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Huang S, Riley AL. Drug discrimination learning: Interoceptive stimulus control of behavior and its implications for regulated and dysregulated drug intake. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2024; 244:173848. [PMID: 39137873 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2024.173848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 08/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Drug discrimination research has generated rich evidence for the capacity of interoceptive drug stimuli to control behavior by serving as discriminative cues. Owing to its neuropharmacological specificity, drug discrimination learning has been widely used to characterize the stimulus effects and neuropharmacological underpinning of drugs. Apart from such utility, discriminative drug stimuli may help regulate drug use by disambiguating conditioned associations and post-intake outcomes. First, this review summarizes the evidence supporting interoceptive regulation of drug intake from the literature of exteroceptive discriminative control of drug-related behavior, effects of drug priming, and self-titration of drug intake. Second, an overview of interoceptive control of reward-seeking and the animal model of discriminated goal-tracking is provided to illustrate interoceptive stimulus control of the initiation and patterning of drug intake. Third, we highlight the importance of interoceptive control of aversion-avoidance in the termination of drug-use episodes and describe the animal model of discriminated taste avoidance that supports such a position. In bridging these discriminative functions of drug stimuli, we propose that interoceptive drug stimuli help regulate intake by disambiguating whether intake will be rewarding, nonrewarding, or aversive. The reflection and discussion on current theoretical formulations of interoceptive control of drug intake may further scientific advances to improve animal models to study the mechanisms by which interoceptive stimuli regulate drug intake, as well as how alterations of interoceptive processes may contribute to the transition to dysregulated drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shihui Huang
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
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Desko AG, Cobuzzi JL, Riley AL. Naloxone-induced taste aversions in opiate-naïve Lewis and Fischer 344 rat strains. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 122:152-5. [PMID: 21996495 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/17/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Lewis (LEW) and Fischer (F344) rat strains appear differentially sensitive to the aversive effects of several used and abused drugs. Naloxone, a mu opioid receptor antagonist that induces aversions in outbred rats but has no abuse potential, was assessed to determine the characteristics of compounds for which the strains differ. METHODS Opioid-naïve male LEW and F344 rats were given access to saccharin followed by low (Experiment 1) and high (Experiment 2) doses of naloxone every 4th day for five pairings. Aversions were assessed in both one-bottle and two-bottle tests. RESULTS In Experiment 1, aversions were evident at 10mg/kg (one-bottle) and at 5.6 and 10mg/kg (two-bottle) with no apparent strain difference for either assessment. In Experiment 2, aversions were evident for LEW animals (but not F344) at 18 and 32 mg/kg (one-bottle). LEW animals injected with 32 mg/kg displayed greater aversions than F344 animals receiving the same dose. Both strains displayed aversions at all doses in the two-bottle test with no strain difference. CONCLUSIONS Naloxone induced aversions that were strain dependent only at specific doses and under the one-bottle testing condition. These results parallel those of several other used and abused drugs but differ dramatically from those seen with morphine in the two strains (F344>LEW). Further assessments utilizing the LEW-F344 model should investigate other drugs to establish the set of compounds for which the strains differ and to characterize the mechanism underlying the observed differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexa G Desko
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016, United States
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Barbano MF, Cador M. Differential regulation of the consummatory, motivational and anticipatory aspects of feeding behavior by dopaminergic and opioidergic drugs. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:1371-81. [PMID: 16205784 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Various aspects of feeding behavior (eg consumption, motivation and anticipation) are regulated by homeostatic and hedonic systems, and are modulated by dopaminergic and opioid brain systems. Here, we have studied the modulation of these aspects of feeding behavior by opioid and dopaminergic neurotransmission while taking into account food palatability and homeostatic state. Foods that varied in palatability were presented to either food sated or food restricted rats following injections of different doses of naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, or flupenthixol, a dopaminergic receptor antagonist, in behavioral paradigms that measured different aspects of feeding. Naloxone decreased food intake in a dose-dependent manner in sated rats given access to palatable food, without modifying food intake in food restricted rats. Flupenthixol did not have any effect on food intake. With regard to motivation, which was tested in a straight alley, naloxone increased the latency to reach the food only in sated rats presented with palatable food. Flupenthixol did not modify the latency of any group. Conditioned locomotor activity to repeated food presentation, a measure of anticipation, is expressed only in food restricted rats. Naloxone did not modify anticipatory activity, whereas flupenthixol decreased it only in food restricted rats presented with palatable food. These results reinforce the idea that the opioid system regulates feeding through the modulation of the perceived palatability of food. The dopaminergic system seems to be more important for the regulation of anticipatory activity related to motivationally relevant stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Flavia Barbano
- Laboratoire de Neuropsychobiologie des Désadaptations, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5541, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France.
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Levine AS, Grace MK, Cleary JP, Billington CJ. Naltrexone infusion inhibits the development of preference for a high-sucrose diet. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2002; 283:R1149-54. [PMID: 12376408 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00040.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We hypothesized that the opioid antagonist naltrexone would inhibit the redevelopment of a preference for a high-sucrose diet after an abstention period from this diet. Rats that chose between a starch or sucrose diet for 10 days preferred the sucrose diet. Rats were then given access to the starch diet alone for another 10-day period. A miniosmotic pump containing saline or naltrexone was then implanted (70 microg/h; 1.7 mg/day) for approximately 10 days. During the saline infusion, 77% of the total energy came from the sucrose diet, whereas during the naltrexone infusion, 33% of the total energy came from the sucrose diet. We repeated this study in another group of rats but did not restrict the sucrose diet. In this case naltrexone failed to decrease preference for the sucrose diet. Thus naltrexone infusion inhibited redevelopment of a preference for a sucrose diet after a period of restriction to a starch diet for 10 days but had no effect on preference if both diets were present throughout the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen S Levine
- Minnesota Obesity Center, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Minneapolis 55417, USA.
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Hutchinson AC, Simpson GR, Randall JF, Zhang X, Calderon SN, Rice KC, Riley AL. Assessment of SNC 80 and naltrindole within a conditioned taste aversion design. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000; 66:779-87. [PMID: 10973516 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(00)00278-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although compounds with relative selectivity for the mu and kappa opiate receptors subtypes have been reported to condition taste aversions, it is not known whether systemically administered delta compounds have the ability to produce aversions. To that end, female Long-Evans rats were adapted to water deprivation and were given pairings of a novel saccharin solution and various doses of the selective delta agonist SNC 80 (0.32-10.0 mg/kg; Experiment 1) or the selective delta antagonist naltrindole (1.0-18.0 mg/kg; Experiment 2). For comparison, the relatively selective mu agonist morphine (Experiment 1) and mu antagonist naloxone (Experiment 2) were assessed under identical conditions. Both SNC 80 (Experiment 1) and naltrindole (Experiment 2) were effective as unconditioned stimuli within this design, inducing dose-dependent taste aversions with repeated conditioning trials. Although at no dose did animals injected with SNC 80 differ from those injected with morphine, aversions induced by SNC 80 were acquired at a faster rate than those induced by morphine. Subjects injected with naloxone drank significantly less than those injected with naltrindole at the 10 mg/kg dose, and aversions induced by naloxone at 5.6 and 10 mg/kg were acquired at a faster rate than those induced by naltrindole. Although the basis for opioid agonist- and antagonist-induced taste aversions is not known, the differences between aversions induced by SNC 80 and naltrindole and those induced by morphine and naloxone, respectively, may be a function of their relative selectivity for specific opiate receptor subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Hutchinson
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
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Williams KL, Woods JH. Naltrexone Reduces Ethanol- and/or Water-Reinforced Responding in Rhesus Monkeys: Effect Depends Upon Ethanol Concentration. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04668.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
Growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF) is a hypothalamic peptide named for its ability to induce release of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary. GRF also acts as a neurotransmitter in the suprachiasmatic nucleus/medial preoptic area (SCN/MPOA) to stimulate food intake. The purpose of this series of experiments was to explore the nature of GRF-induced feeding, with a particular emphasis on macronutrient selectivity, and to examine the role of opiate activity in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Chow intake stimulated by GRF microinjection (1 pmol/0.5 microliters) into the SCN/MPOA was blocked by injection of methyl-naltrexone (3 micrograms/0.5 microliters) into the PVN. In animals habituated to macronutrient diets (Teklad, WI), GRF preferentially stimulated intake of protein at 2 and 4 h postinjection, whereas it had no effect on carbohydrate intake. Further, this effect was blocked by injection of naloxone (40 nmol/0.5 microliters) into the PVN. Microinjection of morphine (0, 1, 10, and 17 micrograms/0.5 microliter) into the PVN also specifically stimulated protein intake at 2 and 4 h postinjection. These results suggest that feeding derived from GRF actions in the SCN/MPOA is macronutrient selective, and is dependent on PVN opiate activity for expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- P R Dickson
- Department of Psychology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755
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Levine AS, Grace M, Billington CJ. The effect of centrally administered naloxone on deprivation and drug-induced feeding. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1990; 36:409-12. [PMID: 2356216 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(90)90424-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we evaluated the effect of intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of naloxone on feeding induced by food deprivation, norepinephrine (NE), muscimol and neuropeptide Y (NPY). Naloxone (200, 100 and 50 micrograms ICV) decreased deprivation-induced feeding. In contrast, only the 200 micrograms dose of naloxone decreased NE-induced feeding and the 200 and 100 micrograms doses decreased muscimol-induced feeding. Eating stimulated by central administration of NPY was potently decreased by doses of naloxone ranging from 10-200 micrograms.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Levine
- Neuroendocrine Research Laboratory, VA Medical Center, Minneapolis, MN 55417
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Levine
- Neuroendocrine Research Laboratory, VA Medical Center, St. Paul-Minneapolis, Minnesota
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Abstract
Weight loss and anorexia occur commonly in the elderly. While in many cases the anorexia can be attributed to associated disease processes, it does appear that a true anorexia of aging exists. Animal studies have suggested that older rodents have an excessive satiety effect of cholecystokinin and a decreased opioid feeding drive. Other older persons develop anorexia in association with depression. In these subjects, excess corticotropin-releasing factor may be the neurotransmitter involved in the pathogenesis of the anorexia. In Alzheimer's disease, decreases in norepinephrine and neuropeptide Y may be involved in the anorexia seen in the these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Morley
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Sepulveda VA Medical Center, CA 91343
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Sandi C, Borrell J, Guaza C. Naloxone decreases ethanol consumption within a free choice paradigm in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1988; 29:39-43. [PMID: 3353431 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(88)90270-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The effect of subcutaneous naloxone administration on the consumption of a weak ethanol solution in rats on the three consecutive days (testing days) was investigated using a behavioral paradigm which includes a first forced ethanol exposure (conditioning day) followed by a two-bottle ethanol/water choice procedure. Besides reducing fluid intake, naloxone treatment prior to forced ethanol exposure interferes with the acquisition of ethanol preference. Post-conditioning naloxone administration fails to affect ethanol preference. Administration of naloxone prior to the first testing session induces a reduction on total fluid intake, at the day of treatment; a decrease on ethanol preference throughout the three consecutive testing days is also observed with the higher dose of the antagonist (5 mg/kg). An involvement of endogenous opioids in ethanol consumption is suggested through the modulation of alcohol reinforcement or the affective quality of the gustatory cue.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sandi
- Department of Psychobiology, Cajal Institute, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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Abstract
The effects of naloxone and naltrexone on the night-time meal patterning of freely-feeding male rats were investigated using a Kissileff-type eatometer. Naloxone (5.0 mg/kg) and naltrexone (2.5 mg/kg) reduced intake for two hours after IP injection. This effect resulted from a shortening of duration of meals and an extension of postmeal intervals. Unlike other anorexic agents neither drug affected meal frequency or the eating rate within meals. These particular opioid antagonists therefore appear to produce anorexia by advancing meal termination and extending the inhibition of feeding which follows a meal. These specific changes in the structure of the meal pattern consolidate previous findings and support the hypothesis that naloxone and naltrexone reduce food intake in rats by promoting satiation and prolonging satiety.
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Spiegel TA, Stunkard AJ, Shrager EE, O'Brien CP, Morrison MF, Stellar E. Effect of naltrexone on food intake, hunger, and satiety in obese men. Physiol Behav 1987; 40:135-41. [PMID: 3628520 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(87)90198-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Increasing doses of naltrexone (25 to 200 mg) given over 4 consecutive days reduced intake of laboratory luncheon meals by 30% in 17 obese men. Meal size remained suppressed in the laboratory during the week following naltrexone administration. Water intake in the laboratory and body weight were not affected. Rates of ingestion and subjective ratings suggested that naltrexone reduced appetite rather than promoted early satiation. Nausea and other side effects occurred on 1 or 2 days during the naltrexone week in seven subjects whose food intake was reduced. Food intake was also reduced in seven of the remaining 10 subjects who reported no adverse reactions. These results suggest that a conditioned taste aversion or a conditioned anorexia may have developed in some subjects.
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Kirkham TC, Blundell JE. Effect of naloxone and naltrexone on the development of satiation measured in the runway: comparisons with d-amphetamine and d-fenfluramine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1986; 25:123-8. [PMID: 3749218 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(86)90241-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
A straight runway was used to monitor changes in measures of food motivation and food consumption in order to track and to characterise the development of satiation following administration of equianorectic doses of naloxone (5.0 mgkg-1), naltrexone (2.5 mgkg-1), dexfenfluramine (1.5 mgkg-1) and d-amphetamine (1.0 mgkg-1). Naloxone and naltrexone did not reduce motivational measures or block food consumption during the early trials. These drugs brought about a prompt cessation of intake only after some food had been consumed. Dexfenfluramine displayed an early effect on motivation and hastened the onset of satiation. The anorexic activity of d-amphetamine was virtually abolished. These results indicate that the runway is a useful device for analysing the effects of drugs on eating motivation. This study has further characterised the anorexic actions of naloxone and naltrexone; the profiles of these agents can be distinguished from both dexfenfluramine and d-amphetamine. The suppressive action on food intake exerted by these particular opioid antagonists appears to arise from an intensification of the feedback from food ingestion. The mechanisms through which this effect is achieved are not known.
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Cooper SJ, Jackson A, Kirkham TC. Endorphins and food intake: kappa opioid receptor agonists and hyperphagia. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1985; 23:889-901. [PMID: 2867562 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(85)90088-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Evidence from studies which utilise either opiate receptor agonists and antagonists strongly indicate a role for endorphinergic mechanisms in the control of feeding responses. Two means by which these compounds may exert an effect on feeding can be singled-out. Firstly, emerging evidence suggests that the process of achieving satiety (terminating a meal, or choice of a commodity) may be accelerated following treatments with opiate receptor antagonists. Secondly, the preference for highly palatable solutions (sweet solutions have received most attention) in two-bottle tests is blocked after injection of opiate receptor antagonists. This finding has been interpreted in terms of the abolition of the reward or incentive quality associated with the particularly attractive flavour. These two mechanisms of action may represent two aspects of a single, fundamental process. Following an introduction to rat urination model of in vivo kappa agonist activity, the consistent effect of several kappa agonists (including the highly selective U-50,488H) to stimulate food consumption is described. Recognising that members of the dynorphin group of endogenous opioid peptides are kappa receptor ligands, some with a high degree of selectivity, and the evidence the dynorphins and neo-endorphins produce hyperphagia in rats is particularly interesting. Such lines of evidence lead to the hypothesis that peptides of the dynorphin group may act endogenously to promote the expression of normal feeding behaviour.
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Abstract
This paper is the seventh in an annual series of reviews of research involving the endogenous opiate peptides, each installment being restricted to work published during the previous year. As in the past three years, the review this year is limited to non-analgesic and behavioral studies of the opiate peptides. The specific topics this year include: stress, tolerance and dependence, consummatory responses, gastric and renal activity, alcohol, mental illness, learning and memory, cardiovascular responses, respiratory effects, thermoregulation, seizures and neurological disorders, activity, and miscellaneous other topics.
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