Ethnic and gender differences in risk for early adolescent substance use

Caregiver monitoring, but not caregiver warmth, is associated with general cognition in two large sub-samples of youth

Individual differences in cognitive abilities emerge early during development, and children with poorer cognition are at increased risk for adverse outcomes as they enter adolescence. Caregiving plays an important role in supporting cognitive development, yet it remains unclear how specific types of caregiving behaviors may shape cognition, highlighting the need for large-scale studies. In the present study, we characterized replicable yet specific associations between caregiving behaviors and cognition in two large sub-samples of children ages 9-10 years old from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study® (ABCD). Across both discovery and replication sub-samples, we found that child reports of caregiver monitoring (supervision or regular knowledge of the child's whereabouts) were positively associated with general cognition abilities, after covarying for age, sex, household income, neighborhood deprivation, and parental education. This association was specific to the type of caregiving behavior (caregiver monitoring, but not caregiver warmth), and was most strongly associated with a broad domain of general cognition (but not executive function or learning/memory). Additionally, we found that caregiver monitoring partially mediated the association between household income and cognition, furthering our understanding of how socioeconomic disparities may contribute to disadvantages in cognitive development. Together, these findings underscore the influence of differences in caregiving behavior in shaping youth cognition. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Caregiver monitoring, but not caregiver warmth, is associated with cognitive performance in youth Caregiver monitoring partially mediates the association between household income and cognition Results replicated across two large matched samples from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study® (ABCD).

Methods and rationale to assess the efficacy of a parenting intervention targeting diet improvement and substance use prevention among Latinx adolescents

Latinx adolescents are at higher risk for chronic diseases relative to adolescents of other ethnic groups, in part because of their lack of adherence to diet recommendations and their higher rates of substance use. Given the proximal influence of family factors during the developmental stage of adolescence, parenting interventions may be an effective way to promote healthy nutrition and substance use prevention simultaneously. This article describes the design and theoretical rationale of a study assessing the effects of Families Preparing the New Generation Plus (FPNG Plus), a 10-week culturally-tailored nutrition and substance use prevention parenting program, on diet and substance use outcomes among Latinx middle school students (6th-8th grade). The 3-arm cluster randomized controlled trial compares FPNG Plus (substance use prevention and healthy nutrition), FPNG (substance use prevention only), and a comparison condition (focusing on academic success) in 1494 parent-child dyads from 18 schools, randomized at the school level. Adolescents and parents will complete surveys pre- and post-intervention, and 16-weeks after program participation, regarding diet behaviors, substance use, and parenting practices. A random subsample of 126 dyads (42 from each program), will participate in additional data collection to assess the home food environment, detailed dietary intake (via two 24-h recalls), and provide biomarkers of cardiometabolic risk (blood pressure, total cholesterol and HbA1c). If successful, this study will provide evidence contributing to helping Latinx parents assist their adolescent children develop and maintain long-lasting positive lifestyle behaviors in order to prevent concurrent substance use and diet-related chronic diseases.

Substance Abuse: Trends, Primary Care and Sustainable Transformation

The increased consumption of drugs in India is alarming and literature reveals that there are many studies on substance abuse and on the current trends and factors responsible for its consumption across the globe but very few in the Indian context. Through this article, we intend to highlight the statistics of substance use in India in context of problem, causes, consequences, impact, intensity, solutions, measures taken and way forward. The study is useful to policy makers, common man and drug addicts. The study is based on compilation and analysis of secondary data collected from authentic sources. Through this study, we have made an attempt to cover A to Z of Substance abuse in India. Through this study, we found that the increased trend of Substance abuse is alarming and there is a severe need of interventions. The Narcotics department is seizing the drugs as and when they are getting the information but somehow the situation cannot be controlled only with the efforts of Narcotics department and the contribution of policy makers, parents, teachers, doctors, that is, of each and every one of us, is equally important to eradicate this evil from society and nation as a whole.

Adolescence effortful control as a mediator between family ecology and problematic substance use in early adulthood: A 16-year prospective study

This study examined the mediated effect of early adolescence familial context on early adulthood problematic substance use through effortful control in late adolescence. The sample consisted of a community sample of 311 adolescents and their families comprising the control group within a randomized trial intervention. Parental monitoring and parent-child relationship quality (P-C RQ) were measured annually from ages 11 to 13. Effortful control was measured by self-reports and parent and teacher reports at ages 16 to 17. Self-reports of problematic tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use were measured at ages 18 to 19, 21 to 22, 23 to 24, and 26 to 27. Structural equation modeling was employed to test hypothesized models. Only P-C RQ was found to be significantly associated with adolescent effortful control. As expected, higher levels of adolescent effortful control were associated with lower problematic substance use through early adulthood, controlling for previous substance use levels. Mediation analyses showed that effortful control significantly mediated the relationship between P-C RQ and problematic substance use. Higher relationship quality between youth and parents in early adolescence is associated with higher effortful control, which in turn relates to a lower level of problematic substance use in early adulthood.

Affiliation with substance-using peers: Examining gene-environment correlations among parent monitoring, polygenic risk, and children's impulsivity

Parental monitoring can buffer the effect of deviant peers on adolescents' substance use by reducing affiliation with substance-using peers. However, children's genetic predispositions may evoke poorer monitoring, contributing to negative child outcomes. We examined evocative genotype-environment correlations underlying children's genetic predisposition for behavioral undercontrol and parental monitoring in early adolescence via children's impulsivity in middle childhood, and the influence of parental monitoring on affiliation with substance-using peers a year and a half later (n = 359). Genetic predisposition for behavioral undercontrol was captured using a polygenic risk score, and a portion of passive rGE was controlled by including parents' polygenic risk scores. Children's polygenic risk predicted poorer parental monitoring via greater children's impulsivity, indicating evocative rGE, controlling for a portion of passive rGE. Poorer parental monitoring predicted greater children's affiliation with substance-using peers a year and a half later. Results are discussed with respect to gene-environment correlations within developmental cascades.

Longitudinal Pathways from Cumulative Contextual Risk at Birth to School Functioning in Adolescence: Analysis of Mediation Effects and Gender Moderation

Children and adolescents exposed to multiple contextual risks are more likely to have academic difficulties and externalizing behavior problems than those who experience fewer risks. This study used data from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 (a population-based study; N = 6961; 51 % female) to investigate (a) the impact of cumulative contextual risk at birth on adolescents' academic performance and misbehavior in school, (b) learning difficulties and/or externalizing behavior problems in childhood as intervening mechanisms in the association of cumulative contextual risk with functioning in adolescence, and (c) potential gender differences in the predictive associations of cumulative contextual risk at birth with functioning in childhood or adolescence. The results of the structural equation modeling analysis suggested that exposure to cumulative contextual risk at birth had negative associations with functioning 16 years later, and academic difficulties and externalizing behavior problems in childhood mediated some of the predictive relations. Gender, however, did not moderate any of the associations. Therefore, the findings of this study have implications for the prevention of learning and conduct problems in youth and future research on the impact of cumulative risk exposure.

Substance use capital: Social resources enhancing youth substance use

BACKGROUND

Social capital is described as a protective factor against youth substance use, but it may also be associated with behaviours that do not enhance health. The present study hypothesized that 'substance use capital', i.e. resources favourable to substance use, is a risk factor for substance use and misuse.

METHODS

We used baseline data from the ongoing Cohort Study on Substance Use Risk Factors (C-SURF) that included a representative sample of young Swiss men (n=5623). Substance use (alcohol, cannabis, 15 illicit drugs, lifetime use, hazardous use and dependence), substance use capital (parental and peer attitudes towards substance use, parental and peer drug use, perceived norms of substance use) and aspects of social capital (relationships with parents and peers) were assessed. Logistic regressions were used to examine the associations between substance-related resources and social resources, and substance use.

RESULTS

Results showed that substance-related resources were associated with an increased risk of substance use (OR between 1.25 and 4.67), whereas social resources' associations with substance use were commonly protective but weaker than substance-related resources. Thus, a drug-friendly environment facilitated substance use and misuse. Moreover, the results showed that peer environments were more drug-friendly than familial environments.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study highlighted a concept of 'substance use capital', which may be useful for advancing both theoretical and applied knowledge of substance use. Indeed, substance use is not only associated with a lack of social resources, but also with specific drug-friendly social resources coming from environment and background.

Influences of Personal, Injunctive, and Descriptive Norms on Early Adolescent Substance use

Social norms play an important role in adolescent substance use. Norm focus theory (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990) distinguishes three types of norms: injunctive, descriptive, and personal. This study examines the relative influences of these three norms, as well as the moderating effects of gender and ethnicity, on the concurrent substance use of 2,245 Mexican or Mexican-American students, 676 students of other Latino or multiethnic Latino origin, 756 non-Hispanic White students, and 353 African- American students. Personal norms appear to be the strongest significant predictor of substance use. Descriptive, parental injunctive, and friend injunctive norms also demonstrate significant, though weaker influences. Controlling for intentions reduces the predictive ability of each type of norm, especially personal norms. Gender moderates the relationship between norms and substance use with the relationships generally stronger for males. Personal norms act as stronger predictors of some types of substance use for Mexican/Mexican Americans.

Prevention Programming for African American Youth: A Review of Strategies in CSAP’s National Cross-Site Evaluation of High-Risk Youth Programs

The purpose of this paper is to add to the knowledge base on prevention programming by explicating the characteristics of 12 programs (out of 47) serving African American youth funded by the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP). Findings show that African American youth exhibit lower use rates than most other ethnic and racial groups, but by the time they reach ages 16 to 18, use is prevalent. Data on correlations of risk and protective factors with substance use reveal a very similar pattern of rank order in the strength of correlations for African American youth with youth who are not African American in the CSAP sample. The African American programs integrated Africentric principles and themes into other prevention strategies: education-and-awareness, risk-andprotection, and positive-alternative-interventions. The analysis shows that Africentric programming contributes to higher rates of satisfaction and perceived program importance to youth participating in the African American programs, compared to African American youth in other programs.

Stress and Alcohol, Cigarette, and Marijuana Use Among Latino Adolescents in Families with Undocumented Immigrants

Families in which one or more members are undocumented immigrants experience unique hardships. Yet, little is known about stress and substance use among adolescents growing up in these families. The present study examined associations between two sources of adolescent stress (i.e., low parental involvement due to contextual constraints and family economic insecurity) and lifetime alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use among adolescents in families with undocumented members. The sample was comprised of 102 adolescents (10-18 years old) and one of his or her parents. Participants responded a survey in English or Spanish. Adolescent lifetime use of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana was 51%, 32.4%, and 37.3%, respectively. Chi-Square analyses found no significant gender differences in lifetime substance use. Logistic regression models showed that adolescent stress due to hindered parental involvement increased the odds of both lifetime cigarette and marijuana use after controlling for gender, age, linguistic acculturation, familism, parental control, and negative peer affiliation. Being a girl increased the odds of lifetime alcohol use. Family economic stress was not associated with lifetime substance use. Results suggest that hindered parental involvement might be a stressor and a risk factor for cigarette and marijuana use among adolescents growing up in families with undocumented members. Because parents in these families are likely to be undocumented, policies that allow immigrants to apply for legal status could improve parents' working conditions and facilitate parental involvement; in turn, such policies could decrease the risk for adolescent substance use among children of Latino immigrants.

Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of lifetime substance use among a rural and diverse sample of adolescents

BACKGROUND

Data are limited regarding the prevalence of substance use among adolescents in rural and ethnically diverse communities. This study examined rates and sociodemographic correlates of lifetime substance use among adolescents in Mississippi, a rural state that is the poorest in the country (21.3% poverty rate) and has the largest proportion of African Americans per capita (36.3%).

METHODS

Participants in this cross-sectional study were 6349 adolescents (6th through 12th grade) who reported on lifetime tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, inhalant, hallucinogen, and methamphetamine use.

RESULTS

Lifetime smoking (10.2% to 44.5%), alcohol (23.2% to 72.0%), and marijuana use (7.9% to 39.2%) increased steadily when comparing students in 6th to 12th grade. Substances with more serious abuse potential (cocaine [6.7% to 11.1%], inhalants [12.2% to 17.9%], hallucinogens [4.4% to 12.1%], and methamphetamine [3.0% to 6.7%]) displayed more modest increases across grade. Adolescents who classified their race/ethnicity as "Other" (i.e., not white, black/African American, Asian, or Hispanic/Latino/Latina) demonstrated more than 2-fold increased likelihood of methamphetamine use (odds ratio [OR] = 2.42), and increased risk for use of any illicit substance (OR = 1.49). In general, males demonstrated an increased risk for use across substances (OR = 1.15-1.94), and higher income was associated with a decreased likelihood of illicit substance use (OR = 0.51-0.67). Living in a more populated area was associated with an increased likelihood of alcohol (OR = 1.43), marijuana (OR = 2.11), and cocaine use (OR = 2.06), and use of any illicit substance (OR = 1.54).

CONCLUSIONS

Mississippi adolescents reported higher rates of lifetime cocaine, inhalant, hallucinogen, and methamphetamine use across all grade levels compared with national surveys. Male gender, low income, and residence in more populated areas were associated with increased use of several substances. Findings demonstrate the need for prevention and intervention programs targeting impoverished rural and ethnically diverse communities.

Peer pressure and alcohol use in young men: a mediation analysis of drinking motives

BACKGROUND

Peer pressure (PP) has been shown to play a major role in the development and continuation of alcohol use and misuse. To date, almost all the studies investigating the association of PP with alcohol use only considered the PP for misconduct but largely ignored other aspects of PP, such as pressure for peer involvement and peer conformity. Moreover, it is not clear whether the association of PP with alcohol use is direct or mediated by other factors. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association of different aspects of peer pressure (PP) with drinking volume (DV) and risky single-occasion drinking (RSOD), and to explore whether these associations were mediated by drinking motives (DM).

METHODS

A representative sample of 5521 young Swiss men, aged around 20 years old, completed a questionnaire assessing their usual weekly DV, the frequency of RSOD, DM (i.e. enhancement, social, coping, and conformity motives), and 3 aspects of PP (i.e. misconduct, peer involvement, and peer conformity). Associations between PP and alcohol outcomes (DV and RSOD) as well as the mediation of DM were tested using structural equation models.

RESULTS

Peer pressure to misconduct was associated with more alcohol use, whereas peer involvement and peer conformity were associated with less alcohol use. Associations of drinking outcomes with PP to misconduct and peer involvement were partially mediated by enhancement and coping motives, while the association with peer conformity was partially mediated by enhancement and conformity motives.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that PP to misconduct constitutes a risk factor, while peer conformity and peer involvement reflect protective factors with regard to alcohol use. Moreover, results from the mediation analyses suggest that part of the association of PP with alcohol use came indirectly through DM: PP was associated with DM, which in turn were associated with alcohol use.

Family obligation values and family assistance behaviors: protective and risk factors for Mexican-American adolescents' substance use

Adolescent substance use is one of today's most important social concerns, with Latino youth exhibiting the highest overall rates of substance use. Recognizing the particular importance of family connection and support for families from Mexican backgrounds, the current study seeks to examine how family obligation values and family assistance behaviors may be a source of protection or risk for substance use among Mexican-American adolescents. Three hundred and eighty-five adolescents (51% female) from Mexican backgrounds completed a questionnaire and daily diary for 14 consecutive days. Results suggest that family obligation values are protective, relating to lower substance use, due, in part, to the links with less association with deviant peers and increased adolescent disclosure. In contrast, family assistance behaviors are a source of risk within high parent-child conflict homes, relating to higher levels of substance use. These findings suggest that cultural values are protective against substance use, but the translation of these values into behaviors can be a risk factor depending upon the relational context of the family.

[Adaptation of a peer pressure scale in French and German: the Peer Pressure Inventory]

BACKGROUND

Peer pressure is regarded as an important determinant of substance use, sexual behavior and juvenile delinquency. However, few peer pressure scales are validated, especially in French or German. Little is known about the factor structure of such scales or the kind of scale needed: some scales takes into account both peer pressure to do and peer pressure not to do, while others consider only peer pressure to do. The aim of the present study was to adapt French and German versions of the Peer Pressure Inventory, which is one of the most widely used scales in this field. We considered its factor structure and concurrent validity.

METHODS

Five thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven young Swiss men filled in a questionnaire on peer pressure, substance use, and other variables (conformity, involvement) in a cohort study.

RESULTS

We identified a four-factor structure, with the three factors of the initial Peer Pressure Inventory (involvement, conformity, misconduct) and adding a new one (relationship with girls). A non-valued scale (from no peer pressure to peer pressure to do only) showed stronger psychometric qualities than a valued scale (from peer pressure not to do to peer pressure to do). Concurrent validity was also good. Each behavior or attitude was significantly associated with peer pressure.

CONCLUSION

Peer pressure seems to be a multidimensional concept. In this study, peer pressure to do showed the strongest influence on participants. Indeed, peer pressure not to do did not add anything useful. Only peer pressure to do affected young Swiss men's behaviors and attitudes and was reliable.

Testing multiple levels of influence in the intergenerational transmission of alcohol disorders from a developmental perspective: the example of alcohol use promoting peers and μ-opioid receptor M1 variation

This study examined the interplay between the influence of peers who promote alcohol use and μ-opioid receptor M1 (OPRM1) genetic variation in the intergenerational transmission of alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms while separating the "traitlike" components of AUD symptoms from their age-specific manifestations at three ages from emerging adulthood (17-23 years) to adulthood (29-40 years). The results for males were consistent with genetically influenced peer selection mechanisms as mediators of parent alcoholism effects. Male children of alcoholics were less likely to be carriers of the G allele in single nucleotide polymorphism A118G (rs1799971), and those who were homozygous for the A allele were more likely to affiliate with alcohol use promoting peers who increased the risk for AUD symptoms at all ages. There was evidence for women of an interaction between OPRM1 variation and peer affiliations but only at the earliest age band. Peer influences had stronger effects among women who were G-carriers. These results illustrate the complex ways in which the interplay between influences at multiple levels of analysis can underlie the intergenerational transmission of alcohol disorders as well as the importance of considering age and gender differences in these pathways.

The most critical unresolved issues associated with race, ethnicity, culture, and substance use

This paper discusses the limitations of previous research on race, ethnicity, culture, and substance use. The study offers the following recommendations for future research in this area: (1) move beyond simple comparisons of mutually exclusive groups, (2) focus on the meaning of an ethnic label to the individual, (3) consider the complex interactions between an individual's cultural identity and the cultural context, (4) understand and acknowledge the researcher's inherent biases, and (5) translate research findings into practice and policy change.

Environmental lead exposure and socio-behavioural adjustment in the early teens: the birth to twenty cohort

Lead exposure remains high in South Africa. Environmental lead exposure has been associated with behaviour problems in childhood and adolescence. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between blood lead levels and socio-behavioural problems among young adolescents in the Birth to Twenty cohort (Bt20). The uniquely South African Bt20 cohort started in 1989 and is a long-term prospective follow-up study of the health and well-being of children born in the Greater Johannesburg area. The total analytical sample size consisted of 1041 adolescents (487 males and 554 females). Blood lead levels were obtained from whole venous blood that was collected. Thirty two items representing Rule-breaking and Aggressive behavioural characteristics from the Youth Self Report (YSR) were assessed. Bivariate and multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess for associations between blood lead levels and socio-behavioural problems at 13 years of age. The geometric mean blood lead level was significantly (P value < 0.001) higher in boys (6.0 μg/dl) compared to girls (4.5 μg/dl). In the total analytical sample four behavioural items were significantly associated with the geometric mean blood lead levels. When stratifying the sample by sex, the bivariate analyses showed that boys' blood lead levels were significantly associated with four types of aggressive behaviour. There were no significant associations found in girls. The multivariate analysis was conducted in the boys sample and after adjusting for socio-economic factors "Attacking People" remained significantly associated with blood lead levels. High blood lead levels are associated with anti-social and destructive behaviour amongst boys in their early teens. However, the relationships are complex and confounded by other aspects of adversity.

Differential therapeutic outcomes of community-based group interventions for women and children exposed to intimate partner violence

Two community-based group therapies, emotion focused versus goal oriented, are compared among women exposed to intimate partner violence (n = 46) and their children ( n = 48) aged between 6 and 12 years. A series of repeated measures analyses are employed to evaluate the effects of time from baseline to postintervention following random assignment. Main and treatment effects for women provide support for the relative effectiveness in increasing quality of social support in the emotion-focused intervention and in the reduction of both family conflict and alcohol use for the goal-oriented intervention.

Hearing Beyond the Normal Enabled by Therapeutic Devices: The Role of the Recipient and the Hearing Profession

The time is near where ‘therapeutic’ bodily assistive devices, developed to mimic species-typical body structures in order to enable normative body functioning, will allow the wearer to outperform the species-typical body in various functions. Although such devices are developed for people that are seen to exhibit sub species-typical abilities, many ‘therapeutic enhancements’ might also be desired and used by people that exhibit species-typical body abilities. This paper presents the views of members of the World Federation of the Deaf on potential beyond species-typical abilities enabling therapeutic assistive devices (i.e. related to hearing). Survey respondents showed support for the development and uptake of beyond normal hearing enabling devices. The views of survey respondents as clients affect hearing-enabling professions (such as audiologist and speech pathologists). The paper analyzes what guidance code of ethics of hearing enabling professions give in regards to beyond normal hearing enabling devices. This paper suggests that people labeled impaired and the professions that serve them should more involved in the enhancement discourse.

Empathy and drug use behaviors among African-American adolescents

The current study proposed that empathy may indirectly play a protective role for adolescents in drug use behaviors and that this relationship will be mediated by self-regulatory strategies found in drug refusal efficacy. We predict that empathy will be linked to prosocial behavior and aggression, though we do not believe that they will mediate the relationship between empathy and drug use. The sample included 498 African-American adolescents in the 6th, 7th, and 8th grade. The results of structural equation modeling provided support for our hypotheses. Empathy was significantly and positively associated with drug refusal efficacy and prosocial behavior. Empathy was negatively associated with aggression. Drug refusal efficacy was negatively related to past 30-day drug use, providing evidence for the fully mediating role of drug refusal self-efficacy on empathy and past 30-day drug use. Consistent with our predictions, aggression and prosocial behavior were not significantly associated with past 30-day drug use. These findings may be useful in the context of programming efforts for drug prevention.

Project success' effects on substance use-related attitudes and behaviors: a randomized controlled trial in alternative high schools

Using a randomized controlled effectiveness trial, we examined the effects of Project SUCCESS on a range of secondary outcomes, including the program's mediating variables. Project SUCCESS, which is based both on the Theory of Reasoned Action and on Cognitive Behavior Theory, is a school-based substance use prevention program that targets high-risk students. We recruited two groups of alternative high schools in successive academic years, and randomly assigned schools in each group to either receive the intervention (n = 7) or serve as a control (n = 7). Students completed surveys prior to and following the administration of the program, and again 1 year later. Although participation in Project SUCCESS significantly increased students' perceptions of harm resulting from alcohol and marijuana use, students in the control group reported greater increases in peer support. We also found conflicting evidence in two opposing trends related to students' perceptions of the prevalence and acceptability of substance use. Therefore, the effects of Project SUCCESS on substance use-related beliefs and behaviors must be considered mixed.

Parental monitoring and changes in substance use among Latino/a and non-Latino/a preadolescents in the Southwest

Prior research shows parental monitoring is associated with less substance use, but these studies have some limitations. Many examine older adolescents from White, Euro-American heritage, and cross-sectional studies are unable to test if parental monitoring decreases substance use over time. We address these limitations with longitudinal data of 2,034 primarily Latino preadolescents in Phoenix, Arizona, USA in 2004-2005. We use multilevel regression with multiple imputation of missing data. We find parental monitoring has beneficial, longitudinal effects on youth's substance use and related intentions, norms, and attitudes. Effects are invariant to gender or Latino ethnicity, except in the case of marijuana.

Ethnic group differences in substance use, depression, peer relationships, and parenting among adolescents receiving brief alcohol counseling

This study examined differences in substance use and related risk factors in a matched sample of Hispanic and White non-Hispanic adolescents receiving brief alcohol counseling. Findings revealed that the White non-Hispanic adolescents reported smoking a higher number of cigarettes per day. The Hispanic adolescents reported perceiving less acceptance from the neighborhood environment in which they live, whereas their parents reported monitoring their teens less than the parents' of White non-Hispanic adolescents. Consistent with the findings found in community samples, the overall findings of this study suggest that Hispanic and White non-Hispanic adolescents enrolled in this alcohol intervention have similar baseline characteristics.

Parental Monitoring, Religious Involvement and Drug Use Among Latino and Non-Latino Youth in the Southwestern United States

AIMS: The purpose of this study was to examine parental monitoring practices and religious involvement (protective factors) and substance use among Mexican American and Non-Latino adolescents in the Southwest of the United States. FRAMEWORK: We also relied on social control theories to guide our investigation of why adolescents may choose not to use drugs. PARTICIPANTS: The sample was N=1087 adolescents, the age ranged from 13 to 15 years, and the gender distribution was approximately equal. There were 71% Mexican Americans and 29% non-Latinos in the sample. METHODS: a number of measures were used including recent substance use, religiosity, religious affiliation, parental monitoring, parental permissiveness, parental norms, and acculturation. Linear regressions were used to examine the relationship between the variables of interest and the outcomes. RESULTS: Although the effect sizes of the significant relationships were modest, the findings are of interest because they reinforce the importance of the role of parents in the lives of their adolescents and supports previous studies that find that parents have great influence on children's behaviors including substance use. The results suggest that acculturating adolescents benefit from having clear rules from their parents concerning substance use, and from believing that there is some kind of consequence attached to their behavior. Parental monitoring, by itself, did not explain lower levels of drug use among these adolescents; but it was a predictor of adolescent strong anti-drug personal norms. This study is useful to social workers and other professionals working with parents and adolescents as it provides concrete evidence of possible parents pathway of influence on their children's health status.

Gender differences in the effect of linguistic acculturation on substance use among Mexican-origin youth in the southwest United States

This study tested for gender differences in the impact of linguistic acculturation on pro-drug norms, substance use intentions, and actual substance use among youth of Mexican heritage in a large metropolitan area in the Southwest United States. The authors analyzed baseline survey data provided by 2,487 middle school students of Mexican heritage who were part of a larger, multiethnic randomized efficacy trial of a drug abuse prevention program. Using multi-group structural equation modeling, the authors found that linguistic acculturation was positively and directly related to adherence to pro-drug norms, substance use intentions, and recent alcohol use, controlling for age, poor grades, and socioeconomic status. In addition, linguistic acculturation had an indirect effect on substance use intentions and recent alcohol use through pro-drug norms. The direct effect of linguistic acculturation on pro-drug norms was stronger for girls than for boys, as was its indirect effect on substance use intentions.

Body Image, Acculturation, and Substance Abuse Among Boys and Girls in the Southwest

This study explored body image as measured by perceptions of weight and appearance and its impact on adolescent drug use among predominately Mexican American middle school students in the southwest. Outcomes analyzed included lifetime and recent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and antidrug norms. Disliking one's looks was more of a risk factor for boys, whereas negative weight perceptions were more of a risk factor for girls. Relative to more acculturated (English-dominant) Latinos (N=903), non-Latino Whites (N=121), and other non-Latino youth (N=107), less acculturated (Spanish-dominant) Latino youth (N=212) reported the poorest body image. However, more acculturated Latino youth with poor body image had the greatest risk of substance use. More acculturated Latino boys who disliked their looks reported relatively greater amounts of recent alcohol use, and those who rated their bodies as too thin reported higher lifetime cigarette use, a greater amount and frequency of recent cigarette use, and weaker antidrug norms. More acculturated Latina girls who thought they were too fat reported a greater amount and frequency of recent cigarette use. These findings suggest that low levels of acculturation may protect some Latino youth with poor body image from coping via substance use. In addition, they suggest that poor body image among some Latinos may result less from adoption of American thinness ideals but rather from attitudes and behaviors that devalue the characteristics of Latino appearance.

The protective and risk effects of parents and peers on substance use, attitudes and behaviors of Mexican and Mexican American female and male adolescents

This study explores the extent to which parental and peer behaviors and norms may affect substance use, personal anti-drug norms and intentions to use drugs in a group of Mexican heritage preadolescents in the Southwest, and whether these parental and peer influences differ according to gender. Secondary data from a randomized trial of a drug prevention program was used. The sample consisted of 2,733 adolescents. The outcomes were recent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use, personal anti-drug norms and intentions to use drugs. In this study, peer variables were more consistently related to the outcomes than parent variables, with the exception of parental injunctive norms which were the most predictive parent factor. Recommendations are provided to further study the protective processes that are maintained through the transition into adolescence and acculturation as a foundation for the design of resiliency-focused prevention interventions.

Substance Use in Ethnic Minority Youth

As evidenced in the literature, there has been a recent interest in understanding drug and alcohol use in ethnic minority populations, particularly among adolescents. Although epidemiological and treatment outcome research involving substance use and abuse has improved among ethnic minority groups, this information has yet to be sufficiently integrated. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the extent of drug and alcohol use and related problems among ethnic minority youth, including patterns of use and treatment implications and recommendations.

Gender identity and substance use among students in two high schools in Monterrey, Mexico

This study explored relationships between several hypothesized dimensions of gender identity and substance use outcomes within a non-probability sample of adolescents in Monterrey, Mexico. Based on Mexican concepts of machismo and marianismo, four gender identity constructs were measured: aggressive masculinity, assertive masculinity, affective femininity and submissive femininity. The study assessed how well these gender identity measures predicted substance use behaviors, substance use intentions, expectancies, and normative approval, and exposure and vulnerability to substance offers. Data were drawn from questionnaires completed by 327 students from 2 Monterrey secondary schools. Multivariate ordered logistic and linear regression analyses, adjusted for school level effects, indicated that aggressive masculinity was associated with higher risk of drug use on most outcomes, while affective femininity was associated with lower risk on selected outcomes. Assertive masculinity was associated with only one of the outcomes examined and submissive femininity with none of them. Most gender identity effects persisted after controlling for biological sex, academic performance, age, and other gender identity measures. For two of the outcomes, the gender identity measures had significantly stronger effects for males than for females. The findings are interpreted in light of males' higher risk for drug use and changes in gender roles and gendered behavior that are now occurring in Mexico as in the U.S.

Effects of Parental Monitoring, Permissiveness, and Injunctive Norms on Substance Use Among Mexican and Mexican American Adolescents

The prevention literature has given little attention to how parental influences affect substance use among Mexican origin adolescents, even though they form part of the largest ethnic minority group in the United States. This study explored the effects of three types of parental influences-parental monitoring of the child's whereabouts, degree of parental permissiveness, and the strength of parental injunctive norms discouraging substance use-on alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and anti-drug norms. Results showed that parental permissiveness and parental injunctive norms, particularly anti-drug injunctive norms, had the strongest effects on the substance use outcomes, but parental monitoring generally was not a significant predictor. These results and implications for prevention are discussed in light of Mexican cultural norms toward substance use, gender roles, and family roles.

Pathways to smoking cessation among African American and Puerto Rican young adults

OBJECTIVES

We examined the pathways to smoking cessation between late adolescence and young adulthood.

METHODS

We obtained data from a sample of urban African American and Puerto Rican young adults (N=242), mean age 19 years, who reported tobacco use and determined cessation rates between late adolescence and young adulthood. We used structural equation modeling to examine the pathways of positive family relations, family smoking, maladaptive personality attributes, and substance use to smoking cessation.

RESULTS

A mediational pathway linked the absence of positive family relations with maladaptive personality attributes, both of which were related to substance use and ultimately smoking cessation. Substance use mediated the path between family smoking and smoking cessation.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that a positive relationship with one's parents, less smoking in the family, conventional personality attributes, and little or no other substance use facilitate smoking cessation among young adults.

Parent-adolescent collaboration: an interpersonal model for understanding optimal interactions

Current parent-adolescent behavioral interaction research highlights the importance of three elements of behavior in defining adaptive interactions: autonomy, control, and warmth vs. hostility. However, this research has largely addressed the developmental needs and psychosocial outcomes of adolescents, as opposed to parents, with a focus on how parent and adolescent behaviors influence adolescent adaptation. This paper utilizes both adolescent and mid-life developmental research, as well as parent-adolescent interaction research, to introduce a model for conceptualizing parent-adolescent interactions as a transactional process in which both parental and adolescent development are considered. Further, ideas are presented describing how adaptive parent-adolescent interactions may change across adolescence. The concept of collaboration is proposed as a conceptual tool for assessing one form of adaptive parent-adolescent interactions. The structural analysis of social behavior (SASB) is presented as a model for studying the complex reciprocal processes that occur in parent-adolescent interpersonal processes.

Neighborhood Effects on Youth Substance Use in a Southwestern City

This study examines neighborhood influences on alcohol, cigarette and marijuana use among a predominantly Latino middle school sample. Drawing on theories of immigrant adaptation and segmented assimilation, we test whether neighborhood immigrant, ethnic, and socioeconomic composition, violent crime, residential instability, and family structure have differential effects on substance use among youth from different ethnic and acculturation backgrounds. Data are drawn from self-reports from 3,721 7(th) grade students attending 35 Phoenix, Arizona middle schools. Analysis was restricted to the two largest ethnic groups, Latino students of Mexican heritage and non-Hispanic Whites. After adjusting for individual-level characteristics and school- level random effects, only one neighborhood effect was found for the sample overall, an undesirable impact of neighborhood residential instability on recent cigarette use. Sub-group analyses by individual ethnicity and acculturation showed more patterned neighborhood effects. Living in neighborhoods with high proportions of recent immigrants was protective against alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use for Latino students at different acculturation levels, while living in predominantly Mexican heritage neighborhoods (mostly non-immigrants) was a risk factor for alcohol and marijuana use for less acculturated Latinos. There were scattered effects of neighborhood poverty and crime, which predicted more cigarette and alcohol use, respectively, but only among more acculturated Latinos. Inconsistent effects confined to bilingual and more acculturated Latinos were found for the neighborhood's proportion of single mother families and its residential instability. No neighborhood effects emerged for non-Hispanic White students. Results suggested that disadvantaged neighborhoods increase substance use among some ethnic minority youth, but immigrant enclaves appear to provide countervailing protections.

Substance abuse prevention intervention research with Hispanic populations

Selected studies with specific relevance to substance abuse prevention interventions with Hispanic youth and families were examined to identify prior findings and emerging issues that may guide the design of future substance abuse prevention intervention research and its implementation with Hispanic populations. The origins of prevention research and role of risk and protective factors are examined, including culturally-specific risk and protective factors for Hispanic populations. Correlational studies, non-experimental interventions, and randomized controlled trials were examined for the period of 1974-2003. The literature search yielded 15 articles selected for this review that exhibited adequate methodological rigor. An added search for more recent studies identified three additional articles, for a total of 18 prevention intervention articles that were reviewed. Theoretical and methodological issues and recommendations are presented for future research aimed at improving the efficacy and effectiveness of future prevention intervention studies and their cultural relevance for Hispanic populations.

Parenting and adolescent problem behavior: an integrated model with adolescent self-disclosure and perceived parental knowledge as intervening variables

Parental monitoring, assessed as (perceived) parental knowledge of the child's behavior, has been established as a consistent predictor of problem behavior. However, recent research indicates that parental knowledge has more to do with adolescents' self-disclosure than with parents' active monitoring. Although these findings may suggest that parents exert little influence on adolescents' problem behavior, the authors argue that this conclusion is premature, because self-disclosure may in itself be influenced by parents' rearing style. This study (a) examined relations between parenting dimensions and self-disclosure and (b) compared 3 models describing the relations among parenting, self-disclosure, perceived parental knowledge, and problem behavior. Results in a sample of 10th- to 12th-grade students, their parents, and their peers demonstrated that high responsiveness, high behavioral control, and low psychological control are independent predictors of self-disclosure. In addition, structural equation modeling analyses demonstrated that parenting is both indirectly (through self-disclosure) and directly associated with perceived parental knowledge but is not directly related to problem behavior or affiliation with peers engaging in problem behavior.

God forbid! Substance use among religious and non-religious youth

Among a predominantly Mexican and Mexican American sample of preadolescents, religiosity protected against lifetime alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and recent alcohol and cigarette use when religious affiliation was controlled. When religiosity was controlled, however, adolescents with no religious affiliation and adolescents who were religiously affiliated reported similar substance use outcomes. Interaction effects demonstrated that the protective effect of greater religiosity operated more strongly in some religions than in others for selected outcomes. Overall, the impact of religiosity on reported drug use did not differ significantly for more and less acculturated Latino youth.

Majority Rules? The Effects of School Ethnic Composition on Substance Use by Mexican Heritage Adolescents

This article examines key aspects of the school environment - its composition by ethnicity and acculturation - as important social contexts for understanding Mexican immigrant and Mexican American adolescents' drug use norms and behaviors. Results are presented based on surveys completed by Mexican-background students from 35 Phoenix. Arizona middle schools, whose enrollment ranged from a numerical minority to an overwhelming majority. Multivariate mixed models tested for the influence of school ethnic composition measures on substance use outcomes, while accounting for individual level predictors and for the nesting of data at the school level. The proportional representation of Latinos in the school was not a factor in an individual's drug use norms or drug use for the sample overall. Once students were broken down by acculturation status, however, ethnic composition had an effect. Less acculturated Mexican heritage students in schools with higher proportions of Latino students reported less substance use and less adherence to pro-drug norms. Further investigation using other measures of ethnic composition suggested that these effects were attributable to the larger presence of less acculturated Latinos in the school rather than more acculturated Latino students. These school-level effects support the individual-level results indicating that less acculturated Mexican American students face less daunting substance use risks. The results suggest that ethnic group size, but not necessarily numerical predominance, matters and that within-group differences influence the effect of a particular ethnic group's presence in the school. In other words, the majority does not always rule. These findings are interpreted using the concepts of segmented assimilation and school level social capital.