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Sun Z, Chen Z, Chung Lan Mow MC, Liao X, Wei X, Ma G, Wang X, Yu H. Chloramine Disinfection of Levofloxacin and Sulfaphenazole: Unraveling Novel Disinfection Byproducts and Elucidating Formation Mechanisms for an Enhanced Understanding of Water Treatment. Molecules 2024; 29:396. [PMID: 38257310 PMCID: PMC10820186 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29020396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The unrestricted utilization of antibiotics poses a critical challenge to global public health and safety. Levofloxacin (LEV) and sulfaphenazole (SPN), widely employed broad-spectrum antimicrobials, are frequently detected at the terminal stage of water treatment, raising concerns regarding their potential conversion into detrimental disinfection byproducts (DBPs). However, current knowledge is deficient in identifying the potential DBPs and elucidating the precise transformation pathways and influencing factors during the chloramine disinfection process of these two antibiotics. This study conducts a comprehensive analysis of reaction pathways, encompassing piperazine ring opening/oxidation, Cl-substitution, OH-substitution, desulfurization, and S-N bond cleavage, during chloramine disinfection. Twelve new DBPs were identified in this study, exhibiting stability and persistence even after 24 h of disinfection. Additionally, an examination of DBP generation under varying disinfectant concentrations and pH values revealed peak levels at a molar ratio of 25 for LEV and SPN to chloramine, with LEV contributing 11.5% and SPN 23.8% to the relative abundance of DBPs. Remarkably, this research underscores a substantial increase in DBP formation within the molar ratio range of 1:1 to 1:10 compared to 1:10 to 1:25. Furthermore, a pronounced elevation in DBP generation was observed in the pH range of 7 to 8. These findings present critical insights into the impact of the disinfection process on these antibiotics, emphasizing the innovation and significance of this research in assessing associated health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Xiaoxuan Wei
- College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Yingbin Avenue 688, Jinhua 321004, China; (Z.S.); (M.C.C.L.M.)
| | | | | | - Haiying Yu
- College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Yingbin Avenue 688, Jinhua 321004, China; (Z.S.); (M.C.C.L.M.)
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Nascimento RO, Prado FM, Massafera MP, Di Mascio P, Ronsein GE. Dehydromethionine is a common product of methionine oxidation by singlet molecular oxygen and hypohalous acids. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 187:17-28. [PMID: 35580773 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Methionine is one of the main targets for biological oxidants. Its reaction with the majority of oxidants generates only methionine sulfoxide. However, when N-terminal methionine reacts with hypohalous acids (HOCl and HOBr) or singlet molecular oxygen (1O2), it can also generate a cyclic product called dehydromethionine (DHM). Previously, DHM was suggested as a biomarker of oxidative stress induced by hypohalous acids. However, DHM can also be generated by 1O2 -oxidation of methionine, and the contribution of this pathway of DHM formation in a context of a site-specific redox imbalance in an organism is unknown. In this work, a through comparison of the reactions of hypohalous acids and 1O2 with methionine, either free or inserted in peptides and proteins was undertaken. In addition, we performed methionine photooxidation in heavy water (H218O) to determine the influence of the pH in the mechanism of DHM formation. We showed that for free methionine, or methionine-containing peptides, the yields of DHM formation in the reactions with 1O2 were close to those achieved by HOBr oxidation, but much higher than the yields obtained with HOCl as the oxidant. This was true for all pH tested (5, 7.4, and 9). Interestingly, for the protein ubiquitin, DHM yields after reaction with 1O2 were higher than those obtained with both hypohalous acids. Our results indicate that 1O2 may also be an important source of DHM in biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fernanda Manso Prado
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Mariana Pereira Massafera
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Paolo Di Mascio
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil.
| | - Graziella Eliza Ronsein
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil.
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Arnhold J, Malle E. Halogenation Activity of Mammalian Heme Peroxidases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11050890. [PMID: 35624754 PMCID: PMC9138014 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11050890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian heme peroxidases are fascinating due to their unique peculiarity of oxidizing (pseudo)halides under physiologically relevant conditions. These proteins are able either to incorporate oxidized halides into substrates adjacent to the active site or to generate different oxidized (pseudo)halogenated species, which can take part in multiple (pseudo)halogenation and oxidation reactions with cell and tissue constituents. The present article reviews basic biochemical and redox mechanisms of (pseudo)halogenation activity as well as the physiological role of heme peroxidases. Thyroid peroxidase and peroxidasin are key enzymes for thyroid hormone synthesis and the formation of functional cross-links in collagen IV during basement membrane formation. Special attention is directed to the properties, enzymatic mechanisms, and resulting (pseudo)halogenated products of the immunologically relevant proteins such as myeloperoxidase, eosinophil peroxidase, and lactoperoxidase. The potential role of the (pseudo)halogenated products (hypochlorous acid, hypobromous acid, hypothiocyanite, and cyanate) of these three heme peroxidases is further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Arnhold
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Leipzig University, 04107 Leipzig, Germany
- Correspondence: (J.A.); or (E.M.)
| | - Ernst Malle
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Division of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Correspondence: (J.A.); or (E.M.)
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4
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Han Y, Zhou Y, Liu YD, Zhong R. Reaction Mechanisms of Histidine and Carnosine with Hypochlorous Acid Along with Chlorination Reactivity of N-Chlorinated Intermediates: A Computational Study. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:750-759. [PMID: 35436107 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) released from activated leukocytes not only plays a significant role in the human immune system but is also implicated in numerous diseases including atherosclerosis and some cancers due to its inappropriate production. Histidine (His) and carnosine (Car), as a respective mediator and protective agent of HOCl damage, have attracted considerable attention; however, their detailed reaction mechanisms are still unclear. In this study, using a His residue with two peptide bond groups (HisRes) as a model, the reaction mechanisms of HisRes and Car including NεH and NδH tautomers with HOCl along with the chlorination reactivity of N-chlorinated intermediates were investigated by quantum chemical methods. The obtained results indicate that in the imidazole side chain, the pyridine-like N is the most reactive site rather than the pyrrole-like N, and the kinetic order of all of the possible reaction sites in HisRes follows pyridine-like N > imidazole Cδ ≫ imidazole Cε > pyrrole-like N, while that in Car is pyridine-like N ≫ imidazole Cδ ≫ amide N. As for N-chlorinated intermediates at imidazole, although the unprotonated form has a low chlorination reactivity as expected, it can still chlorinate tyrosine. Especially, the protonated form exhibits similar ability to HOCl, causing secondary damage in vivo. N-Chlorinated Car features higher internal chlorine migration ability than its intermolecular transchlorination, preventing further HOCl-induced damage. Additionally, a generally overlooked nucleophilic Cl- shift is also found in N-chlorinated Car/HisRes, indicating that nucleophilic sites in biomolecules also need to be considered. The outcomes of this study are expected to expand our understanding of secondary damage and protective mechanisms involved in HOCl in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhou Han
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yingying Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yong Dong Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Rugang Zhong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental and Viral Oncology, Faculty of Environment and Life, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
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Pan Z, Zhu Y, Wei M, Zhang Y, Yu K. Interactions of fluoroquinolone antibiotics with sodium hypochlorite in bromide-containing synthetic water: Reaction kinetics and transformation pathways. J Environ Sci (China) 2021; 102:170-184. [PMID: 33637242 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2020.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Seven popular fluoroquinolone antibiotics (FQs) in synthetic marine aquaculture water were subject to sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) disinfection scenario to investigate their reaction kinetics and transformation during chlorination. Reactivity of each FQ to NaClO was following the order of ofloxacin (OFL) > enrofloxacin (ENR) > lomefloxacin (LOM) > ciprofloxacin (CIP) ~ norfloxacin (NOR) >> pipemedic acid (PIP), while flumequine did not exhibit reactivity. The coexisting chlorine ions and sulfate ions in the water slightly facilitated the oxidation of FQs by NaClO, while humic acid was inhibitable to their degradation. The bromide ions promoted degradation of CIP and LOM, but restrained oxidation of OFL and ENR. By analysis of liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), eight kinds of emerging brominated disinfection byproducts (Br-DBPs) caused by FQS were primarily identified in the chlorinated synthetic marine culture water. Through density functional theory calculation, the highest-occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest-unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) characteristic as well as the charge distribution of the FQs were obtained to clarify transformation mechanisms. Their formation involved decarboxylation, ring-opening/closure, dealkylation and halogenation. Chlorine substitution occurred on the ortho-position of FQs's N4 and bromine substitution occurred on C8 position. The piperazine ring containing tertiary amine was comparatively stable, while this moiety with a secondary amine structure would break down during chlorination. Additionally, logKow and logBAF of transformation products were calculated by EPI-SuiteTM to analyze their bioaccumulation. The values indicated that Br-DBPs are easier to accumulate in the aquatic organism relative to their chloro-analogues and parent compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihan Pan
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi Key Laboratory on the Study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Yunjie Zhu
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi Key Laboratory on the Study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Min Wei
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi Key Laboratory on the Study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi Key Laboratory on the Study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China.
| | - Kefu Yu
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi Key Laboratory on the Study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China
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Marron EL, Van Buren J, Cuthbertson AA, Darby E, von Gunten U, Sedlak DL. Reactions of α,β-Unsaturated Carbonyls with Free Chlorine, Free Bromine, and Combined Chlorine. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:3305-3312. [PMID: 33565865 PMCID: PMC9255599 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Chemical disinfectants employed in water and wastewater treatment can produce a variety of transformation products, including carbonyl compounds (e.g., saturated and unsaturated aldehydes and ketones). Experiments conducted under conditions relevant to chlorination at drinking water treatment plants and residual chlorine application in distribution systems indicate that α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds readily react with free chlorine and free bromine over a wide pH range but react slowly with combined chlorine (i.e., NH2Cl). For nearly all of the 11 α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds studied, the apparent second-order rate constants for the reaction with free chlorine increased in a linear manner with hypochlorite (OCl-) concentrations, yielding species-specific second-order rate constants for the reaction with OCl- ranging from 0.21 to 12 M-1 s-1. Predictions based on the second-order rate constants indicate that a substantial fraction (i.e., >60%) of several of the more prominent α,β-unsaturated carbonyls (e.g., acrolein, crotonaldehyde) will be transformed to an appreciable extent in distribution systems by free chlorine. Products from the reaction of chlorine with acrolein, crotonaldehyde, and methyl vinyl ketone were tentatively identified using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-HRT-MS). These products lacked unsaturated carbons and, in some cases, contained multiple halogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily L. Marron
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
- NSF Engineering Research Center for Reinventing the Nation’s Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt)
| | - Jean Van Buren
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - Amy A. Cuthbertson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - Emily Darby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
| | - Urs von Gunten
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - David L. Sedlak
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
- NSF Engineering Research Center for Reinventing the Nation’s Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt)
- corresponding author:
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7
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Königstorfer A, Ashby LV, Bollar GE, Billiot CE, Gray MJ, Jakob U, Hampton MB, Winterbourn CC. Induction of the reactive chlorine-responsive transcription factor RclR in Escherichia coli following ingestion by neutrophils. Pathog Dis 2021; 79:ftaa079. [PMID: 33351093 PMCID: PMC7797021 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftaa079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils generate hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and related reactive chlorine species as part of their defence against invading microorganisms. In isolation, bacteria respond to reactive chlorine species by upregulating responses that provide defence against oxidative challenge. Key questions are whether these responses are induced when bacteria are phagocytosed by neutrophils, and whether this provides them with a survival advantage. We investigated RclR, a transcriptional activator of the rclABC operon in Escherichia coli that has been shown to be specifically activated by reactive chlorine species. We first measured induction by individual reactive chlorine species, and showed that HOCl itself activates the response, as do chloramines (products of HOCl reacting with amines) provided they are cell permeable. Strong RclR activation was seen in E. coli following phagocytosis by neutrophils, beginning within 5 min and persisting for 40 min. RclR activation was suppressed by inhibitors of NOX2 and myeloperoxidase, providing strong evidence that it was due to HOCl production in the phagosome. RclR activation demonstrates that HOCl, or a derived chloramine, enters phagocytosed bacteria in sufficient amount to induce this response. Although RclR was induced in wild-type bacteria following phagocytosis, we detected no greater sensitivity to neutrophil killing of mutants lacking genes in the rclABC operon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Königstorfer
- Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, 2 Riccarton Ave, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
| | - Louisa V Ashby
- Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, 2 Riccarton Ave, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
| | - Gretchen E Bollar
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 845 19th St, Birmingham AL 35294, United States
| | - Caitlin E Billiot
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 845 19th St, Birmingham AL 35294, United States
| | - Michael J Gray
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 845 19th St, Birmingham AL 35294, United States
| | - Ursula Jakob
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, 1105 N-University, Ann Arbor MI 48109-1085, United States
| | - Mark B Hampton
- Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, 2 Riccarton Ave, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
| | - Christine C Winterbourn
- Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, 2 Riccarton Ave, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
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Li J, Jiang J, Manasfi T, von Gunten U. Chlorination and bromination of olefins: Kinetic and mechanistic aspects. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 187:116424. [PMID: 33038657 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is typically assumed to be the primary reactive species in free available chlorine (FAC) solutions. Lately, it has been shown that less abundant chlorine species such as chlorine monoxide (Cl2O) and chlorine (Cl2) can also influence the kinetics of the abatement of certain organic compounds during chlorination. In this study, the chlorination as well as bromination kinetics and mechanisms of 12 olefins (including 3 aliphatic and 9 aromatic olefins) with different structures were explored. HOCl shows a low reactivity towards the selected olefins with species-specific second-order rate constants <1.0 M-1s-1, about 4-6 orders of magnitude lower than those of Cl2O and Cl2. HOCl is the dominant chlorine species during chlorination of olefins under typical drinking water conditions, while Cl2O and Cl2 are likely to play important roles at high FAC concentration near circum-neutral pH (for Cl2O) or at high Cl- concentration under acidic conditions (for Cl2). Bromination of the 12 olefins suggests that HOBr and Br2O are the major reactive species at pH 7.5 with species-specific second-order rate constants of Br2O nearly 3-4 orders of magnitude higher than of HOBr (ranging from <0.01 to >103 M-1s-1). The reactivities of chlorine and bromine species towards olefins follow the order of HOCl < HOBr < Br2O < Cl2O ≈ Cl2. Generally, electron-donating groups (e.g., CH2OH- and CH3-) enhances the reactivities of olefins towards chlorine and bromine species by a factor of 3-102, while electron-withdrawing groups (e.g., Cl-, Br-, NO2-, COOH-, CHO-, -COOR, and CN-) reduce the reactivities by a factor of 3-104. A reasonable linear free energy relationship (LFER) between the species-specific second-order rate constants of Br2O or Cl2O reactions with aromatic olefins and their Hammett σ+ was established with a more negative ρ value for Br2O than for Cl2O, indicating that Br2O is more sensitive to substitution effects. Chlorinated products including HOCl-adducts and decarboxylated Cl-adduct were identified during chlorination of cinnamic acid by high-performance liquid chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC/HRMS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Li
- Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jin Jiang
- Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Tarek Manasfi
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, 8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Urs von Gunten
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland; Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, 8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland; Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Ashby LV, Springer R, Hampton MB, Kettle AJ, Winterbourn CC. Evaluating the bactericidal action of hypochlorous acid in culture media. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 159:119-124. [PMID: 32739594 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The bactericidal activity of the physiological oxidant hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is commonly studied in a variety of laboratory media. Reactive with numerous targets, HOCl will rapidly lose its toxicity via reduction or be converted to chloramines and other less toxic species. The objective of this study was to test the influence of various media, temperature and reaction time on the toxicity of HOCl. After incubating bacteria in media dosed with reagent HOCl, the bactericidal outcome was measured by colony forming ability. In parallel, we determined the HOCl and chloramine content after dosing media alone. Our results showed that more reagent HOCl was required to kill bacteria in culture media than in aqueous buffer, and this corresponded to the lower concentration of reactive chlorine species achieved in the media. RPMI and MOPS minimal medium retained significant oxidising equivalents after HOCl-dosing, but more nutrient-rich media such as MEM, DMEM, LB and TSB, had higher scavenging capacity. Other factors that lowered the bactericidal strength of HOCl were longer lag-times and raised temperature when pre-dosing media, and insufficient incubation time of cells with the HOCl-treated media. In summary, we demonstrate that the choice of media as well as procedural details within experiments crucially impact the cellular toxicity of HOCl. These factors influence the nature and concentration of oxidants generated, and therefore are critical in affecting cellular responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisa V Ashby
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand.
| | - Reuben Springer
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Mark B Hampton
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Anthony J Kettle
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Christine C Winterbourn
- Centre for Free Radical Research, Department of Pathology and Biomedical Science, University of Otago Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
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10
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Afsahi G, Bertinetto C, Hummel M, Kesari KK, Vuorinen T. Catalytic efficiency and stability of tertiary amines in oxidation of methyl 4-deoxy-β-L-threo-hex-4-enopyranosiduronic acid by hypochlorous acid. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2019.110413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Wang X, Li Y, Li R, Yang H, Zhou B, Wang X, Xie Y. Comparison of chlorination behaviors between norfloxacin and ofloxacin: Reaction kinetics, oxidation products and reaction pathways. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 215:124-132. [PMID: 30316154 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are very ubiquitous in water environment in China. The commonly application of free available chlorine (FAC) during water treatment stimulated the focus on the transformation of FQs during chlorination. Among these FQs, norfloxacin (NOR) and ofloxacin (OFL) are the representatives of secondary amine FQs and tertiary amine FQs, respectively. To better understand the difference between secondary amine FQs and tertiary amine FQs during chlorination, reaction kinetics, products and mechanisms were determined. The maximum kapp of NOR were four orders of magnitude higher than that of OFL. Moreover, eleven products of NOR and twelve products of OFL were obtained by LC-MS/MS analysis. For the two FQs, the common reactive sites were three nitrogen atoms, benzene ring, carboxyl group and double bond by chlorination. For OFL, the ether ring was also active in aqueous system. The formation mechanisms of these products were presented in this study. The main reaction pathways were electrophilic addition to nitrogen, nucleophilic substitution to benzene ring, halodecarboxylation of carboxyl group and hydrolysis of ether ring. Na2S2O3 as a reducing agent had large effect on the chlorination of secondary amine FQ, but no effect on tertiary amine FQ. Be different to secondary amine FQ, the opening of quinolone ring happened in tertiary amine FQ after halodecarboxylation of carboxyl group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yin Li
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ruiyang Li
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hongwei Yang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Beihai Zhou
- Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Xiaomao Wang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yuefeng Xie
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Civil and Environmental Engineering Programs, Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA 17057, USA
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Huang Y, Sheng B, Wang Z, Liu Q, Yuan R, Xiao D, Liu J. Deciphering the degradation/chlorination mechanisms of maleic acid in the Fe(II)/peroxymonosulfate process: An often overlooked effect of chloride. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 145:453-463. [PMID: 30189400 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.08.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, a significant effort has been devoted into investigating the effects of chloride on the degradation kinetics of aromatic pollutants. The impact of chloride on the decomposition of short-chain carboxylic acid intermediates from aromatics degradation has often been overlooked. In this study the roles of chloride in the oxidation of maleic acid (MA) in the Fe(II)/peroxymonosulfate (PMS) process was investigated. Degradation efficiency, reaction intermediates, adsorbable organic halogen (AOX) accumulation and mineralization were examined. The chloride ion (Cl-) was found to have an overall negative impact on MA degradation and mineralization in the Fe(II)/PMS system. The presence of Cl- led to the formation of chlorinated by-products and a high production of AOX. The mineralization of MA was decreased with increasing Cl- concentrations. Kinetic modeling demonstrated the impact of various radicals largely depended on the concentration of Cl-. The significance of Cl2•- or Cl2 for MA destruction was enhanced with increasing Cl- content, and overwhelmed that of SO4•- when the Cl- concentration was over 5 mM. In the absence of Cl-, SO4•- was the primary radical responsible for MA oxidation. A possible degradation pathway is proposed (cis-trans isomerization, decarboxylation and halogenations processes). These results may help to understand the full oxidation pathways of refractory aromatic compounds and the mechanism of chlorinated by-products formation in industrial saline wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Huang
- State Environmental Protection Engineering Center for Pollution Treatment and Control in Textile Industry, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Bo Sheng
- State Environmental Protection Engineering Center for Pollution Treatment and Control in Textile Industry, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Zhaohui Wang
- State Environmental Protection Engineering Center for Pollution Treatment and Control in Textile Industry, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China; School of Ecological and Environmental Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China.
| | - Qingze Liu
- State Environmental Protection Engineering Center for Pollution Treatment and Control in Textile Industry, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Ruixia Yuan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, 163318, China
| | - Dongxue Xiao
- East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Jianshe Liu
- State Environmental Protection Engineering Center for Pollution Treatment and Control in Textile Industry, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China
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13
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Wood TP, Basson AE, Duvenage C, Rohwer ER. The chlorination behaviour and environmental fate of the antiretroviral drug nevirapine in South African surface water. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 104:349-360. [PMID: 27572137 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The wastewater treatment process, besides discharging pharmaceuticals into the environment, has been found to result in the formation of a variety of undescribed compounds. Here we investigate the laboratory scale chlorination of the commonly used anti-HIV drug Nevirapine, characterise its disinfection transformation products (DTPs), and using liquid chromatography with high resolution mass spectrometry, screen environmental surface water for these DTPs. Chlorination of Nevirapine was scaled up, fractioned by preparative chromatography and the fractions were tested in vitro for toxicity and anti-HIV activity. Nevirapine was found to be resistant to degradation at relevant chlorination levels, which may partially explain its ubiquitous presence in South African surface water. During simulated chlorination, a variety of DTPs with varying properties were formed, some of which were detected in the environment, close to wastewater treatment plants. Interestingly, some of these compounds, although not as toxic as Nevirapine, retained antiviral activity. Further purification and synthesis is required to fully characterise these novel molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Paul Wood
- Protechnik Laboratories, A Division of ARMSCOR SOC Ltd, 103 Combretum Crescent, Centurion, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, Lynwood Road, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
| | - Adriaan Erasmus Basson
- Centre for HIV and STI: HIV Virology Section (Morris Laboratory), National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD), A Division of the National Health Laboratory Service (NHLS), 1 Modderfontein Road, Sandringham, 2131, South Africa.
| | - Cornelia Duvenage
- Department of Internal Medicine, 1 Military Hospital, South African Military Health Services, Voortrekker Street, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
| | - Egmont Richard Rohwer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, Lynwood Road, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
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14
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Specific role of taurine in the 8-brominated-2'-deoxyguanosine formation. Arch Biochem Biophys 2015; 586:45-50. [PMID: 26456401 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
At the sites of inflammation, hypohalous acids, such as hypochlorous acid and hypobromous acid (HOBr), are produced by myeloperoxidase. These hypohalous acids rapidly react with the primary amino groups to produce haloamines, which are relatively stable and can diffuse long distances and cross the plasma membrane. In this study, we examined the effects of taurine, the most abundant free amino acid in the leukocyte cytosol, on the hypohalous acid-dependent formation of 8-chloro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-CldG) and 8-bromo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-BrdG). The reaction of taurine with HOBr yielded taurine bromamine, which is the most stable among other bromamines of amino acids. Taurine also enhanced the bromination of only dG among the four 2'-deoxynucleosides, whereas it inhibited the 8-CldG formation. The specificity of taurine for the enhanced formation of halogenated dG is completely different from that of nicotine, an enhancer of chlorination. The amount of dibrominated taurine (taurine dibromamine) closely correlated with the formation of 8-BrdG, suggesting that taurine dibromamine might be a plausible mediator for the dG bromination in vivo.
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15
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Roemeling MD, Williams J, Beckman JS, Hurst JK. Imidazole catalyzes chlorination by unreactive primary chloramines. Free Radic Biol Med 2015; 82:167-78. [PMID: 25660996 PMCID: PMC4387080 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2015.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Hypochlorous acid and simple chloramines (RNHCl) are stable biologically derived chlorinating agents. In general, the chlorination potential of HOCl is much greater than that of RNHCl, allowing it to oxidize or chlorinate a much wider variety of reaction partners. However, in this study we demonstrate by kinetic analysis that the reactivity of RNHCl can be dramatically promoted by imidazole and histidyl model compounds via intermediary formation of the corresponding imidazole chloramines. Two biologically relevant reactions were investigated--loss of imidazole-catalyzed chlorinating capacity and phenolic ring chlorination using fluorescein and the tyrosine analog, 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid (HPA). HOCl reacted stoichiometrically with imidazole, N-acetylhistidine (NAH), or imidazoleacetic acid to generate the corresponding imidazole chloramines which subsequently decomposed. Chloramine (NH2Cl) also underwent a markedly accelerated loss in chlorinating capacity when NAH was present, although in this case N-α-acetylhistidine chloramine (NAHCl) did not accumulate, indicating that the catalytic intermediate must be highly reactive. Mixing HOCl with 1-methylimidazole (MeIm) led to very rapid loss in chlorinating capacity via formation of a highly reactive chlorinium ion (MeImCl(+)) intermediate; this behavior suggests that the reactive forms of the analogous imidazole chloramines are their conjugate acids, e.g., the imidazolechlorinium ion (HImCl(+)). HOCl-generated imidazole chloramine (ImCl) reacted rapidly with fluorescein in a specific acid-catalyzed second-order reaction to give 3'-monochloro and 3',5'-dichloro products. Equilibrium constants for the transchlorination reactions HOCl + HIm = H2O + ImCl and NH2Cl + HIm = NH3 + ImCl were estimated from the dependence of the rate constants on [HIm]/[HOCl] and literature data. Acid catalysis again suggests that the actual chlorinating agent is HImCl(+); consistent with this interpretation, MeIm markedly catalyzed fluorescein chlorination by HOCl. Time-dependent imidazole-catalyzed HPA chlorination by NH2Cl was also demonstrated by product analyses. Quantitative assessment of the data suggests that physiological levels of histidyl groups will react with primary chloramines to generate a flux of imidazole chloramine sufficient to catalyze biological chlorination via HImCl(+), particularly in environments that generate high concentrations of HOCl such as the neutrophil phagosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margo D Roemeling
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA
| | - Jared Williams
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA
| | - Joseph S Beckman
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA; Environmental Health Sciences Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA; Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA
| | - James K Hurst
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis OR, USA.
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16
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Oliveira OM, Brunetti IL, Khalil NM. Nicotine-enhanced oxidation of low-density lipoprotein and its components by myeloperoxidase/H2O2/Cl- system. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2015; 87:183-92. [DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201520140156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the effect of nicotine on the LDL oxidation by the MPO/H2O2/Cl- system and the effect of HOCl on LDL and some of its components, such as methyl linoleate, vitamin E and the amino acid tryptophan were explored. Nicotine, in micromolar concentrations, enhanced the tryptophan oxidation, either present in LDL or free, in solution. Nicotine also decreased the formation of conjugated dienes and oxygen consumption in a methyl linoleate / HOCl system, and there was evidence to suggest an increase in chlorohydrin formation. Acceleration of the vitamin E oxidation by HOCl was also observed in the presence of nicotine. These data show that the interaction of nicotine and HOCl can promote significant biochemical modifications in LDL particle and some of its components involved in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and other diseases.
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17
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Nascimento MA, Magri ME, Schissi CD, Barardi CR. Recombinant adenovirus as a model to evaluate the efficiency of free chlorine disinfection in filtered water samples. Virol J 2015; 12:30. [PMID: 25889833 PMCID: PMC4349469 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0259-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Brazil, ordinance no. 2,914/2011 of the Ministry of Health requires the absence of total coliforms and Escherichia coli (E. coli) in treated water. However it is essential that water treatment is effective against all pathogens. Disinfection in Water Treatment Plants (WTP) is commonly performed with chlorine. METHODS The recombinant adenovirus (rAdV), which expresses green fluorescent protein (GFP) when cultivated in HEK 293A cells, was chosen as a model to evaluate the efficiency of chlorine for human adenovirus (HAdV) inactivation in filtered water samples from two WTPs: Lagoa do Peri (pH 6.9) and Morro dos Quadros (pH 6.5). Buffered demand free (BDF) water (pH 6.9 and 8.0) was used as control. The samples were previously submitted to physicochemical characterization, and bacteriological analysis. Two free chlorine concentrations and two temperatures were assayed for all samples (0.2 mg/L, 0.5 mg/L, and 15°C, and 20°C). Fluorescence microscopy (FM) was used to check viral infectivity in vitro and qPCR as a molecular method to determine viral genome copies. Real treated water samples from the WTP (at the output of WTP and the distribution network) were also evaluated for total coliforms, E. coli and HAdV. RESULTS The time required to inactivate 4log₁₀ of rAdV was less than 1 min, when analyzed by FM, except for BDF pH 8.0 (up to 2.5 min for 4log₁₀). The pH had a significant influence on the efficiency of disinfection. The qPCR assay was not able to provide information regarding rAdV inactivation. The data were modeled (Chick-Watson), and the observed Ct values were comparable with the values reported in the literature and smaller than the values recommended by the EPA. In the treated water samples, HAdV was detected in the distribution network of the WTP Morro dos Quadros (2.75 × 10(3) PFU/L). CONCLUSION The Chick-Watson model proved to have adjusted well to the experimental conditions used, and it was possible to prove that the adenoviruses were rapidly inactivated in the surface water treated with chlorine and that the recombinant adenovirus expressing GFP is a good model for this evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana A Nascimento
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
| | - Maria E Magri
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
| | - Camila D Schissi
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
| | - Célia Rm Barardi
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
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18
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Panasenko OM, Gorudko IV, Sokolov AV. Hypochlorous acid as a precursor of free radicals in living systems. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2014; 78:1466-89. [PMID: 24490735 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297913130075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is produced in the human body by the family of mammalian heme peroxidases, mainly by myeloperoxidase, which is secreted by neutrophils and monocytes at sites of inflammation. This review discusses the reactions that occur between HOCl and the major classes of biologically important molecules (amino acids, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and inorganic substances) to form free radicals. The generation of such free radical intermediates by HOCl and other reactive halogen species is accompanied by the development of halogenative stress, which causes a number of socially important diseases, such as cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, infectious, and other diseases usually associated with inflammatory response and characterized by the appearance of biomarkers of myeloperoxidase and halogenative stress. Investigations aimed at elucidating the mechanisms regulating the activity of enzyme systems that are responsible for the production of reactive halogen species are a crucial step in opening possibilities for control of the development of the body's inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- O M Panasenko
- Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia.
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19
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Chenna NK, Jääskeläinen AS, Vuorinen T. Rapid and Selective Catalytic Oxidation of Hexenuronic Acid and Lignin in Cellulosic Fibers. Ind Eng Chem Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/ie4031924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Naveen Kumar Chenna
- Department
of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University School of Chemical Technology P.O. Box
00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Anna-Stiina Jääskeläinen
- Department
of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University School of Chemical Technology P.O. Box
00076, Aalto, Finland
- VTT Technical
Research Centre of Finland, Tietotie
2, P.O. Box 1000, Espoo, Finland
| | - Tapani Vuorinen
- Department
of Forest Products Technology, Aalto University School of Chemical Technology P.O. Box
00076, Aalto, Finland
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El Najjar NH, Deborde M, Journel R, Vel Leitner NK. Aqueous chlorination of levofloxacin: kinetic and mechanistic study, transformation product identification and toxicity. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:121-129. [PMID: 23084340 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to gain further insight into the fate of levofloxacin during the chlorination process. First, a kinetic study was thus performed at pH 7.2, 20 °C and in the presence of an excess of total chlorine. A slower apparent removal of levofloxacin (k ~ 26 M(-1) s(-1)) was noted when sodium thiosulfate was used to stop the chlorination reaction compared to the degradation observed without using a reducing agent (k ~ 4400 M(-1) s(-1)). The formation of a chlorammonium intermediate which could be converted back into the parent compound through a reaction with thiosulfate was thus expected. This intermediate would result from an initial chlorine attack on the tertiary amine function of levofloxacin. Secondly, four chlorination transformation products were detected by LC/UV/MS analysis. The chemical structures of two of them are proposed. It was suggested that these compounds could come from a secondary reaction of the chlorammonium intermediate on levofloxacin. A reactional pathway is then proposed. Finally, a bioassay using Vibrio fisheri was carried out to study the toxicity pattern during levofloxacin chlorination. An increase in toxicity was observed during chlorination suggesting that the first transformations products formed were more toxic than the parent compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasma Hamdi El Najjar
- University of Poitiers, Institute of Chemistry of Materials and Natural Resources, UMR CNRS 7285, Department of Water Chemistry and Water Treatment, ENSIP, Poitiers, France
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Inhibition by polyphenolic phytochemicals and sulfurous compounds of the formation of 8-chloroguanosine mediated by hypochlorous acid, human myeloperoxidase, and activated human neutrophils. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2012; 76:2208-13. [PMID: 23221717 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.120482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) produced by myeloperoxidase (MPO) of activated neutrophils can react with nucleic acid bases to form chlorinated nucleosides such as 8-chloroguanosine (Cl-Guo). Chlorination is enhanced by nicotine. We investigated the effects of various natural antioxidants including polyphenolic phytochemicals on the formation of Cl-Guo by HOCl in the presence and the absence of nicotine. Polyphenols, including catechins, curcumin, resveratrol, silibinin, and sulfurous compound α-lipoic acid, were found to inhibit both HOCl- and human MPO-induced Cl-Guo formation dose-dependently. Among the test compounds, (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) showed the strongest inhibitory effect. Cl-Guo formation, mediated by activated human neutrophils in the presence of nicotine, was inhibited by EGCG, silibinin, and α-lipoic acid. These results suggest that polyphenols and sulfurous compounds have the potential to inhibit the induction of nucleobase damage mediated by chlorination, with possible application to reducing DNA damage associated with inflammation and cigarette-smoke inhalation.
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22
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Bond T, Goslan EH, Parsons SA, Jefferson B. A critical review of trihalomethane and haloacetic acid formation from natural organic matter surrogates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2012.705895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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23
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Shah AD, Kim JH, Huang CH. Tertiary amines enhance reactions of organic contaminants with aqueous chlorine. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:6087-6096. [PMID: 21968217 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 09/03/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Through various anthropogenic inputs, tertiary amines can readily contaminate wastewater and drinking water sources and can form chlorammonium species (R(3)N(+)-Cl) during aqueous chlorine disinfection. This study investigated the less understood concept that these chlorammonium species can potentially enhance organic contaminant loss and increase disinfection byproduct formation to a greater extent than aqueous chlorine. Tertiary amines' effectiveness was highly dependent on amine structure as trimethylamine (TMA) and 4-morpholineethanesulfonic acid (MES) enhanced organic contaminant loss, while others (nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) and creatinine (CRE)) were ineffective. MES addition up to 25 μM led to increased organic contaminant chlorination by up to three orders of magnitude while observing pseudo-first order kinetic behavior and a linear amine dose response. TMA addition up to 0.5 μM accelerated organic contaminant chlorination by almost two orders of magnitude, but occasionally deviated from pseudo-first order kinetics with incomplete organic contaminant degradation and a non-linear amine dose response - a result linked to TMA's rapid auto-decomposition over time. Byproduct formation was identical with and without amine addition, and thus the chlorination mechanisms are likely similar to aqueous chlorine. Results from this study improve the mechanistic understanding behind tertiary amine-enhanced chlorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amisha D Shah
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 200 Bobby Dodd Way, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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Huerta-Fontela M, Galceran MT, Ventura F. Occurrence and removal of pharmaceuticals and hormones through drinking water treatment. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:1432-42. [PMID: 21122885 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Revised: 10/25/2010] [Accepted: 10/30/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of fifty-five pharmaceuticals, hormones and metabolites in raw waters used for drinking water production and their removal through a drinking water treatment were studied. Thirty-five out of fifty-five drugs were detected in the raw water at the facility intake with concentrations up to 1200 ng/L. The behavior of the compounds was studied at each step: prechlorination, coagulation, sand filtration, ozonation, granular activated carbon filtration and post-chlorination; showing that the complete treatment accounted for the complete removal of all the compounds detected in raw waters except for five of them. Phenytoin, atenolol and hydrochlorothiazide were the three pharmaceuticals most frequently found in finished waters at concentrations about 10 ng/L. Sotalol and carbamazepine epoxide were found in less than a half of the samples at lower concentrations, above 2 ng/L. However despite their persistence, the removals of these five pharmaceuticals were higher than 95%.
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25
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Ahmed AESI, Wardell JN, Thumser AE, Avignone-Rossa CA, Cavalli G, Hay JN, Bushell ME. Metabolomic profiling can differentiate between bactericidal effects of free and polymer bound halogen. J Appl Polym Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/app.32731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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26
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Kohler JE, Dubach JM, Naik HB, Tai K, Blass AL, Soybel DI. Monochloramine-induced toxicity and dysregulation of intracellular Zn2+ in parietal cells of rabbit gastric glands. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2010; 299:G170-8. [PMID: 20430873 PMCID: PMC2904116 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00355.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Monochloramine (NH(2)Cl) is a potent, thiol-directed oxidant capable of oxidizing thiol (S-H) residues in a wide variety of proteins. Generated in the stomach by the interaction of bacterial and host products, monochloramine has been shown to dysregulate Ca(2+) homeostasis and disrupt mucosal integrity. In this report, we show that monochloramine also leads to disturbances in intracellular free zinc concentration ([Zn(2+)](i)) in the gastric gland of the rabbit and that the increased Zn(2+) within the cell causes an independent decrease in cell viability. Changes in [Zn(2+)](i) were measured by using the fluorescent reporter FluoZin-3, whereas cell viability was assessed by measuring the conversion of calcein-AM to fluorescent calcein, an assay that is not affected by intracellular oxidation state. Cell death was confirmed using propidium iodide and YO-PRO-1 dye uptake measurements. Our experiments demonstrate that [Zn(2+)](i) is increased in gastric glands exposed to NH(2)Cl and that elevated [Zn(2+)](i) decreases cell viability. Chelation of Zn(2+) with tetrakis-(2-pyridylmethyl) ethylenediamine decreases the toxicity of NH(2)Cl, but only when administered concurrently. These findings suggest that the toxic effect of thiol oxidants present during chronic gastritis is partially due to dysregulation of [Zn(2+)](i) early in the process and that zinc chelation can protect, but not rescue, gastric glands exposed to toxic doses of NH(2)Cl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan E. Kohler
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - J. Matthew Dubach
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Haley B. Naik
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Kaniza Tai
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Amy L. Blass
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - David I. Soybel
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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Song W, Wei S, Zhou Y, Lazrak A, Liu G, Londino JD, Squadrito GL, Matalon S. Inhibition of lung fluid clearance and epithelial Na+ channels by chlorine, hypochlorous acid, and chloramines. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:9716-9728. [PMID: 20106988 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.073981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated the mechanisms by which chlorine (Cl(2)) and its reactive byproducts inhibit Na(+)-dependent alveolar fluid clearance (AFC) in vivo and the activity of amiloride-sensitive epithelial Na(+) channels (ENaC) by measuring AFC in mice exposed to Cl(2) (0-500 ppm for 30 min) and Na(+) and amiloride-sensitive currents (I(Na) and I(amil), respectively) across Xenopus oocytes expressing human alpha-, beta-, and gamma-ENaC incubated with HOCl (1-2000 microm). Both Cl(2) and HOCl-derived products decreased AFC in mice and whole cell and single channel I(Na) in a dose-dependent manner; these effects were counteracted by serine proteases. Mass spectrometry analysis of the oocyte recording medium identified organic chloramines formed by the interaction of HOCl with HEPES (used as an extracellular buffer). In addition, chloramines formed by the interaction of HOCl with taurine or glycine decreased I(Na) in a similar fashion. Preincubation of oocytes with serine proteases prevented the decrease of I(Na) by HOCl, whereas perfusion of oocytes with a synthetic 51-mer peptide corresponding to the putative furin and plasmin cleaving segment in the gamma-ENaC subunit restored the ability of HOCl to inhibit I(Na). Finally, I(Na) of oocytes expressing wild type alpha- and gamma-ENaC and a mutant form of beta ENaC (S520K), known to result in ENaC channels locked in the open position, were not altered by HOCl. We concluded that HOCl and its reactive intermediates (such as organic chloramines) inhibit ENaC by affecting channel gating, which could be relieved by proteases cleavage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weifeng Song
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Centers for Pulmonary Injury and Repair, Birmingham, Alabama 35205
| | - Shipeng Wei
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Centers for Pulmonary Injury and Repair, Birmingham, Alabama 35205
| | - Yongjian Zhou
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Birmingham, Alabama 35205
| | - Ahmed Lazrak
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Centers for Pulmonary Injury and Repair, Birmingham, Alabama 35205
| | - Gang Liu
- Centers for Pulmonary Injury and Repair, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama 35205
| | - James D Londino
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Centers for Pulmonary Injury and Repair, Birmingham, Alabama 35205
| | - Giuseppe L Squadrito
- Centers for Pulmonary Injury and Repair, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Environmental Health Sciences, Schools of Medicine and Public Health, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35205
| | - Sadis Matalon
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Centers for Pulmonary Injury and Repair, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama 35205; Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35205.
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Quintana JB, Rodil R, López-Mahía P, Muniategui-Lorenzo S, Prada-Rodríguez D. Investigating the chlorination of acidic pharmaceuticals and by-product formation aided by an experimental design methodology. WATER RESEARCH 2010; 44:243-55. [PMID: 19800649 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2009.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2009] [Revised: 08/29/2009] [Accepted: 09/05/2009] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The degradation of seven acidic drugs and two metabolites during chlorination was investigated by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). A triple-quadrupole (QqQ) system was used to follow the time course of the pharmaceuticals and by-products, while a quadrupole time-of-flight (Q-TOF) system was also used for the identification of the by-products. Under strong chlorination conditions (10mg/L Cl(2), 24h), only four of the target compounds were significantly degraded: salicylic acid, naproxen, diclofenac and indomethacine. The degradation kinetics of these four compounds were investigated at different concentrations of chlorine, bromide and pH by means of a Box-Behnken experimental design. Depending on these factors, measured pseudo-first order half-lives were in the ranges: 23-573h for salicylic acid, 13-446min for naproxen, 5-328min for diclofenac and 0.4-13.4min for indomethacine. Also, it was observed that chlorine concentration was the overall most significant factor, followed by the bromide concentration (except for indomethacine), resulting in increased degradation kinetics as they are increased. The degradation path of salicylic acid, naproxen and diclofenac consisted of aromatic substitution of one or two hydrogens by chlorine and/or bromide. Moreover, for diclofenac, two other by-products corresponding to a decarboxylation/hydroxylation pathway from the monohalogenated products were also identified. On the other hand, indomethacine degradation did not lead to halogenation products but to oxidation ones. The investigation of these by-products in real samples by LC-MS/MS (QqQ) showed that the halogenated derivates of salicylic acid occurred in all the drinking water and wastewater samples analysed.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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29
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Gomez-Mejiba SE, Zhai Z, Akram H, Deterding LJ, Hensley K, Smith N, Towner RA, Tomer KB, Mason RP, Ramirez DC. Immuno-spin trapping of protein and DNA radicals: "tagging" free radicals to locate and understand the redox process. Free Radic Biol Med 2009; 46:853-65. [PMID: 19159679 PMCID: PMC2692890 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2008] [Revised: 12/17/2008] [Accepted: 12/19/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Biomolecule-centered radicals are intermediate species produced during both reversible (redox modulation) and irreversible (oxidative stress) oxidative modification of biomolecules. These oxidative processes must be studied in situ and in real time to understand the molecular mechanism of cell adaptation or death in response to changes in the extracellular environment. In this regard, we have developed and validated immuno-spin trapping to tag the redox process, tracing the oxidatively generated modification of biomolecules, in situ and in real time, by detecting protein- and DNA-centered radicals. The purpose of this methods article is to introduce and update the basic methods and applications of immuno-spin trapping for the study of redox biochemistry in oxidative stress and redox regulation. We describe in detail the production, detection, and location of protein and DNA radicals in biochemical systems, cells, and tissues, and in the whole animal as well, by using immuno-spin trapping with the nitrone spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra E. Gomez-Mejiba
- Free Radical Biology and Aging Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Zili Zhai
- Free Radical Biology and Aging Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Hammad Akram
- Free Radical Biology and Aging Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Leesa J. Deterding
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Kenneth Hensley
- Free Radical Biology and Aging Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Nataliya Smith
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Rheal A. Towner
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Kenneth B. Tomer
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Ronald P. Mason
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Dario C. Ramirez
- Free Radical Biology and Aging Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
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30
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Ho L, Slyman N, Kaeding U, Newcombe G. Optimizing PAC and chlorination practices for cylindrospermopsin removal. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/j.1551-8833.2008.tb09776.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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31
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Leustik M, Doran S, Bracher A, Williams S, Squadrito GL, Schoeb TR, Postlethwait E, Matalon S. Mitigation of chlorine-induced lung injury by low-molecular-weight antioxidants. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2008; 295:L733-43. [PMID: 18708632 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.90240.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorine (Cl(2)) is a highly reactive oxidant gas used extensively in a number of industrial processes. Exposure to high concentrations of Cl(2) results in acute lung injury that may either resolve spontaneously or progress to acute respiratory failure. Presently, the pathophysiological sequelae associated with Cl(2)-induced acute lung injury in conscious animals, as well as the cellular and biochemical mechanisms involved, have not been elucidated. We exposed conscious Sprague-Dawley rats to Cl(2) gas (184 or 400 ppm) for 30 min in environmental chambers and then returned them to room air. At 1 h after exposure, rats showed evidence of arterial hypoxemia, respiratory acidosis, increased levels of albumin, IgG, and IgM in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), increased BALF surfactant surface tension, and significant histological injury to airway and alveolar epithelia. These changes were more pronounced in the 400-ppm-exposed rats. Concomitant decreases of ascorbate (AA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) were also detected in both BALF and lung tissues. In contrast, heart tissue AA and GSH content remained unchanged. These abnormalities persisted 24 h after exposure in rats exposed to 400 ppm Cl(2). Rats injected systemically with a mixture of AA, deferoxamine, and N-acetyl-L-cysteine before exposure to 184 ppm Cl(2) had normal levels of AA, lower levels of BALF albumin and normal arterial Po(2) and Pco(2) values. These findings suggest that Cl(2) inhalation damages both airway and alveolar epithelial tissues and that resulting effects were ameliorated by prophylactic administration of low-molecular-weight antioxidants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Leustik
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35205-3703, USA
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Kohler JE, Mathew J, Tai K, Blass AL, Kelly E, Soybel DI. Monochloramine impairs caspase-3 through thiol oxidation and Zn2+ release. J Surg Res 2008; 153:121-7. [PMID: 19118843 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2008.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2008] [Revised: 05/13/2008] [Accepted: 05/21/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Caspase-3, a pro-apoptotic enzyme, represents a class of proteins in which the active site contains reduced thiol (S-H) groups and is modulated by heavy metal cations, such as Zn(2+). We explored the effects of the thiol oxidant monochloramine (NH(2)Cl) on caspase-3 activity within cells of isolated rabbit gastric glands. In addition, we tested the hypothesis that NH(2)Cl-induced alterations of caspase-3 activity are modulated by oxidant-induced accumulation of Zn(2+) within the cytoplasm. MATERIALS AND METHODS Isolated gastric glands were prepared from rabbit mucosa by collagenase digestion. Caspase-3 activity was measured colorimetrically in suspensions of healthy rabbit gastric glands, following exposure to various concentrations of NH(2)Cl with or without the zinc chelator TPEN [tetrakis-(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylene diamine] for 1 h, and re-equilibration in Ringer's solution for 5 h. Conversion of procaspase-3 to active caspase-3 was monitored by Western blot. RESULTS Monochloramine inhibited caspase-3 activity in a dose-dependent fashion. At concentrations of NH(2)Cl up to 100 microM, these effects were prevented if TPEN was given concurrently and were partly reversed if TPEN was given 1 h later. Caspase-3 activity was preserved by concurrent treatment with a thiol-reducing agent, dithiothreitol. CONCLUSIONS At pathologically relevant concentrations, NH(2)Cl impairs caspase-3 activity through oxidation of its thiol groups. Independently from its thiol oxidant effects on the enzyme, NH(2)Cl-induced accumulation of Zn(2+) in the cytoplasm is sufficient to restrain endogenous caspase-3 activity. Our studies suggest that some bacterially generated oxidants, such as NH(2)Cl, impair host pathways of apoptosis through release of Zn(2+) from endogenous pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan E Kohler
- Department of Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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33
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Kang JI, Neidigh JW. Hypochlorous acid damages histone proteins forming 3-chlorotyrosine and 3,5-dichlorotyrosine. Chem Res Toxicol 2008; 21:1028-38. [PMID: 18452314 DOI: 10.1021/tx7003486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While the last 30 years chronicles an extensive effort to understand the damage to DNA caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS), little research has examined the chemical damage to the histone proteins found in chromatin. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), the primary product of activated neutrophils, is known to damage both DNA and proteins. This article describes the use of mass spectrometry to quantitate the formation of 3-chlorotyrosine and 3,5-dichlorotyrosine, stable and unique markers of protein damage caused by HOCl, in the core histone proteins. Our results indicate that up to 25% of the tyrosine in histone proteins become chlorinated by excess HOCl. We also observe significant formation of 3-chlorotyrosine and 3,5-dichlorotyrosine at low HOCl concentrations and short reaction times. We use mass spectrometry to identify the tyrosine residues on each histone protein that are chlorinated based on the observation of chlorine-containing peptides following protease digestion of histone proteins exposed to HOCl. The tyrosine residues preferentially chlorinated by HOCl are generally within three residues of a lysine or histidine residue, further implicating the initial formation of chloramines in the efficient chlorination of tyrosine residues. The methods and results described here should further our understanding of how HOCl produced at sites of inflammation might damage chromatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph I Kang
- Department of Basic Sciences, Biochemistry Division, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Loma Linda, California 92350, USA.
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34
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Deborde M, von Gunten U. Reactions of chlorine with inorganic and organic compounds during water treatment-Kinetics and mechanisms: a critical review. WATER RESEARCH 2008; 42:13-51. [PMID: 17915284 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1051] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2007] [Revised: 07/13/2007] [Accepted: 07/18/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Numerous inorganic and organic micropollutants can undergo reactions with chlorine. However, for certain compounds, the expected chlorine reactivity is low and only small modifications in the parent compound's structure are expected under typical water treatment conditions. To better understand/predict chlorine reactions with micropollutants, the kinetic and mechanistic information on chlorine reactivity available in literature was critically reviewed. For most micropollutants, HOCl is the major reactive chlorine species during chlorination processes. In the case of inorganic compounds, a fast reaction of ammonia, halides (Br(-) and I(-)), SO(3)(2-), CN(-), NO(2)(-), As(III) and Fe(II) with HOCl is reported (10(3)-10(9)M(-1)s(-1)) whereas low chlorine reaction rates with Mn(II) were shown in homogeneous systems. Chlorine reactivity usually results from an initial electrophilic attack of HOCl on inorganic compounds. In the case of organic compounds, second-order rate constants for chlorination vary over 10 orders of magnitude (i.e. <0.1-10(9)M(-1)s(-1)). Oxidation, addition and electrophilic substitution reactions with organic compounds are possible pathways. However, from a kinetic point of view, usually only electrophilic attack is significant. Chlorine reactivity limited to particular sites (mainly amines, reduced sulfur moieties or activated aromatic systems) is commonly observed during chlorination processes and small modifications in the parent compound's structure are expected for the primary attack. Linear structure-activity relationships can be used to make predictions/estimates of the reactivity of functional groups based on structural analogy. Furthermore, comparison of chlorine to ozone reactivity towards aromatic compounds (electrophilic attack) shows a good correlation, with chlorine rate constants being about four orders of magnitude smaller than those for ozone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Deborde
- Department of Water Resources and Drinking Water, EAWAG, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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35
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Skaff O, Pattison DI, Davies MJ. Kinetics of hypobromous acid-mediated oxidation of lipid components and antioxidants. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:1980-8. [PMID: 18047295 DOI: 10.1021/tx7003097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Hypohalous acids are generated from the oxidation of halide ions by myeloperoxidase and eosinophil peroxidase in the presence of H2O2. These oxidants are potent antibacterial agents, but excessive production can result in host tissue damage, with this implicated in a number of human pathologies. Rate constants for HOCl with lipid components and antioxidants have been established. Here, the corresponding reactions of HOBr have been examined to determine whether this species shows similar reactivity. The second-order rate constants for the reaction of HOBr with 3-pentenoic acid and sorbate, models of unsaturated lipids, are 1.1x10(4) and 1.3x10(3) M(-1) s(-1), respectively, while those for reaction of HOBr with phosphoryl-serine and phosphoryl-ethanolamine are ca. 10(6) M(-1) s(-1). The second-order rate constants (M(-1) s(-1)) for reactions of HOBr with Trolox (6.4x10(4)), hydroquinone (2.4x10(5)), and ubiquinol-0 (2.5x10(6)) were determined, as models of the lipid-soluble antioxidants, alpha-tocopherol, and ubiquinol-10; all of these rate constants are ca. 50-2000-fold greater than for HOCl. In contrast, the second-order rate constants for the reaction of HOBr with the water-soluble antioxidants, ascorbate and urate, are ca. 10(6) M(-1) s(-1) and closer in magnitude to those for HOCl. Kinetic models have been developed to predict the sites of HOBr attack on low-density lipoproteins. The data obtained indicate that HOBr reacts to a much greater extent with fatty acid side chains and lipid-soluble antioxidants than HOCl; this has important implications for HOBr-mediated damage to cells and lipoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ojia Skaff
- The Heart Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
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36
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Ho L, Onstad G, von Gunten U, Rinck-Pfeiffer S, Craig K, Newcombe G. Differences in the chlorine reactivity of four microcystin analogues. WATER RESEARCH 2006; 40:1200-9. [PMID: 16516944 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2006.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2005] [Revised: 01/17/2006] [Accepted: 01/23/2006] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The presence of microcystin toxins in drinking water is highly undesirable as they have the potential to adversely affect human health. Consequently, effective removal of these toxins from water is a major goal for water authorities. In this study, four microcystin analogues were chlorinated in two treated waters, and two of the analogues were chlorinated in deionised water. The oxidation of the microcystins was related to the chlorine exposure (CT) of the sample waters with the ease of oxidation following the trend: microcystin-YR > microcystin-RR > microcystin-LR > or = microcystin-LA. This trend was in agreement with published data on model compounds and free amino acids. Values of CT of up to 25 mg min L(-1) were required for oxidation of all microcystin analogues to below the World Health Organization guideline value of 1.0 microg L(-1). Results from this study indicate that for some water resources it is important to determine the speciation of the microcystin analogues to optimise chlorination practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Ho
- Australian Water Quality Centre, Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment, SA Water Corporation, PMB 3, Salisbury, SA 5108, Australia.
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Cima RR, Dubach JM, Wieland AM, Walsh BM, Soybel DI. Intracellular Ca(2+) and Zn(2+) signals during monochloramine-induced oxidative stress in isolated rat colon crypts. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2006; 290:G250-61. [PMID: 16002562 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00501.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
During acute exacerbations of inflammatory bowel diseases, oxidants are generated through the interactions of bacteria in the lumen, activated granulocytes, and cells of the colon mucosa. In this study we explored the ability of one such class of oxidants, represented by monochloramine (NH(2)Cl), to serve as agonists of Ca(2+) and Zn(2+) accumulation within the colonocyte. Individual colon crypts prepared from Sprague-Dawley rats were mounted in perfusion chambers after loading with fluorescent reporters fura 2-AM and fluozin 3-AM. These reporters were characterized, in situ, for responsiveness to Ca(2+) and Zn(2+) in the cytoplasm. Responses to different concentrations of NH(2)Cl (50, 100, and 200 microM) were monitored. Subsequent studies were designed to identify the sources and mechanisms of NH(2)Cl-induced increases in Ca(2+) and Zn(2+) in the cytoplasm. Exposure to NH(2)Cl led to dose-dependent increases in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in the range of 200-400 nM above baseline levels. Further studies indicated that NH(2)Cl-induced accumulation of Ca(2+) in the cytoplasm is the result of release from intracellular stores and basolateral entry of extracellular Ca(2+) through store-operated channels. In addition, exposure to NH(2)Cl resulted in dose-dependent and sustained increases in intracellular Zn(2+) concentration ([Zn(2+)](i)) in the nanomolar range. These alterations were neutralized by dithiothreitol, which shields intracellular thiol groups from oxidation. We conclude that Ca(2+)- and Zn(2+)-handling proteins are susceptible to oxidation by chloramines, leading to sustained, but not necessarily toxic, increases in [Ca(2+)](i) and [Zn(2+)](i). Under certain conditions, NH(2)Cl may act not as a toxin but as an agent that activates intracellular signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Cima
- Department of Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 75 Francis St., Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Takeshita J, Byun J, Nhan TQ, Pritchard DK, Pennathur S, Schwartz SM, Chait A, Heinecke JW. Myeloperoxidase generates 5-chlorouracil in human atherosclerotic tissue: a potential pathway for somatic mutagenesis by macrophages. J Biol Chem 2005; 281:3096-104. [PMID: 16326702 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m509236200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Somatic mutations induced by oxidative damage of DNA might play important roles in atherogenesis. However, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Myeloperoxidase, a heme protein expressed by select populations of artery wall macrophages, initiates one potentially mutagenic pathway by generating hypochlorous acid. This potent chlorinating agent reacts rapidly with primary amines to yield long-lived, selectively reactive N-chloramines. In the current studies, we demonstrate that myeloperoxidase produced by human macrophages differentiated in the presence of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor generates 5-chlorouracil, a mutagenic thymine analog. The primary amine taurine fails to block the reaction, suggesting that N-haloamines produced by macrophages might oxidize uracil. Model system studies demonstrated that N-chloramines convert uracil to 5-chlorouracil. Interestingly, the tertiary amine nicotine dramatically enhances uracil chlorination, suggesting that cigarette smoke might promote nucleobase oxidation by N-chloramines. To look for evidence that myeloperoxidase promotes uracil oxidation in vivo, we measured 5-chlorouracil levels in human aortic tissue, using isotope dilution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The level of 5-chlorouracil was 10-fold higher in atherosclerotic aortic tissue obtained during vascular surgery than in normal aortic tissue, suggesting that halogenated nucleobases produced by macrophages might contribute to atherogenesis. Because 5-chlorouracil can be incorporated into nuclear DNA, our observations raise the possibility that halogenation reactions initiated by phagocytes provide one pathway for mutagenesis, phenotypic modulation, and cytotoxicity during atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junko Takeshita
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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Dodd MC, Shah AD, von Gunten U, Huang CH. Interactions of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents with aqueous chlorine: reaction kinetics, mechanisms, and transformation pathways. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2005; 39:7065-76. [PMID: 16201630 DOI: 10.1021/es050054e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Kinetics, products, and mechanistic aspects of reactions between free available chlorine (HOCl/OCl-), ciprofloxacin (CF), and enrofloxacin (EF) were extensively investigated to elucidate the behavior of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents during water chlorination processes. Although the molecular structures of these two substrates differ only with respect to degree of N(4) amine alkylation, CF and EF exhibit markedly different HOCl reaction kinetics and transformation pathways. HOCI reacts very rapidly at CF's secondary N(4) amine, forming a chloramine intermediate that spontaneously decays in aqueous solution by concerted piperazine fragmentation. In contrast, HOCl reacts relatively slowly at EF's tertiary N(4) amine, apparently forming a highly reactive chlorammonium intermediate (R3N-(4)Cl+) that can catalytically halogenate EF or other substrates present in solution. Flumequine, a fluoroquinolone that lacks the characteristic piperazine ring, exhibits no apparent reactivity toward HOCI but appears to undergo facile halodecarboxylation in the presence of R3N(4)-Cl+ species derived from EF. Measured reaction kinetics were validated in real water matrixes by modeling CF and EF losses in the presence of free chlorine residuals. Combined chlorine (CC) kinetics were determined under selected conditions to evaluate the potential significance of reactions with chloramines. CF's rapid kinetics in direct reactions with HOCl, and relatively high reactivity toward CC, indicate that secondary amine-containing fluoroquinolones should be readily transformed during chlorination of real waters, whether applied chlorine doses are present as free or combined residuals. However, EF's slower HOCl reaction kinetics, recalcitrance toward CC, and participation in the catalytic halogenation cycle described herein suggest that tertiary amine-containing fluoroquinolones will be comparatively stable during most full-scale water chlorination processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Dodd
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG), Duebendorf, Switzerland
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Masuda M, Suzuki T, Friesen MD, Ravanat JL, Cadet J, Pignatelli B, Nishino H, Ohshima H. Chlorination of guanosine and other nucleosides by hypochlorous acid and myeloperoxidase of activated human neutrophils. Catalysis by nicotine and trimethylamine. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:40486-96. [PMID: 11533049 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m102700200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Activated human neutrophils secrete myeloperoxidase, which generates HOCl from H2O2 and Cl(-). We have found that various (2'-deoxy)nucleosides react with HOCl to form chlorinated (2'-deoxy)nucleosides, including novel 8-chloro(2'-deoxy)guanosine, 5-chloro(2'-deoxy)cytidine, and 8-chloro(2'-deoxy)adenosine formed in yields of 1.6, 1.6, and 0.2%, respectively, when 0.5 mM nucleoside reacted with 0.5 mM HOCl at pH 7.4. The relative chlorination, oxidation, and nitration activities of HOCl, myeloperoxidase, and activated human neutrophils in the presence and absence of nitrite were studied by analyzing 8-chloro-, 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-, and 8-nitro-guanosine, respectively, using guanosine as a probe. 8-Chloroguanosine was always more easily formed than 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro- or 8-nitro-guanosine. Using electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, we show that several chlorinated nucleosides including 8-chloro(2'-deoxy)guanosine are formed following exposure of isolated DNA or RNA to HOCl. Micromolar concentrations of tertiary amines such as nicotine and trimethylamine dramatically enhanced chlorination of free (2'-deoxy)nucleosides and nucleosides in RNA by HOCl. As the G-463A polymorphism of the MPO gene, which strongly reduces myeloperoxidase mRNA expression, is associated with a reduced risk of lung cancer, chlorination damage of DNA /RNA and nucleosides by myeloperoxidase and its enhancement by nicotine may be important in the pathophysiology of human diseases associated with tobacco habits.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Masuda
- Unit of Endogenous Cancer Risk Factors, International Agency for Research on Cancer, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, F 69372 Lyon Cedex 8, France
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Prütz WA, Kissner R, Koppenol WH. Oxidation of NADH by chloramines and chloramides and its activation by iodide and by tertiary amines. Arch Biochem Biophys 2001; 393:297-307. [PMID: 11556817 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2001.2503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Irreversible oxidation of reduced nicotinamide nucleotides by neutrophil-derived halogen oxidants (HOCl, chloramines, HOBr, etc.) is likely to be a highly lethal process, because of the essential role of NAD(P)H in important cell functions such as mitochondrial electron transport, and control of the cellular thiol redox state by NADPH-dependent glutathione reductase. Chloramines (chloramine-T, NH(2)Cl, etc.) and N-chloramides (N-chlorinated cyclopeptides) react with NADH to generate the same products as HOCl, i.e., pyridine chlorohydrins, as judged from characteristic changes in the NADH absorption spectrum. Compared with the fast oxidation of NADH by HOCl, k approximately 3 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1) at pH 7.2, the oxidation by chloramines is about five orders of magnitude slower; that by chloramides is about four orders of magnitude slower. Apparent rate constants for oxidation of NADH by chloramines increase with increasing proton or buffer concentration, consistent with general acid catalysis, but oxidation by chloramides proceeds with pH-independent kinetics. In presence of iodide the oxidation of NADH by chloramines or chloramides is faster by at least two orders of magnitude; this is due to reaction of iodide with the N-halogen to give HOI/I(2), the most reactive and selective oxidant for NADH among HOX species. Quinuclidine derivatives (QN) like 3-chloroquinuclidine and quinine are capable of catalyzing the irreversible degradation of NADH by HOCl and by chloramines; QN(+)Cl, the chain carrier of the catalytic cycle, is even more reactive toward NADH than HOCl/ClO(-) at physiological pH. Oxidation of NADH by NH(2)Br proceeds by fast, but complex, biphasic kinetics. A compilation of rate constants for interactions of reactive halogen species with various substrates is presented and the concept of selective reactivity of N-halogens is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Prütz
- Institut für Molekulare Medizin und Zellforschung, Universität Freiburg, Sektion Biophysik, Albertstrasse 23, Freiburg, D-79104, Germany.
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Peskin AV, Winterbourn CC. Kinetics of the reactions of hypochlorous acid and amino acid chloramines with thiols, methionine, and ascorbate. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 30:572-9. [PMID: 11182528 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-5849(00)00506-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Thiol oxidation by hypochlorous acid and chloramines is a favorable reaction and may be responsible for alterations in regulatory or signaling pathways in cells exposed to neutrophil oxidants. In order to establish the mechanism for such changes, it is necessary to appreciate whether these oxidants are selective for different thiols as compared with other scavengers. We have measured rate constants for reactions of amino acid chloramines with a range of thiols, methionine, and ascorbate, using a combination of stopped-flow and competitive kinetics. For HOCl, rate constants are too fast to measure directly by our system and values relative to reduced glutathione were determined by competition with methionine. For taurine chloramine, the rate constants for reaction with 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid, GSH, methionine, and ascorbate at pH 7.4 were 970, 115, 39, and 13 M(-1) s(-1), respectively. Values for 10 thiols varied by a factor of 20 and showed an inverse relationship to the pK(a) of the thiol group. Rate constants for chloramines of glycine and N-alpha-acetyl-lysine also showed these relationships. Rates increased with decreasing pH, suggesting a mechanism involving acid catalysis. For hypochlorous acid, rates of reaction with 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid, GSH, cysteine, and most of the other thiols were very similar. Relative reactivities varied by less than 5 and there was no dependence on thiol pK(a). Chloramines have the potential to be selective for different cellular thiols depending on their pK(a). For HOCl to be selective, other factors must be important, or its reactions could be secondary to chloramine formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Peskin
- Free Radical Research Group, Department of Pathology, Christchurch School of Medicine, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Naskalski
- Department of Diagnostics, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
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Prütz WA, Kissner R, Koppenol WH, Rüegger H. On the irreversible destruction of reduced nicotinamide nucleotides by hypohalous acids. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000; 380:181-91. [PMID: 10900148 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2000.1914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Degradation of the reduced pyridine nucleotides NMNH and NADH by HOCl involves two distinct stages: a fast reaction, k = 4.2 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), leads to generation of stable pyridine products (Py/Cl) with a strong absorption band at 275 nm (epsilon = 12.4 x 10(3) M(-1) cm(-1) in the case of NMNH); secondarily, a subsequent reaction of HOCl, k = 3.9 x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1), leads to a complete loss of the aromatic absorption band of the pyridine ring. HOBr and HOI(I(2)) react similarly. Apparent rate constants of the primary reactions of HOX species with NMNH at pH 7.2 increase in the order HOCl (3 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1)) < HOBr( approximately 4 x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1)) < HOI(I(2))( approximately 6.5 x 10(7) M(-1) s(-1)). HOBr reacts fast also with the primary product Py/Br, k approximately 9 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), while the reactions of HOI and I(2) with Py/I are slower, approximately 1.4 x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1) and >6 x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. Halogenation of the amide group of NMN(+) by HOX species is many orders of magnitude slower than oxidation of NMNH. Taurine inhibits HOCl-induced oxidation of NADH, but HOBr-induced oxidation is not inhibited because the taurine monobromamine rapidly oxidizes NADH, and oxidation by HOI(I(2)) is not inhibited because taurine is inert toward HOI(I(2)). Also sulfur compounds (GSH, GSSG, and methionine) are less efficient in protecting NADH against oxidation by HOBr and HOI(I(2)) than against oxidation by HOCl. The results suggest that reactions of HOBr and HOI(I(2)) in a cellular environment are much more selectively directed toward irreversible oxidation of NADH than reactions of HOCl. It is noteworthy that the rather inert N-chloramines react with iodide to generate HOI(I(2)), i.e., the most reactive and selective oxidant of reduced pyridine nucleotides. NMR investigations show that the primary stable products of the reaction between NMNH and HOCl are various isomeric chlorohydrins originating from a nonstereospecific electrophilic addition of HOCl to the C5&dbond;C6 double bond of the pyridine ring. The primary products (Py/X) of NMNH all exhibit similar absorption bands around 275 nm and are hence likely to result from analogous addition of HOX to the C5&dbond;C6 bond of the pyridine ring. Since the Py/X species are stable and inert toward endogeneous reductants like ascorbate and GSH, they may generally be useful markers for assessing the contribution of hypohalous acids to inflammatory injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Prütz
- Institut für Molekulare Medizin und Zellforschung, Sektion Biophysik, Universität Freiburg, Albertstrasse 23, Freiburg, D-79104, Germany.
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Prütz WA. Consecutive halogen transfer between various functional groups induced by reaction of hypohalous acids: NADH oxidation by halogenated amide groups. Arch Biochem Biophys 1999; 371:107-14. [PMID: 10525295 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.1999.1377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic dipeptides (c-Gly(2), c-Ser(2), c-Gly-Phe, etc.) were used as simple protein models to investigate the HOCl-induced generation and reactivity of chlorinated amide groups. The pH dependence of the kinetics of amide chlorination reveals that ClO(-) (not HOCl) is the reactive agent. N-Chlorinated cyclopeptides are stable up to 30 min, they exhibit narrow absorption bands around 215 nm, and they are capable of oxidizing certain biological substrates, the reactivity decreasing in the order GSH > ascorbate > methionine > NADH >> GSSG. The chloroamide is less reactive, but much more selective in its reactions, than HOCl or ClO(-); thus, with formation of the chloroamide prolonged oxidative effects, directed toward specific target molecules, can be expected. Chlorination of NADH, yielding a catalytically inactive species (NAD/Cl), was investigated in most detail because it is likely to be an important and highly lethal process. The chloroamide group is far more reactive toward NADH than chloroamines derived from primary amines. Chloronucleotides formed by reaction of ClO(-) with inosine, GMP, TMP, or UMP are capable of quantitative chlorine transfer to cyclopeptides; however, no chlorine transfer between the amide nitrogen and primary amines is detectable, in either direction. The results presented enable prediction of chlorine transfer cascades induced by HOCl/ClO(-), involving nucleotides, peptide amide groups, and final target molecules. Chlorinated NAD(P)H, as a stable terminal product of consecutive chlorine transfer reactions, might be a useful biological marker for assessing the role of HOCl in inflammatory events. Bromination by BrO(-) of cyclopeptides is more than two orders of magnitude faster than chlorination by ClO(-), and the reactivity of bromoamide with NADH exceeds that of chloroamide by more than four orders of magnitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Prütz
- Institut für Biophysik und Strahlenbiologie, Universität Freiburg, Albertstrasse 23, Freiburg, D-79104, Germany
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