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Li Y, Xue Y, Peng Z, Zhang L. Immune diversity in lophotrochozoans, with a focus on recognition and effector systems. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2023; 21:2262-2275. [PMID: 37035545 PMCID: PMC10073891 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2023.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Lophotrochozoa is one of the most species-rich but immunologically poorly explored phyla. Although lack of acquired response in a narrow sense, lophotrochozoans possess various genetic mechanisms that enhance the diversity and specificity of innate immune system. Here, we review the recent advances of comparative immunology studies in lophotrochozoans with focus on immune recognition and effector systems. Haemocytes and coelomocytes are general important yet understudied player. Comparative genomics studies suggest expansion and functional divergence of lophotrochozoan immune reorganization systems is not as "homogeneous and simple" as we thought including the large-scale expansion and molecular divergence of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) (TLRs, RLRs, lectins, etc.) and signaling adapters (MyD88s etc.), significant domain recombination of immune receptors (RLR, NLRs, lectins, etc.), extensive somatic recombination of fibrinogenrelated proteins (FREPs) in snails. Furthermore, there are repeatedly identified molecular mechanisms that generate immune effector diversity, including high polymorphism of antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs), reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) and cytokines. Finally, we argue that the next generation omics tools and the recently emerged genome editing technicism will revolutionize our understanding of innate immune system in a comparative immunology perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongnan Li
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Yu Xue
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhangjie Peng
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Corresponding author at: CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology & Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China.
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Canesi L, Auguste M, Balbi T, Prochazkova P. Soluble mediators of innate immunity in annelids and bivalve mollusks: A mini-review. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1051155. [PMID: 36532070 PMCID: PMC9756803 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1051155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Annelids and mollusks, both in the superphylum of Lophotrochozoa (Bilateria), are important ecological groups, widespread in soil, freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems. Like all invertebrates, they lack adaptive immunity; however, they are endowed with an effective and complex innate immune system (humoral and cellular defenses) similar to vertebrates. The lack of acquired immunity and the capacity to form antibodies does not mean a lack of specificity: invertebrates have evolved genetic mechanisms capable of producing thousands of different proteins from a small number of genes, providing high variability and diversity of immune effector molecules just like their vertebrate counterparts. This diversity allows annelids and mollusks to recognize and eliminate a wide range of pathogens and respond to environmental stressors. Effector molecules can kill invading microbes, reduce their pathogenicity, or regulate the immune response at cellular and systemic levels. Annelids and mollusks are "typical" lophotrochozoan protostome since both groups include aquatic species with trochophore larvae, which unite both taxa in a common ancestry. Moreover, despite their extensive utilization in immunological research, no model systems are available as there are with other invertebrate groups, such as Caenorhabditis elegans or Drosophila melanogaster, and thus, their immune potential is largely unexplored. In this work, we focus on two classes of key soluble mediators of immunity, i.e., antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and cytokines, in annelids and bivalves, which are the most studied mollusks. The mediators have been of interest from their first identification to recent advances in molecular studies that clarified their role in the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Canesi
- Department of Earth Environment & Life Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Manon Auguste
- Department of Earth Environment & Life Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Teresa Balbi
- Department of Earth Environment & Life Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Petra Prochazkova
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia,*Correspondence: Petra Prochazkova,
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Lucas R, Hadizamani Y, Enkhbaatar P, Csanyi G, Caldwell RW, Hundsberger H, Sridhar S, Lever AA, Hudel M, Ash D, Ushio-Fukai M, Fukai T, Chakraborty T, Verin A, Eaton DC, Romero M, Hamacher J. Dichotomous Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor in Pulmonary Barrier Function and Alveolar Fluid Clearance. Front Physiol 2022; 12:793251. [PMID: 35264975 PMCID: PMC8899333 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.793251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Alveolar-capillary leak is a hallmark of the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a potentially lethal complication of severe sepsis, trauma and pneumonia, including COVID-19. Apart from barrier dysfunction, ARDS is characterized by hyper-inflammation and impaired alveolar fluid clearance (AFC), which foster the development of pulmonary permeability edema and hamper gas exchange. Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) is an evolutionarily conserved pleiotropic cytokine, involved in host immune defense against pathogens and cancer. TNF exists in both membrane-bound and soluble form and its mainly -but not exclusively- pro-inflammatory and cytolytic actions are mediated by partially overlapping TNFR1 and TNFR2 binding sites situated at the interface between neighboring subunits in the homo-trimer. Whereas TNFR1 signaling can mediate hyper-inflammation and impaired barrier function and AFC in the lungs, ligand stimulation of TNFR2 can protect from ventilation-induced lung injury. Spatially distinct from the TNFR binding sites, TNF harbors within its structure a lectin-like domain that rather protects lung function in ARDS. The lectin-like domain of TNF -mimicked by the 17 residue TIP peptide- represents a physiological mediator of alveolar-capillary barrier protection. and increases AFC in both hydrostatic and permeability pulmonary edema animal models. The TIP peptide directly activates the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) -a key mediator of fluid and blood pressure control- upon binding to its α subunit, which is also a part of the non-selective cation channel (NSC). Activity of the lectin-like domain of TNF is preserved in complexes between TNF and its soluble TNFRs and can be physiologically relevant in pneumonia. Antibody- and soluble TNFR-based therapeutic strategies show considerable success in diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis and inflammatory bowel disease, but their chronic use can increase susceptibility to infection. Since the lectin-like domain of TNF does not interfere with TNF's anti-bacterial actions, while exerting protective actions in the alveolar-capillary compartments, it is currently evaluated in clinical trials in ARDS and COVID-19. A more comprehensive knowledge of the precise role of the TNFR binding sites versus the lectin-like domain of TNF in lung injury, tissue hypoxia, repair and remodeling may foster the development of novel therapeutics for ARDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf Lucas
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,*Correspondence: Rudolf Lucas,
| | - Yalda Hadizamani
- Lungen-und Atmungsstiftung Bern, Bern, Switzerland,Pneumology, Clinic for General Internal Medicine, Lindenhofspital Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Perenlei Enkhbaatar
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Gabor Csanyi
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Robert W. Caldwell
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Harald Hundsberger
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, University of Applied Sciences, Krems, Austria,Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of the Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Supriya Sridhar
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Alice Ann Lever
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Martina Hudel
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Dipankar Ash
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Masuko Ushio-Fukai
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Tohru Fukai
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Charlie Norwood Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Trinad Chakraborty
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Alexander Verin
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Douglas C. Eaton
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Maritza Romero
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States,Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Jürg Hamacher
- Lungen-und Atmungsstiftung Bern, Bern, Switzerland,Pneumology, Clinic for General Internal Medicine, Lindenhofspital Bern, Bern, Switzerland,Medical Clinic V-Pneumology, Allergology, Intensive Care Medicine, and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University Medical Centre of the Saarland, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany,Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany,Jürg Hamacher,
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Longo V, Parrinello D, Longo A, Parisi MG, Parrinello N, Colombo P, Cammarata M. The conservation and diversity of ascidian cells and molecules involved in the inflammatory reaction: The Ciona robusta model. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 119:384-396. [PMID: 34687879 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2021.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Ascidians are marine invertebrate chordates belonging to the earliest branch (Tunicata) in the chordate phylum, therefore, they are of interest for studying the evolution of immune systems. Due to the known genome, the non-colonial Ciona robusta, previously considered to be C. intestinalis type A, is a model species for the study of inflammatory response. The internal defense of ascidians mainly relies on hemocytes circulating in the hemolymph and pharynx. Hemocytes can be in vivo challenged by LPS injection and various granulocyte and vacuolated cell populations differentiated to produce and release inflammatory factors. Molecular biology and gene expression studies revealed complex defense mechanisms involving different inflammatory hemocytes. Furthermore, cloning procedures allowed sequence analyses and molecular studies disclose immune-related gene families including TOLL-like receptors, galectins, C-type lectins, collectins, interlectins, pentraxine-like, peroxinectins, complement factors-like, TNFα-like, IL-17-like, TGF-like, MIF-like. These genes are promptly upregulated by the inflammatory stimulus and show a time course of transcription similar to each other. Domains sequence similarity and phylogenetic relationships with the vertebrate counterparts are shedding some light on immune-related gene evolution. Selective bioassays as well as bioinformatic approaches have allowed the characterization of antimicrobial peptides and the identification of post transcriptional molecular mechanisms able of influencing dynamics of gene regulation are described. In synthesis, the purpose of this article is to further explore the topic of hemocyte and molecules related to internal defence of ascidians involved in the inflammatory reaction, as well as to discuss current and future study options through a detailed literature review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Longo
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council, Palermo, Italy
| | | | - Alessandra Longo
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council, Palermo, Italy
| | | | - Nicolò Parrinello
- Department of Earth and Marine Science, University of Palermo, Italy
| | - Paolo Colombo
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Matteo Cammarata
- Department of Earth and Marine Science, University of Palermo, Italy
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Xu F, Wen Y, Hu X, Wang T, Chen G. The Potential Use of Vitamin C to Prevent Kidney Injury in Patients with COVID-19. Diseases 2021; 9:diseases9030046. [PMID: 34203409 PMCID: PMC8293113 DOI: 10.3390/diseases9030046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The newly found SARS-CoV-2 has led to the pandemic of COVID-19, which has caused respiratory distress syndrome and even death worldwide. This has become a global public health crisis. Unfortunately, elders and subjects with comorbidities have high mortality rates. One main feature of COVID-19 is the cytokine storm, which can cause damage in cells and tissues including the kidneys. Here, we reviewed the current literature on renal impairments in patients with COVID-19 and analyzed the possible etiology and mechanisms. In addition, we investigated the potential use of vitamin C for the prevention of renal injury in those patients. It appears that vitamin C could be helpful to improve the outcomes of patients with COVID-19. Lastly, we discussed the possible protective effects of vitamin C on renal functions in COVID-19 patients with existing kidney conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Xu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China; (F.X.); (Y.W.)
| | - Yawei Wen
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China; (F.X.); (Y.W.)
| | - Xinge Hu
- Department of Nutrition, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; (X.H.); (T.W.)
| | - Tiannan Wang
- Department of Nutrition, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; (X.H.); (T.W.)
| | - Guoxun Chen
- Department of Nutrition, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; (X.H.); (T.W.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-5-974-6257
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Prochazkova P, Roubalova R, Dvorak J, Navarro Pacheco NI, Bilej M. Pattern recognition receptors in annelids. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 102:103493. [PMID: 31499098 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.103493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The existence of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on immune cells was discussed in 1989 by Charles Janeway, Jr., who proposed a general concept of the ability of PRRs to recognize and bind conserved molecular structures of microorganisms known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Upon PAMP engagement, PRRs trigger intracellular signaling cascades resulting in the expression of various proinflammatory molecules. These recognition molecules represent an important and efficient innate immunity tool of all organisms. As invertebrates lack the instruments of the adaptive immune system, based on "true" lymphocytes and functional antibodies, the importance of PRRs are even more fundamental. In the present review, the structure, specificity, and expression profiles of PRRs characterized in annelids are discussed, and their role in innate defense is suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Prochazkova
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i., Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - R Roubalova
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - J Dvorak
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - N I Navarro Pacheco
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - M Bilej
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i., Prague, Czech Republic
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Immunological Parameters of the Pomacea lineata Spix, 1827 (Mollusca: Caenogastropoda) Exposed to Schistosoma mansoni Sambon, 1907. Acta Parasitol 2019; 64:31-43. [PMID: 30671771 DOI: 10.2478/s11686-018-00005-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pomacea lineata acts as the natural biological controller of Biomphalaria glabrata, the intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni, as they are found in the same environment. However, there are no studies reporting an infection in P. lineata due to S. mansoni. Thus, this work investigated parameters related to the immunity of P. lineata after exposure for 24 and 48 h to S. mansoni under experimental conditions. METHODS The F1 generation of these snails was used in this study. The total and differential counts of hemocytes, phenoloxidase, nitric oxide, total proteins, expression of TNF-α in hemocytes and histopathology of the head-foot organ were analyzed. RESULTS Exposure to S. mansoni promoted an increase in the total number of hemocytes, an increase of granulocytes, a reduction of agranulocytes and hyalinocytes, an increase in phenoloxidase levels, total proteins and nitric oxide. There was TNF-α expression in the agranulocytes and granulocytes, increasing in intensity after exposure to the trematode. Head-foot histopathology revealed the presence of sporocytes in the fibromuscular layer surrounded by granulation tissue only within 24 h. At 48 h, there was marked fibrosis in this layer and little granulation tissue. CONCLUSION Thus, we can conclude that P. lineata seems to trigger a series of immunological strategies in a very effective way that confers some resistance to S. mansoni.
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Pathogen-Derived Carbohydrate Recognition in Molluscs Immune Defense. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19030721. [PMID: 29510476 PMCID: PMC5877582 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19030721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-nonself discrimination is a common theme for all of the organisms in different evolutionary branches, which is also the most fundamental step for host immune protection. Plenty of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) with great diversity have been identified from different organisms to recognize various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in the last two decades, depicting a complicated scene of host-pathogen interaction. However, the detailed mechanism of the complicate PAMPs–PRRs interactions at the contacting interface between pathogens and hosts is still not well understood. All of the cells are coated by glycosylation complex and thick carbohydrates layer. The different polysaccharides in extracellular matrix of pathogen-host are important for nonself recognition of most organisms. Coincidentally, massive expansion of PRRs, majority of which contain recognition domains of Ig, leucine-rich repeat (LRR), C-type lectin (CTL), C1q and scavenger receptor (SR), have been annotated and identified in invertebrates by screening the available genomic sequence. The phylum Mollusca is one of the largest groups in the animal kingdom with abundant biodiversity providing plenty of solutions about pathogen recognition and immune protection, which might offer a suitable model to figure out the common rules of immune recognition mechanism. The present review summarizes the diverse PRRs and common elements of various PAMPs, especially focusing on the structural and functional characteristics of canonical carbohydrate recognition proteins and some novel proteins functioning in molluscan immune defense system, with the objective to provide new ideas about the immune recognition mechanisms.
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Franchi N, Ballarin L. Immunity in Protochordates: The Tunicate Perspective. Front Immunol 2017; 8:674. [PMID: 28649250 PMCID: PMC5465252 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tunicates are the closest relatives of vertebrates, and their peculiar phylogenetic position explains the increasing interest toward tunicate immunobiology. They are filter-feeding organisms, and this greatly influences their defense strategies. The majority of the studies on tunicate immunity were carried out in ascidians. The tunic acts as a first barrier against pathogens and parasites. In addition, the oral siphon and the pharynx represent two major, highly vascularized, immune organs, where circulating hemocytes can sense non-self material and trigger immune responses that, usually, lead to inflammation and phagocytosis. Inflammation involves the recruitment of circulating cytotoxic, phenoloxidase (PO)-containing cells in the infected area, where they degranulate as a consequence of non-self recognition and release cytokines, complement factors, and the enzyme PO. The latter, acting on polyphenol substrata, produces cytotoxic quinones, which polymerize to melanin, and reactive oxygen species, which induce oxidative stress. Both the alternative and the lectin pathways of complement activation converge to activate C3: C3a and C3b are involved in the recruitment of hemocytes and in the opsonization of foreign materials, respectively. The interaction of circulating professional phagocytes with potentially pathogenic foreign material can be direct or mediated by opsonins, either complement dependent or complement independent. Together with cytotoxic cells, phagocytes are active in the encapsulation of large materials. Cells involved in immune responses, collectively called immunocytes, represent a large fraction of hemocytes, and the presence of a cross talk between cytotoxic cells and phagocytes, mediated by secreted humoral factors, was reported. Lectins play a pivotal role as pattern-recognition receptors and opsonizing agents. In addition, variable region-containing chitin-binding proteins, identified in the solitary ascidian Ciona intestinalis, control the settlement and colonization of bacteria in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Franchi
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Vizzini A, Di Falco F, Parrinello D, Sanfratello MA, Mazzarella C, Parrinello N, Cammarata M. Ciona intestinalis interleukin 17-like genes expression is upregulated by LPS challenge. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 48:129-137. [PMID: 25305501 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2014.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In humans, IL-17 is a proinflammatory cytokine that plays a key role in the clearance of extracellular bacteria promoting cell infiltration and production of several cytokines and chemokines. Here, we report on three Ciona intestinalis IL-17 homologues (CiIL17-1, CiIL17-2, CiIL17-3). The gene organization, phylogenetic tree and modeling supported the close relationship with the mammalian IL-17A and IL-17F suggesting that the C. intestinalis IL-17 genes share a common ancestor in the chordate lineages. Real time PCR analysis showed a prompt expression induced by LPS inoculation suggesting that they are involved in the first phase of inflammatory response. In situ hybridization assays disclosed that the genes transcription was upregulated in the pharynx, the main organ of the ascidian immune system, and expressed by hemocytes (granulocytes and univacuolar refractile granulocyte) inside the pharynx vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiti Vizzini
- Marine Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Chemical Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, Palermo, Italy
| | - Felicia Di Falco
- Marine Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Chemical Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, Palermo, Italy
| | - Daniela Parrinello
- Marine Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Chemical Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, Palermo, Italy
| | - Maria Antonietta Sanfratello
- Marine Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Chemical Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, Palermo, Italy
| | - Claudia Mazzarella
- Marine Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Chemical Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, Palermo, Italy
| | - Nicolò Parrinello
- Marine Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Chemical Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, Palermo, Italy
| | - Matteo Cammarata
- Marine Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Chemical Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, University of Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, Palermo, Italy.
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Stenken JA, Poschenrieder AJ. Bioanalytical chemistry of cytokines--a review. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 853:95-115. [PMID: 25467452 PMCID: PMC4717841 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines are bioactive proteins produced by many different cells of the immune system. Due to their role in different inflammatory disease states and maintaining homeostasis, there is enormous clinical interest in the quantitation of cytokines. The typical standard methods for quantitation of cytokines are immunoassay-based techniques including enzyme-linked immusorbent assays (ELISA) and bead-based immunoassays read by either standard or modified flow cytometers. A review of recent developments in analytical methods for measurements of cytokine proteins is provided. This review briefly covers cytokine biology and the analysis challenges associated with measurement of these biomarker proteins for understanding both health and disease. New techniques applied to immunoassay-based assays are presented along with the uses of aptamers, electrochemistry, mass spectrometry, optical resonator-based methods. Methods used for elucidating the release of cytokines from single cells as well as in vivo collection methods are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Stenken
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
| | - Andreas J Poschenrieder
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA; Pharmaceutical Radiochemistry, Technische Universität München, Walther-Meißner-Street 3, D-85748 Garching, Germany
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12
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Garcia-Garcia E, Galindo-Villegas J, Mulero V. Mucosal immunity in the gut: the non-vertebrate perspective. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 40:278-288. [PMID: 23537860 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Much is now known about the vertebrate mechanisms involved in mucosal immunity, and the requirement of commensal microbiota at mucosal surfaces for the proper functioning of the immune system. In comparison, very little is known about the mechanisms of immunity at the barrier epithelia of non-vertebrate organisms. The purpose of this review is to summarize key experimental evidence illustrating how non-vertebrate immune mechanisms at barrier epithelia compare to those of higher vertebrates, using the gut as a model organ. Not only effector mechanisms of gut immunity are similar between vertebrates and non-vertebrates, but it also seems that the proper functioning of non-vertebrate gut defense mechanisms requires the presence of a resident microbiota. As more information becomes available, it will be possible to obtain a more accurate picture of how mucosal immunity has evolved, and how it adapts to the organisms' life styles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick Garcia-Garcia
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
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Betti M, Ciacci C, Lorusso LC, Canonico B, Falcioni T, Gallo G, Canesi L. Effects of tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα) on Mytilus haemocytes: role of stress-activated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Biol Cell 2012; 98:233-44. [PMID: 16060858 DOI: 10.1042/bc20050049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND INFORMATION Many studies indicate that innate immunity in invertebrates can be modulated by a cytokine network like in vertebrates. In molluscs, the immune response is carried out by circulating haemocytes and soluble haemolymph factors. In the present study, the effects of heterologous TNFalpha (tumour necrosis factor alpha) on cell signalling and function in the haemocytes of the bivalve Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam. were investigated. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Addition of TNFalpha in the absence of haemolymph serum [in ASW (artificial sea water)] induced cellular stress, as indicated by lysosomal destabilization, and decreased phagocytosis; on the other hand, in the presence of serum, TNFalpha did not affect lysosomal stability and even stimulated phagocytosis. TNFalpha induced rapid phosphorylation of the stress-activated p38 and JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinases); both effects were persistent in ASW but transient in serum. Activation of p38 and JNKs in mediating the effects of TNFalpha was confirmed by the use of specific MAPK inhibitors. Moreover, flow cytometric analysis indicated that TNFalpha in the presence of serum induced transient phosphatidylserine exposure on the haemocyte surface, evaluated as annexin V binding; in ASW, the cytokine resulted in a stable increase in the percentage of both annexin- and propidium iodide-positive cells, indicating possible apoptotic/necrotic processes. The results indicate that TNFalpha can affect the function of bivalve haemocytes through conserved transduction pathways involving stress-activated MAPKs and suggest that the haemocyte response to the cytokine is influenced by soluble haemolymph components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Betti
- Istituto di Scienze Fisiologiche, Università di Urbino Carlo Bo, Loc. Crocicchia, 61029 Urbino (PU), Italy
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Fuller-Espie SL. Vertebrate cytokines interleukin 12 and gamma interferon, but not interleukin 10, enhance phagocytosis in the annelid Eisenia hortensis. J Invertebr Pathol 2010; 104:119-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2010.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2009] [Revised: 02/12/2010] [Accepted: 02/23/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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15
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Menin A, Ballarin L. Immunomodulatory molecules in the compound ascidian Botryllus schlosseri: Evidence from conditioned media. J Invertebr Pathol 2008; 99:275-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2008.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2008] [Revised: 08/06/2008] [Accepted: 08/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Roberts S, Gueguen Y, de Lorgeril J, Goetz F. Rapid accumulation of an interleukin 17 homolog transcript in Crassostrea gigas hemocytes following bacterial exposure. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 32:1099-1104. [PMID: 18395796 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2008.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2007] [Revised: 02/16/2008] [Accepted: 02/18/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-17 (IL-17) gene models have been found in the sequenced genomes of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and Caenorhabditis elegans. However, there have been no published reports on the empirical cloning and characterization of any interleukin cDNAs in invertebrates. From a Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) hemocyte cDNA library, two clones were obtained that encoded a protein similar to vertebrate IL-17s. The putative oyster IL-17 homolog (CgIL-17) was 27% identical to rainbow trout IL-17D, 21% to human IL-17D and 24% to an IL-17D-like gene model obtained from the annotation of the sea urchin genome. IL-17s from the oyster, sea urchin, trout and human, contained conserved cysteine residues found in all forms of IL-17 in mammals. Injection of bacteria into C. gigas oysters produced a large and rapid elevation in CgIL-17 transcript abundance in hemocytes, suggesting that this is a very early response gene to pathogens that may be responsible for the stimulation of other immune genes in the oyster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Roberts
- School of Aquatic and Fisheries Science, University of Washington-Seattle, Box 355020, 1122 NE Boat Street, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
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17
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Common evolutionary origin of the immune and neuroendocrine systems: from morphological and functional evidence to in silico approaches. Trends Immunol 2007; 28:497-502. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2007.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2007] [Revised: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 08/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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18
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19
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Parrinello N, Arizza V, Cammarata M, Giaramita FT, Pergolizzi M, Vazzana M, Vizzini A, Parrinello D. Inducible lectins with galectin properties and human IL1α epitopes opsonize yeast during the inflammatory response of the ascidian Ciona intestinalis. Cell Tissue Res 2007; 329:379-90. [PMID: 17457616 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-007-0415-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2006] [Accepted: 02/22/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Studies on inducible ascidian lectins may shed light on the evolutionary emergence of cytokine functions. Here, we show that the levels of opsonins, with IL1alpha-epitopes, increase in Ciona intestinalis hemolymph as a response to an inflammatory stimulus and, in particular, to intratunic injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The inflammatory agent promptly (within 4 h) enhances Ca(2+)-independent serum hemagglutinating and opsonizing activities, which are both inhibited by D-galactose and D-galactosides (alpha-lactose, N-acetyl-D-lactosamine, thio-digalactoside), suggesting that anti-rabbit erythrocyte lectins with galectin properties are involved as opsonins. Inducible galectin molecules contain interleukin-1alpha (IL1alpha) epitopes, and their activities are specifically inhibited by anti-human recombinant IL1alpha antibody. Analysis by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis has revealed that the density of the bands of several serum proteins increases within 4 h after LPS injection, correlated with the enhanced serum activity. Moreover, Western blot patterns demonstrate that several serum proteins (59, 37, 30, 23, 15 kDa) cross-react with the antibody as early as 4 h post-injection. Although we have not been able to establish whether, in adition to galectins, various types of D-galactose-specific lectins are contained in the serum, we show, for the first time in invertebrates, that galectin molecules with opsonic properties can be enhanced in response to a non-specific inflammatory stimulus, and that their release can be further stimulated by LPS. Finally, we reveal that multiple galectins share human IL1alpha epitopes, probably because of steric configuration and the oligomerization process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolò Parrinello
- Dipartimento di Biologia Animale, Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 18, 90123, Palermo, Italy.
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Grivennikov SI, Kuprash DV, Liu ZG, Nedospasov SA. Intracellular signals and events activated by cytokines of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily: From simple paradigms to complex mechanisms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 252:129-61. [PMID: 16984817 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(06)52002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and several related cytokines can induce opposite effects such as cell activation and proliferation or cell death. How the cell maintains the balance between these seemingly mutually exclusive pathways has long remained a mystery. TNF receptor I (TNFRI) initially emerged as a potent activator of NFkappaB and AP-1 transcription factors, while the related CD95 (Fas, Apo-1) was recognized as a prototype death receptor. Advances in research have uncovered critical molecular players in these intracellular processes. They have also revealed a much more complex picture than originally thought. Several new signaling pathways, including the alternative NFkappaB activation cascade, have been uncovered, and previously unknown modes of cross-talk between intracellular signaling molecules were revealed. It also turned out that signaling mechanisms mediated by the TNF receptor superfamily members can operate not only in the immune system but also in organ development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei I Grivennikov
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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Cima F, Sabbadin A, Zaniolo G, Ballarin L. Colony specificity and chemotaxis in the compound ascidian Botryllus schlosseri. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2006; 145:376-82. [PMID: 16962802 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2006] [Revised: 06/30/2006] [Accepted: 07/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We re-investigated the behavior of hemocytes during the non-fusion (rejection) reaction between genetically incompatible colonies of the ascidian Botryllus schlosseri. In the course of the reaction, hemocytes - mainly morula cells - crowd inside the blind ends of marginal vascular vessels (known as ampullae) of the colonial leading edge (LE) facing the foreign colony which suggests the occurrence of chemotactic attraction of circulating hemocytes towards the ampullar lumen. Then, cells migrate, through the ampullar tips, into the partially fused tunics and contribute to the formation of the necrotic spots along the contact borders which characterize the reaction. Studies on histological sections clearly indicate that, although morula cell concentration is always higher in ampullae of the LE than in those of the lateral (L) part of the colony, their frequency significantly increases in LE ampullae of rejecting colonies with respect to LE ampullae of both fusing and isolated colonies. In addition, in vitro chemotaxis experiments demonstrated that blood plasma from incompatible colonies can stimulate morula cell migration through polycarbonate filters and this passage is inhibited by antibodies raised against mammalian pro-inflammatory cytokines. The possible nature and role of molecules recognized by anti-cytokine antibodies in hemocyte migration are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Cima
- University of Padova, Department of Biology, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35100 Padova, Italy
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22
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Wagner VE, Frelinger JG, Barth RK, Iglewski BH. Quorum sensing: dynamic response of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to external signals. Trends Microbiol 2006; 14:55-8. [PMID: 16406629 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2005.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2005] [Revised: 11/04/2005] [Accepted: 12/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A recent study suggests that the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa can actively monitor the host immune system. The P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein OprF was found to bind specifically to the cytokine interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), and this interaction upregulated production of virulence factors through a cell-cell communication system known as quorum sensing (QS). Taken together with previous findings that P. aeruginosa QS can alter the host immune response (e.g. by activation of IFN-gamma), these data illustrate an exciting new element of bacteria-host interactions in which the P. aeruginosa quorum-sensing system both senses and modulates the host immune state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria E Wagner
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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