of RES and THY as an active packaging material with natural preservatives in the meat products industry. This application can effectively extend the shelf life and enhance the microbial safety of clean-label cooked sausages during refrigerated storage.

Structural Isomers: Small Change with Big Difference in Anion Storage

Organic electrode materials are promising for batteries. However, the reported organic electrodes are often facing the challenges of low specific capacity, low voltage, poor rate capability and vague charge storage mechanisms, etc. Isomers are good platform to investigate the charge storage mechanisms and enhance the performance of batteries, which, however, have not been focused in batteries. Herein, two isomers are reported for batteries. As a result, the isomer tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) could store two monovalent anions reversibly, deriving an average discharge voltage of 1.05 V and a specific capacity of 220 mAh g-1 at a current density of 2 C. On the other hand, the other isomer tetrathianaphthalene could only reversibly store one monovalent anion and upon further oxidation, it would undergo an irreversible solid-state molecular rearrangement to TTF. The molecular rearrangement was confirmed by electrochemical performances, X-ray diffraction patterns, nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, and 1H detected heteronuclear multiple bond correlation spectra. These results suggested the small structural change could lead to a big difference in anion storage, and we hope this work will stimulate more attention to the structural design for boosting the performance of organic batteries.

Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Properties of the Subfamily Nepetoideae (Lamiaceae) in Inflammatory Diseases

Nepetoideae is the most diverse subfamily of Lamiaceae, and some species are well known for their culinary and medicinal uses. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the therapeutic properties of the species of this group regarding inflammatory illnesses. This study aims to collect information on traditional uses through ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and phytochemical information of the subfamily Nepetoideae related to inflammatory diseases. UNAM electronic resources were used to obtain the information. The analysis of the most relevant literature was compiled and organised in tables. From this, about 106 species of the subfamily are traditionally recognised to alleviate chronic pain associated with inflammation. Pharmacological studies have been carried out in vitro and in vivo on approximately 308 species belonging to the genera Salvia, Ocimum, Thymus, Mentha, Origanum, Lavandula, and Melissa. Phytochemical and pharmacological evaluations have been performed and mostly prepared as essential oil or high polarity extracts, whose secondary metabolites are mainly of a phenolic nature. Other interesting and explored metabolites are diterpenes from the abietane, clerodane, and kaurane type; however, they have only been described in some species of the genera Salvia and Isodon. This review reveals that the Nepetoideae subfamily is an important source for therapeutics of the inflammatory process.

Effects of Harvest Timing on Phytochemical Composition in Lamiaceae Plants under an Environment-Controlled System

The Lamiaceae family is widely recognized for its production of essential oils and phenolic compounds that have promising value as pharmaceutical materials. However, the impact of environmental conditions and different harvest stages on the phytochemical composition of Lamiaceae plants remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the effects of harvest time on the phytochemical composition, including rosmarinic acid (RA) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), of four Lamiaceae plants-Korean mint (AR), lemon balm (MO), opal basil (OBP), and sage (SO)-and was conducted under an environment-controlled system. Although all four plants had RA as the dominant compound, its distribution varied by species. The flowered plants, including AR and OBP, exhibited a rapid increase of RA during the transition from the vegetative stage to the reproductive stage. In contrast, non-flowered groups, including MO and SO, showed a steady increase in the content of total phenolics and RA. The main components of VOCs also differed depending on the plant, with characteristic fragrance compounds identified for each one (AR: estragole; MO: (Z)-neral and geranial; OBP: methyl eugenol, eugenol, and linalool; and SO: (Z)-thujone, camphor, and humulene). The total VOCs content was highest on the 60th day after transplanting regardless of the species, while the trends of total phenolics, RA content, and antioxidant activities were different depending on whether plant species flowered during the cultivation cycle. There was a steady increase in species that had not flowered, and the highest content and activity of the flowering period were confirmed in the flowering plant species.

Current and Potential Applications of Monoterpenes and Their Derivatives in Oral Health Care

Plant products have been employed in medicine for centuries. As the world becomes more health-conscious, there is a growing interest in natural and minimally processed products for oral health care. This has led to an increase in research into the bioactive compounds found in plant products, particularly monoterpenes. Monoterpenes are known to have beneficial biological properties, but the specific mechanisms by which they exert their effects are not yet fully understood. Despite this, some monoterpenes are already being used in oral health care. For example, thymol, which has antibacterial properties, is an ingredient in varnish used for caries prevention. In addition to this, monoterpenes have also demonstrated antifungal, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties, making them versatile for various applications. As research continues, there is potential for even more discoveries regarding the benefits of monoterpenes in oral health care. This narrative literature review gives an overview of the biological properties and current and potential applications of selected monoterpenes and their derivatives in oral health care. These compounds demonstrate promising potential for future medical development, and their applications in future research are expected to expand.

Thymus atlanticus: A Source of Nutrients with Numerous Health Benefits and Important Therapeutic Potential for Age-Related Diseases

Thymus atlanticus (Lamiaceae) is a plant endemic to the Mediterranean basin that is found in significant quantities in the arid regions of Morocco. Thymus atlanticus is used in traditional medicine to treat infectious and non-infectious diseases. It is also used for the isolation of essential oils and for the seasoning of many dishes in the Mediterranean diet. The major constituents of Thymus atlanticus are saponins, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, various simple and hydroxycinnamic phenolic compounds, and terpene compounds. Several of these compounds act on signaling pathways of oxidative stress, inflammation, and blood sugar, which are parameters often dysregulated during aging. Due to its physiochemical characteristics and biological activities, Thymus atlanticus could be used for the prevention and/or treatment of age-related diseases. These different aspects are treated in the present review, and we focused on phytochemistry and major age-related diseases: dyslipidemia, cardiovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes.

Cutting-edge knowledge on the roles of phytobiotics and their proposed modes of action in swine

With the ban on antibiotics in the swine industry, the exploration of alternative options has highlighted phytobiotics as a promising substitute for antibiotic growth promoters, aiming to foster a more sustainable swine industry. Phytobiotics are non-nutritive natural bioactive components derived from plants that offer numerous health benefits. They exhibit antioxidative, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects. Phytobiotics can be utilized in various forms, including solid, dried, ground, or as extracts, either in crude or concentrated form. They are characterized by low residual levels, a lack of resistance development, and minimal adverse effects. These qualities make phytobiotics an attractive choice for enhancing health and productivity in swine, presenting them as a viable alternative to antibiotics. While there is a general understanding of the effects of phytobiotics, there is still a need for detailed information regarding their effectiveness and mechanisms of action in practical settings. Therefore, the purpose of this mini review was to summarize the current knowledge supporting the roles of phytobiotics and their proposed modes of action, with a specific focus on swine.

The effect of induced polyploidy on phytochemistry, cellular organelles and the expression of genes involved in thymol and carvacrol biosynthetic pathway in thyme (Thymus vulgaris)

Induced polyploidy usually results in larger vegetative and reproductive plant organs. In order to study the effect of chromosome doubling on Thymus vulgaris, three levels of colchicine concentration including 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5% (w/v) were applied for 6, 12 and 24 hours on apical meristem of 2- and 4-leaf seedlings. Ploidy level was evaluated by flow cytometry and microscopic chromosome counting. Chemical composition of essential oils extracted by hydro-distillation was analyzed by gas Chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas Chromatography (GC). The application of 0.3% colchicine at 4-leaf seedling for 6 hours resulted in the highest survival rate and the highest number of tetraploid plants. Cytogenetic and flow cytometry analyses confirmed the increase of chromosome number from 2n=2x=30 in diploids to 2n=4x=60 in induced tetraploids. Tetraploid plants had larger leaves, taller and thicker stems, dense branching, longer trichome, larger stomata, larger guard cells, and decreased number of stomata. The number of chloroplasts and mitochondria increased significantly in tetraploid plants by 1.66 and 1.63 times, respectively. The expression of CYP71D178, CYP71D180 and CYP71D181 increased in tetraploids by 3.27, 7.39 and 2.15 times, respectively, probably resulting in higher essential oil compounds, as tetraploids outyielded the diploid plants by 64.7% in essential oil, 40.9% in thymol and 18.6% in carvacrol content.

Oxidative stress, hormones, and effects of natural antioxidants on intestinal inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic, relapsing gastrointestinal (GI) disorder characterized by intestinal inflammation. The etiology of IBD is multifactorial and results from a complex interplay between mucosal immunity, environmental factors, and host genetics. Future therapeutics for GI disorders, including IBD, that are driven by oxidative stress require a greater understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the GI tract, oxidative stressors include infections and pro-inflammatory responses, which boost ROS generation by promoting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) represent two important signaling pathways in intestinal immune cells that regulate numerous physiological processes, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Natural antioxidant compounds exhibit ROS scavenging and increase antioxidant defense capacity to inhibit pro-oxidative enzymes, which may be useful in IBD treatment. In this review, we discuss various polyphenolic substances (such as resveratrol, curcumin, quercetin, green tea flavonoids, caffeic acid phenethyl ester, luteolin, xanthohumol, genistein, alpinetin, proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins, silymarin), phenolic compounds including thymol, alkaloids such as berberine, storage polysaccharides such as tamarind xyloglucan, and other phytochemicals represented by isothiocyanate sulforaphane and food/spices (such as ginger, flaxseed oil), as well as antioxidant hormones like melatonin that target cellular signaling pathways to reduce intestinal inflammation occurring with IBD.

Thyme (Thymus quinquecostatus Celak) Polyphenol-Rich Extract (TPE) Alleviates HFD-Induced Liver Injury in Mice by Inactivating the TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway through the Gut-Liver Axis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a significant and urgent global health concern. Thyme (Thymus quinquecostatus Celak) is a plant commonly used in cuisine and traditional medicine in Asian countries and possesses potential liver-protective properties. This study aimed to assess the hepatoprotective effects of thyme polyphenol-rich extract (TPE) on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD and further explore possible mechanisms based on the gut-liver axis. HFD-induced liver injury in C57 mice is markedly ameliorated by TPE supplementation in a dose-dependent manner. TPE also regulates the expression of liver lipid metabolic genes (i.e., Hmgcr, Srebp-1, Fasn, and Cyp7a1), enhancing the production of SCFAs and regulating serum metabolites by modulating gut microbial dysbiosis. Furthermore, TPE enhances the intestinal barrier function and alleviates intestinal inflammation by upregulating tight junction protein expression (i.e., ZO-1 and occluding) and inactivating the intestinal TLR4/NF-κB pathway in HFD-fed mice. Consequently, gut-derived LPS translocation to the circulation was blocked, the liver TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway was repressed, and subsequent pro-inflammatory cytokine production was restrained. Conclusively, TPE might exert anti-NAFLD effects through the gut-liver axis and has the potential to be used as a dietary supplement for the management of NAFLD.

The anticancer effects of thymol on HepG2 cell line

There is an increasing incidence of liver cancer, which is a hazard for global health. The present study was designed to evaluate possible cytotoxic, genotoxic, apoptotic, oxidant and antioxidant effects of thymol on hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line. The cytotoxic effect of thymol on HepG2 cell line was determined by XTT test. We also used the HUVEC cell line to show whether thymol damages healthy cells. Oxidative stress level was determined with Total Oxidant Status (TOS) and Total Antioxidant Status (TAS) measurement kits. Apoptosis of cells was detected in flow cytometry with Annexin V apoptosis kit. Apoptotic gene expressions were analyzed by real-time PCR. Genotoxicity was determined by comet assay, which measures DNA damage. The thymol IC50 dose was found to be 11 μM on HepG2 cell line. This dose had no lethal effect on the healthy HUVEC cell line. While thymol significantly decreased the TOS level, it increased the TAS level significantly in HepG2 cells compared to control. Thymol significantly induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells (apoptosis rate in control group 1%, in thymol group 21%). Thymol did not alter the gene expressions of bax, bcl-2, and casp3, all of which are associated with apoptosis. Statistically significant change in favor of genotoxicity was observed in tail length measurements. Our results suggest that thymol decreases oxidative stress in HepG2 cell line, but it induces apoptosis and genotoxicity.

Remnants from the Past: From an 18th Century Manuscript to 21st Century Ethnobotany in Valle Imagna (Bergamo, Italy)

BACKGROUND

This project originated from the study of an 18th century manuscript found in Valle Imagna (Bergamo, Italy) which contains 200 plant-based medicinal remedies. A first comparison with published books concerning 20th century folk medicine in the Valley led to the designing of an ethnobotanical investigation, aimed at making a thorough comparison between past and current phytotherapy knowledge in this territory.

METHODS

The field investigation was conducted through semi-structured interviews. All data collected was entered in a database and subsequently processed. A diachronic comparison between the field results, the manuscript, and a 20th century book was then performed.

RESULTS

A total of 109 interviews were conducted and the use of 103 medicinal plants, belonging to 46 families, was noted. A decrease in number of plant taxa and uses was observed over time, with only 42 taxa and 34 uses reported in the manuscript being currently known by the people of the valley. A thorough comparison with the remedies in the manuscript highlighted similar recipes for 12 species. Specifically, the use of agrimony in Valle Imagna for the treatment of deep wounds calls back to an ancient remedy against leg ulcers based on this species.

CONCLUSIONS

The preliminary results of this study allow us to outline the partial passage through time fragments of ancient plant-based remedies once used in the investigated area.

Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Effects of Different Samples of Five Commercially Available Essential Oils

Essential oils (EOs) have gained economic importance due to their biological activities, and increasing amounts are demanded everywhere. However, substantial differences between the same essential oil samples from different suppliers are reported-concerning their chemical composition and bioactivities-due to numerous companies involved in EOs production and the continuous development of online sales. The present study investigates the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of two to four samples of five commercially available essential oils (Oregano, Eucalyptus, Rosemary, Clove, and Peppermint oils) produced by autochthonous companies. The manufacturers provided all EOs' chemical compositions determined through GC-MS. The EOs' bioactivities were investigated in vitro against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). The antibacterial and antibiofilm effects (ABE% and, respectively, ABfE%) were evaluated spectrophotometrically at 562 and 570 nm using microplate cultivation techniques. The essential oils' calculated parameters were compared with those of three standard broad-spectrum antibiotics: Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid, Gentamycin, and Streptomycin. The results showed that at the first dilution (D1 = 25 mg/mL), all EOs exhibited antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria tested, and MIC value > 25 mg/mL. Generally, both effects progressively decreased from D1 to D3. Only EOs with a considerable content of highly active metabolites revealed insignificant differences. E. coli showed the lowest susceptibility to all commercially available essential oils-15 EO samples had undetected antibacterial and antibiofilm effects at D2 and D3. Peppermint and Clove oils recorded the most significant differences regarding chemical composition and antibacterial/antibiofilm activities. All registered differences could be due to different places for harvesting the raw plant material, various technological processes through which these essential oils were obtained, the preservation conditions, and complex interactions between constituents.

Preparation of covalent organic framework-based nanofibrous films with temperature-responsive release of thymol for active food packaging

Thymol (THY) is commonly used in active food packaging, however because of its high volatility, poor water solubility, and strong aromatic odor, the application of THY is facing challenges. Herein, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) were synthesized in room temperature by asymmetric monomer exchange method for THY encapsulation, and solution blow spinning was used to fabricate the THY@COF/polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibrous films. The synthesized COFs had a large specific surface area, porous structure, and loading capacity of 30.35% for THY, and THY@COFs possessed good thermal stability. Characterization analysis showed that THY@COFs were successfully incorporated into the PCL films and increased the barrier property of the films. Besides, the films showed good biocompatibility and antibacterial activity. Moreover, THY@COF/PCL films exhibited temperature-responsive THY release profiles, which is important for practical preservation applications, especially for preserving food in warm environments. Overall, THY@COF/PCL films possess promising potential in active food packaging.

Anticancer potential of Origanum munzurense extract against MCF-7 breast cancer cell

Origanum munzurense (O. munzurense) is an endemic species of Tunceli region of Turkey. In this study, we investigated in vitro anticancer effect of aqueous extract of O. munzurense (OME) on breast cancer cells (MCF-7). In vitro cytotoxic effect of OME was evaluated in MCF-7 cells by MTT assay. The wound-healing assay was used to examine the inhibition of migration. Annexin V/propidium iodide staining, cell-cycle distribution was assessed by flow cytometry for MCF-7 cells treated with OME. MTT results show that OME demonstrated in vitro cytotoxicity with 600 mg at 48 h on MCF-7. Doses of 400 µg/mL and 600 µg/mL OME significantly suppressed the migration rate of MCF-7 cells. OME significantly decreased the percentage of live cancer cells and showed an apoptotic effect after 48 h of incubation. These results show that OME is effective against breast cancer when administered at high doses and for a long time.

Comparative Amino Acid Profile and Antioxidant Activity in Sixteen Plant Extracts from Transylvania, Romania

In addition to the naturopathic medicines based on the antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, or antioxidant properties of plant extracts that have been capitalized upon through the pharmaceutical industry, the increasing interest of the food industry in this area requires potent new materials capable of supporting this market. This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro amino acid contents and antioxidant activities of ethanolic extracts from sixteen plants. Our results show high accumulated amino acid contents, mainly of proline, glutamic, and aspartic acid. The most consistent values of essential amino acids were isolated from T. officinale, U. dioica, C. majus, A. annua, and M. spicata. The results of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-pycrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay indicate that R. officinalis was the most potent antioxidant, followed by four other extracts (in decreasing order): T. serpyllum, C. monogyna, S. officinalis, and M. koenigii. The network and principal component analyses found four natural groupings between samples based on DPPH free radical scavenging activity content. Each plant extracts' antioxidant action was discussed based on similar results found in the literature, and a lower capacity was observed for most species. An overall ranking of the analyzed plant species can be accomplished due to the range of experimental methods. The literature review revealed that these natural antioxidants represent the best side-effect-free alternatives to synthetic additives, especially in the food processing industry.

Effects of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) Essential Oil on Aging-Induced Brain Inflammation and Blood Telomere Attrition in Chronologically Aged C57BL/6J Mice

Chronological aging is commonly accompanied by chronic low-grade inflammation (or "inflammaging"), a contributor to the development of age-related chronic diseases. Aging increases oxidative stress that accelerates telomere shortening, leading to cell senescence and the generation of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) that exacerbates inflammation. Dietary antioxidants may help protect telomeres and attenuate inflammation. Thyme essential oil (TEO), reported for its potency against neuroinflammation, was fed to chronologically aged C57BL/6J mice for 24 weeks. The TEO diet showed notable impacts on the hippocampus, indicated by lower expression of the aging-related gene p16^INK4A (p = 0.0783) and significantly lower expression of cyclin D kinase Cdk4 and Cdk6 (p < 0.05) compared to the age-matched control mice. The TEO group also showed significantly lower gene expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine Il6 (p < 0.05) in the hippocampus and lower Il1b expression in the liver and cerebellum (p < 0.05). In vitro experiments conducted on NIH-3T3 cells expressing SASP revealed the dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity of TEO. Remarkably, TEO diet-fed mice showed higher survival rates and significantly longer blood telomere lengths than the control mice. Monoterpene antioxidants in TEO, particularly thymol and p-cymene, may primarily contribute to the anti-inflammatory and telomere-protecting activities of TEO.

Engineered Cross-Linked Silane with Urea Polymer Thin Durable Coatings onto Polymeric Films for Controlled Antiviral Release of Activated Chlorine and Essential Oils

In March 2020, the World Health Organization announced a pandemic attributed to SARS-CoV-2, a novel beta-coronavirus, which spread widely from China. As a result, the need for antiviral surfaces has increased significantly. Here, the preparation and characterization of new antiviral coatings on polycarbonate (PC) for controlled release of activated chlorine (Cl⁺) and thymol separately and combined are described. Thin coatings were prepared by polymerization of 1-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl] urea (TMSPU) in ethanol/water basic solution by modified Stöber polymerization, followed by spreading the formed dispersion onto surface-oxidized PC film using a Mayer rod with appropriate thickness. Activated Cl-releasing coating was prepared by chlorination of the PC/SiO₂-urea film with NaOCl through the urea amide groups to form a Cl-amine derivatized coating. Thymol releasing coating was prepared by linking thymol to TMSPU or its polymer via hydrogen bonds between thymol hydroxyl and urea amide groups. The activity towards T4 bacteriophage and canine coronavirus (CCV) was measured. PC/SiO₂-urea-thymol enhanced bacteriophage persistence, while PC/SiO₂-urea-Cl reduced its amount by 84%. Temperature-dependent release is presented. Surprisingly, the combination of thymol and chlorine had an improved antiviral activity, reducing the amount of both viruses by four orders of magnitude, indicating synergistic activity. For CCV, coating with only thymol was inactive, while SiO₂-urea-Cl reduced it below a detectable level.

Genotoxic Potential of Thymol on Honey Bee DNA in the Comet Assay

Thymol is a natural essential oil derived from the plant Thymus vulgaris L. It is known to be beneficial for human and animal health and has been used in beekeeping practice against Varroa mite for years. In this study, the genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential of thymol were evaluated on the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) continuous cell line AmE-711 for the first time. Using the Comet assay, three increasing concentrations (10, 100, and 1000 µg/mL) of thymol were tested. Negative control (non-treated cells) and positive control (cells treated with 100 µM H₂O₂) were also included. The absence of thymol cytotoxicity was confirmed with the Trypan blue exclusion test. Thymol in the concentration of 10 µg/mL did not increase DNA damage in AmE-711 honey bee cells, while 100 and 1000 µg/mL concentrations showed genotoxic effects. For testing the antigenotoxic effect, all concentrations of thymol were mixed and incubated with H₂O₂. The antigenotoxic effect against was absent at all concentrations (10, 100, 1000 μg/mL) tested. Moreover, thymol enhanced the H₂O₂-induced DNA migration in the Comet assay. The obtained results indicate genotoxic effects of thymol on cultured honey bee cells suggesting its careful application in beekeeping practice to avoid possible negative effects on honey bees.

The Potential Use of Plant Growth Regulators for Modification of the Industrially Valuable Volatile Compounds Synthesis in Hylocreus undatus Stems

The pitaya (dragon fruit) Hylocereus is a genus which belongs to the Cactaceae family. It is native to Mexico, occurring also in other regions of Central and South America. Pitaya fruit is mainly intended for consumption and for this reason the species is grown commercially. The fruit is a rich source of vitamins, biologically active compounds, and dietary fibre. Using in vitro culture can accelerate the process of reproduction and growth of pitaya plants. Profiling of volatile compounds contained in the stem of Hylocereus undatus was carried out using the SPME-GC-MS technique. The main compounds present were hexanal, 2-hexenal and 1-hexanol. The results showed differences in the occurrence of volatile compounds between plants grown in media with an addition of BA (6-benzylaminopurine) and IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), which have been used as plant growth regulators. Statistically significant differences between the contents of volatile compounds were observed in the case of 2-hexenal and 1-hexanol. The effect of BA on reducing the amount of volatile compounds was observed. However, introduction of IAA to the in vitro medium resulted in more compounds being synthesized. This study is the first to describe the volatile compounds in the pitaya stem. The results indicate that plant hormones are able to modify the profile of volatile compounds.

Carvacrol-A Natural Phenolic Compound with Antimicrobial Properties

The main purpose of this article is to present the latest research related to selected biological properties of carvacrol, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity. As a monoterpenoid phenol, carvacrol is a component of many essential oils and is usually found in plants together with its isomer, thymol. Carvacrol, either alone or in combination with other compounds, has a strong antimicrobial effect on many different strains of bacteria and fungi that are dangerous to humans or can cause significant losses in the economy. Carvacrol also exerts strong anti-inflammatory properties by preventing the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by inducing SOD, GPx, GR, and CAT, as well as reducing the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the body. It also affects the body's immune response generated by LPS. Carvacrol is considered a safe compound despite the limited amount of data on its metabolism in humans. This review also discusses the biotransformations of carvacrol, because the knowledge of the possible degradation pathways of this compound may help to minimize the risk of environmental contamination with phenolic compounds.

On the Future Perspectives of Some Medicinal Plants within Lamiaceae Botanic Family Regarding Their Comprehensive Properties and Resistance against Biotic and Abiotic Stresses

Lamiaceae is one of the largest botanical families, encompassing over 6000 species that include a variety of aromatic and medicinal spices. The current study is focused on three plants within this botanical family: basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), and summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.). These three species contain primary and secondary metabolites such as phenolic and flavonoid compounds, fatty acids, antioxidants, and essential oils and have traditionally been used for flavoring, food preservation, and medicinal purposes. The goal of this study is to provide an overview of the nutraceutical, therapeutic, antioxidant, and antibacterial key features of these three aromatics to explore new breeding challenges and opportunities for varietal development. In this context, a literature search has been performed to describe the phytochemical profile of both primary and secondary metabolites and their pharmacological uses, as well as to further explore accession availability in the medicine industry and also to emphasize their bioactive roles in plant ecology and biotic and abiotic stress adaptability. The aim of this review is to explore future perspectives on the development of new, highly valuable basil, summer savory, and thyme cultivars. The findings of the current review emphasize the importance of identifying the key compounds and genes involved in stress resistance that can also provide valuable insights for further improvement of these important medicinal plants.