The cardinal role of the phospholipase A2/cyclooxygenase-2/prostaglandin E synthase/prostaglandin E2 (PCPP) axis in inflammostasis

Shedding Light on the COVID-19 Pandemic: Placental Expression of Cell Biomarkers in Negative, Vaccinated, and Positive Pregnant Women

Background: We investigated the expression of inflammation, placental development, and function markers, including cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44), osteopontin (OPN), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), to shed light on the controversy regarding the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on fetal development and pregnancy outcomes. Methods: We immunohistochemically analyzed placental tissue from 170 patients (65 COVID-positive and unvaccinated women; 35 Pfeizer-vaccinated and COVID-negative women; and 70 COVID-negative and unvaccinated women, without any other associated pathology) for particularities in the expression of these three molecules. Results: CD44 expression was highest in COVID-negative and unvaccinated women, moderate in COVID-positive cases, and lowest in vaccinated and COVID-negative women. OPN expression was highest in COVID-negative and Pfeizer-vaccinated cases, moderate in COVID-negative and unvaccinated cases, and lowest in COVID-positive cases. COX-2 expression was increased in COVID-negative and unvaccinated women, modestly elevated in COVID-positive and unvaccinated cases, and lowest in vaccinated cases. Conclusions: These findings reflected an alteration in the placental structure and consequent function due to altered expression of the three studied molecules.

Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase-mediated production of Resolvin D5n-3 DPA abrogates pancreatic stellate cell-induced cancer cell invasion

Activation of pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) to cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) is responsible for the extensive desmoplastic reaction observed in PDAC stroma: a key driver of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) chemoresistance leading to poor prognosis. Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) are prime modulators of inflammation and its resolution, traditionally thought to be produced by immune cells. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based lipid mediator profiling PSCs as well as primary human CAFs express enzymes and receptors to produce and respond to SPMs. Human PSC/CAF SPM secretion profile can be modulated by rendering these cells activated [transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)] or quiescent [all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA)]. ATRA-induced nuclear translocation of arachidonate-15-lipoxygenase (ALOX15) was linked to increased production of n-3 docosapentaenoic acid-derived Resolvin D5 (RvD5n-3 DPA), among other SPMs. Inhibition of RvD5n-3 DPA formation increases cancer cell invasion, whereas addback of this molecule reduced activated PSC-mediated cancer cell invasion. We also observed that circulating concentrations of RvD5n-3 DPA levels were decreased in peripheral blood of metastatic PDAC patients when compared with those measured in plasma of non-metastatic PDAC patients. Together, these findings indicate that RvD5n-3 DPA may regulate cancer-stroma cross-talk and invasion.

Prevalence of atypical pathogens in patients with severe pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to summarise the prevalence of atypical pathogens in patients with severe pneumonia to understand the prevalence of severe pneumonia caused by atypical pathogens, improve clinical decision-making and guide antibiotic use.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane Library were searched through November 2022.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

English language studies enrolled consecutive cases of patients diagnosed with severe pneumonia, with complete aetiological analysis.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

We conducted literature retrieval on PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and The Cochrane Library to estimate the prevalence of Chlamydia, Mycoplasma and Legionella in patients with severe pneumonia. After double arcsine transformation of the data, a random-effects model was used for meta-analyses to calculate the pooled prevalence of each pathogen. Meta-regression analysis was also used to explore whether the region, different diagnostic method, study population, pneumonia categories or sample size were potential sources of heterogeneity.

RESULTS

We included 75 eligible studies with 18 379 cases of severe pneumonia. The overall prevalence of atypical pneumonia is 8.1% (95% CI 6.3% to 10.1%) In patients with severe pneumonia, the pooled estimated prevalence of Chlamydia, Mycoplasma and Legionella was 1.8% (95% CI 1.0% to 2.9%), 2.8% (95% CI 1.7% to 4.3%) and 4.0% (95% CI 2.8% to 5.3%), respectively. We noted significant heterogeneity in all pooled assessments. Meta-regression showed that the pneumonia category potentially influenced the prevalence rate of Chlamydia. The mean age and the diagnostic method of pathogens were likely moderators for the prevalence of Mycoplasma and Legionella, and contribute to the heterogeneity of their prevalence.

CONCLUSIONS

In severe pneumonia, atypical pathogens are notable causes, especially Legionella. The diagnostic method, regional difference, sample size and other factors contribute to the heterogeneity of prevalence. The estimated prevalence and relative heterogeneity factors can help with microbiological screening, clinical treatment and future research planning.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42022373950.

Neuroinflammatory mediators in acquired epilepsy: an update

Epilepsy is a group of chronic neurological disorders that have diverse etiologies but are commonly characterized by spontaneous seizures and behavioral comorbidities. Although the mechanisms underlying the epileptic seizures mostly remain poorly understood and the causes often can be idiopathic, a considerable portion of cases are known as acquired epilepsy. This form of epilepsy is typically associated with prior neurological insults, which lead to the initiation and progression of epileptogenesis, eventually resulting in unprovoked seizures. A convergence of evidence in the past two decades suggests that inflammation within the brain may be a major contributing factor to acquired epileptogenesis. As evidenced in mounting preclinical and human studies, neuroinflammatory processes, such as activation and proliferation of microglia and astrocytes, elevated production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, blood-brain barrier breakdown, and upregulation of inflammatory signaling pathways, are commonly observed after seizure-precipitating events. An increased knowledge of these neuroinflammatory processes in the epileptic brain has led to a growing list of inflammatory mediators that can be leveraged as potential targets for new therapies of epilepsy and/or biomarkers that may provide valued information for the diagnosis and prognosis of the otherwise unpredictable seizures. In this review, we mainly focus on the most recent progress in understanding the roles of these inflammatory molecules in acquired epilepsy and highlight the emerging evidence supporting their candidacy as novel molecular targets for new pharmacotherapies of acquired epilepsy and the associated behavioral deficits.

Endothelial SIRT6 deficiency promotes arterial thrombosis in mice

OBJECTIVE

Arterial thrombosis may be initiated by endothelial inflammation or denudation, activation of blood-borne elements or the coagulation system. Tissue factor (TF), a central trigger of the coagulation cascade, is regulated by the pro-inflammatory NF-κB-dependent pathways. Sirtuin 6 (SIRT6) is a nuclear member of the sirtuin family of NAD⁺-dependent deacetylases and is known to inhibit NF-κB signaling. Its constitutive deletion in mice shows early lethality with hypoglycemia and accelerated aging. Of note, the role of SIRT6 in arterial thrombosis remains unknown. Thus, we hypothesized that endothelial SIRT6 protects from arterial thrombosis by modulating inhibition of NF-κB-associated pathways.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Using a laser-induced carotid thrombosis model, in vivo arterial occlusion occurred 45% faster in 12-week-old male endothelial-specific Sirt6^-/- mice as compared to Sirt6^fl/fl controls (n ≥ 9 per group; p = 0.0012). Levels of procoagulant TF were increased in animals lacking endothelial SIRT6 as compared to control littermates. Similarly, in cultured human aortic endothelial cells, SIRT6 knockdown increased TF mRNA, protein and activity. Moreover, SIRT6 knockdown increased mRNA levels of NF-κB-associated genes tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase 1 (PARP-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2); at the protein level, COX-2, VCAM-1, TNF-α, and cleaved PARP-1 remained increased after Sirt6 knockdown.

CONCLUSIONS

Endothelium-specific Sirt6 deletion promotes arterial thrombosis in mice. In cultured human aortic endothelial cells, SIRT6 silencing enhances TF expression and activates pro-inflammatory pathways including TNF-α, cleaved PARP-1, VCAM-1 and COX-2. Hence, endogenous endothelial SIRT6 exerts a protective role in experimental arterial thrombosis.

Cyclooxygenase-2 deficiency attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation, apoptosis, and acute lung injury in adult mice

Many lung diseases are caused by an excessive inflammatory response, and inflammatory lung diseases are often modeled using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) encoded by the Ptgs2 gene is induced in response to inflammatory stimuli including LPS. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that mice deficient in COX-2 (Ptgs2-/-) will be protected from LPS-induced lung injury. Wild-type (WT; CD1 mice) and Ptgs2-/- mice (on a CD1 background) were treated with LPS or vehicle for 24 h. LPS treatment resulted in histological evidence of lung injury, which was attenuated in the Ptgs2-/- mice. LPS treatment increased the mRNA levels for tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-10, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in the lungs of WT mice, and the LPS-induced increases in these levels were attenuated in the Ptgs2-/- mice. The protein levels of active caspase-3 and caspase-9 were lower in the LPS-treated lungs of Ptgs2-/- mice than in LPS-treated WT mice, as were the number of terminal deoxynucleotide transferase dUTP nick end labeling-positive cells in lung sections. LPS exposure resulted in a greater lung wet-to-dry weight ratio (W/D) in WT mice, suggestive of pulmonary edema, while in LPS-treated Ptgs2-/- mice, the W/D was not different from controls and less than in LPS-treated WT mice. These results demonstrate that COX-2 is involved in the inflammatory response to LPS and suggest that COX-2 not only acts as a downstream participant in the inflammatory response, but also acts as a regulator of the inflammatory response likely through a feed-forward mechanism following LPS stimulation.

Prostanoids and Resolution of Inflammation - Beyond the Lipid-Mediator Class Switch

Bioactive lipid mediators play a major role in regulating inflammatory processes. Herein, early pro-inflammatory phases are characterized and regulated by prostanoids and leukotrienes, whereas specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM), including lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, and maresins, dominate during the resolution phase. While pro-inflammatory properties of prostanoids have been studied extensively, their impact on later phases of the inflammatory process has been attributed mainly to their ability to initiate the lipid-mediator class switch towards SPM. Yet, there is accumulating evidence that prostanoids directly contribute to the resolution of inflammation and return to homeostasis. In this mini review, we summarize the current knowledge of the resolution-regulatory properties of prostanoids and discuss potential implications for anti-inflammatory, prostanoid-targeted therapeutic interventions.

How Aconiti Radix Cocta can Treat Gouty Arthritis Based on Systematic Pharmacology and UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS

Background: Gouty arthritis (GA) is a common metabolic disease caused by a long-term disorder of purine metabolism and increased serum levels of uric acid. The processed product of dried root of Aconitum carmichaeli Debeaux (Aconiti Radix cocta, ARC) is used often in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat GA, but its specific active components and mechanism of action are not clear.

Methods: First, we used ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry to identify the chemical spectrum of ARC. Based on this result, we explored the active components of ARC in GA treatment and their potential targets and pathways. Simultaneously, we used computer simulations, in vitro cell experiments and animal experiments to verify the prediction results of systems pharmacology. In vitro, we used aurantiamide acetate (AA) to treat monosodium urate (MSU)-stimulated THP-1 cells and demonstrated the reliability of the prediction by western blotting and real-time reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). ELISAs kit were used to measure changes in levels of proinflammatory factors in rats with GA induced by MSU to demonstrate the efficacy of ARC in GA treatment.

Results: Forty-three chemical constituents in ARC were identified. ARC could regulate 65 targets through 29 active components, and then treat GA, which involved 1427 Gene Ontology (GO) terms and 146 signaling pathways. Signaling pathways such as proteoglycans in cancer, C-type lectin receptor signaling pathway, and TNF signaling pathway may have an important role in GA treatment with ARC. In silico results showed that the active components songoramine and ignavine had high binding to mitogen-activated protein kinase p38 alpha (MAPK14) and matrix metallopeptidase (MMP)9, indicating that ARC treatment of GA was through multiple components and multiple targets. In vitro experiments showed that AA in ARC could effectively reduce expression of MAPK14, MMP9, and cyclooxygenase2 (PTGS2) in THP-1 cells stimulated by MSU, whereas it could significantly inhibit the mRNA expression of Caspase-1, spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK), and PTGS2. Animal experiments showed that a ARC aqueous extract could significantly reduce expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and intereleukin (IL)-18 in the serum of GA rats stimulated by MSU. Hence, ARC may inhibit inflammation by regulating the proteoglycans in cancer-associated signaling pathways.

Conclusion: ARC treatment of GA may have the following mechanisms, ARC can reduce MSU crystal-induced joint swelling, reduce synovial tissue damage, and reduce the expression of inflammatory factors in serum. AA in ARC may inhibit inflammation by regulating the protein expression of MAPK14, MMP9, and PTGS2 and the mRNA expression of caspase-1, SYK, and PTGS2.

Role of Apoptotic Cell Clearance in Pneumonia and Inflammatory Lung Disease

Pneumonia and inflammatory diseases of the pulmonary system such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma continue to cause significant morbidity and mortality globally. While the etiology of these diseases is highly different, they share a number of similarities in the underlying inflammatory processes driving disease pathology. Multiple recent studies have identified failures in efferocytosis-the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells-as a common driver of inflammation and tissue destruction in these diseases. Effective efferocytosis has been shown to be important for resolving inflammatory diseases of the lung and the subsequent restoration of normal lung function, while many pneumonia-causing pathogens manipulate the efferocytic system to enhance their growth and avoid immunity. Moreover, some treatments used to manage these patients, such as inhaled corticosteroids for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the prevalent use of statins for cardiovascular disease, have been found to beneficially alter efferocytic activity in these patients. In this review, we provide an overview of the efferocytic process and its role in the pathophysiology and resolution of pneumonia and other inflammatory diseases of the lungs, and discuss the utility of existing and emerging therapies for modulating efferocytosis as potential treatments for these diseases.

Data mining and systematic pharmacology to reveal the mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicine in Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia treatment

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is widely used in the treatment of Mycoplasma pneumoniae Pneumonia (MPP) in East Asia. However, our current understanding of the underlying molecular mechanism remains dispersive and promiscuous. In this study, a systematic pharmacological approach combined with literature data mining was applied for drug similarity evaluation, drug half-life evaluation, oral bioavailability prediction, drug target exploration, Gene Ontology (GO) analysis, KEGG pathway enrichment and network construction, thus providing the rationale for its clinical performance. Five mostly studied herbs, including Ephedra Herba, Amygdalus communis Vas, Platycodon grandiforus, Licorice and Scutellariae Radix, were selected from the literature. Total ninety-three active ingredients, which are expected to be the effective components for MPP treatment, were screened out. Interrelationship between active compounds, drug targets and signaling pathways were analyzed to reveal the therapeutic effect of TCM in detail. Of importance, we found that TNF, β2AR and PTGS2 play pivotal role in TCM mediated MPP inhibition. And mechanistically, epithelial apoptosis (defensive barrier function), GPCR signaling (symptom amelioration) and immune pathways (innate signaling and adaptive Th17 response) are critically involved. Our work, achieved through systematic pharmacology and data mining, enlarges the knowledge of TCM in MPP therapy, and could provide valuable insights for further drug discovery studies.

Hypoxia Induces Macrophage tnfa Expression via Cyclooxygenase and Prostaglandin E2 in vivo

Macrophage phenotypes are poorly characterized in disease systems in vivo. Appropriate macrophage activation requires complex coordination of local microenvironmental cues and cytokine signaling. If the molecular mechanisms underpinning macrophage activation were better understood, macrophages could be pharmacologically tuned during disease situations. Here, using zebrafish tnfa:GFP transgenic lines as in vivo readouts, we show that physiological hypoxia and stabilization of Hif-1α promotes macrophage tnfa expression. We demonstrate a new mechanism of Hif-1α-induced macrophage tnfa expression via a cyclooxygenase/prostaglandin E2 axis. These findings uncover a macrophage HIF/COX/TNF axis that links microenvironmental cues to macrophage phenotype, with important implications during inflammation, infection, and cancer, where hypoxia is a common microenvironmental feature and where cyclooxygenase and TNF are major mechanistic players.

Cytosolic group IVA phospholipase A2 inhibitors, AVX001 and AVX002, ameliorate collagen-induced arthritis

Background

Cytosolic phospholipase A2 group IVA (cPLA2α)-deficient mice are resistant to collagen-induced arthritis, suggesting that cPLA2α is an important therapeutic target. Here, the anti-inflammatory effects of the AVX001 and AVX002 cPLA2α inhibitors were investigated.

Methods

In vitro enzyme activity was assessed by a modified Dole assay. Effects on inhibiting IL-1β-induced release of arachidonic acid (AA) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were measured using SW982 synoviocyte cells. In vivo effects were studied in prophylactic and therapetic murine collagen-induced arthritis models and compared to methotrexate (MTX) and Enbrel, commonly used anti-rheumatic drugs. The in vivo response to treatment was evaluated in terms of the arthritis index (AI), histopathology scores and by plasma levels of PGE2 following 14 and 21 days of treatment.

Results

Both cPLA2α inhibitors are potent inhibitors of cPLA2α in vitro. In synoviocytes, AVX001 and AVX002 reduce, but do not block, release of AA or PGE2 synthesis. In both CIA models, the AI and progression of arthritis were significantly lower in the mice treated with AVX001, AVX002, Enbrel and MTX than in non- treated mice. Several histopathology parameters of joint damage were found to be significantly reduced by AVX001 and AVX002 in both prophylactic and therapeutic study modes; namely articular cavity and peripheral tissue inflammatory cell infiltration; capillary and synovial hyperplasia; articular cartilage surface damage; and periostal and endochondral ossification. In comparison, MTX did not significantly improve any histopathology parameters and Enbrel only improved ossification. Finally, as a biomarker of inflammation and as an indication that AVX001 and AVX002 blocked the cPLA2α target, we determined that plasma levels of PGE2 were significantly reduced in response to the AVX inhibitors and MTX, but not Enbrel.

Conclusions

AVX001 and AVX002 display potent anti-inflammatory activity and disease-modifying properties in cellular and in vivo models. The in vivo effects of AVX001 and AVX002 were comparable to, or superior, to those of MTX and Enbrel. Taken together, this study suggests that cPLA2α inhibitors AVX001 and AVX002 are promising small molecule disease-modifying anti-rheumatic therapies.

Measuring GPCR-Induced Activation of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases (PTP) Using In-Gel and Colorimetric PTP Assays

Given the increasing amount of data showing the importance of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathways, the modulation of this enzyme family by that type of receptor can become an important experimental question. Here, we describe two different methods, an in-gel and a colorimetric PTP assay, to evaluate the modulation of PTP activity after stimulation with GPCR agonists.

In immune defense: redefining the role of the immune system in chronic disease

The recognition of altered immune system function in many chronic disease states has proven to be a pivotal advance in biomedical research over the past decade. For many metabolic and mood disorders, this altered immune activity has been characterized as inflammation, with the attendant assumption that the immune response is aberrant. However, accumulating evidence challenges this assumption and suggests that the immune system may be mounting adaptive responses to chronic stressors. Further, the inordinate complexity of immune function renders a simplistic, binary model incapable of capturing critical mechanistic insights. In this perspective article, we propose alternative paradigms for understanding the role of the immune system in chronic disease. By invoking allostasis or systems biology rather than inflammation, we can ascribe greater functional significance to immune mediators, gain newfound appreciation of the adaptive facets of altered immune activity, and better avoid the potentially disastrous effects of translating erroneous assumptions into novel therapeutic strategies.

Macrophage responses to lipopolysaccharide are modulated by a feedback loop involving prostaglandin E2, dual specificity phosphatase 1 and tristetraprolin

In many different cell types, pro-inflammatory agonists induce the expression of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), an enzyme that catalyzes rate-limiting steps in the conversion of arachidonic acid to a variety of lipid signaling molecules, including prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂). PGE₂ has key roles in many early inflammatory events, such as the changes of vascular function that promote or facilitate leukocyte recruitment to sites of inflammation. Depending on context, it also exerts many important anti-inflammatory effects, for example increasing the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10), and decreasing that of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF). The tight control of both biosynthesis of, and cellular responses to, PGE₂ are critical for the precise orchestration of the initiation and resolution of inflammatory responses. Here we describe evidence of a negative feedback loop, in which PGE₂ augments the expression of dual specificity phosphatase 1, impairs the activity of mitogen-activated protein kinase p38, increases the activity of the mRNA-destabilizing factor tristetraprolin, and thereby inhibits the expression of COX-2. The same feedback mechanism contributes to PGE₂-mediated suppression of TNF release. Engagement of the DUSP1-TTP regulatory axis by PGE₂ is likely to contribute to the switch between initiation and resolution phases of inflammation.

Role of the liver X receptors in skin physiology: Putative pharmacological targets in human diseases

Liver X receptors (LXRs) are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily that have been shown to regulate various physiological functions such as lipid metabolism and cholesterol homeostasis. Concordant reports have elicited the possibility to target them to cure many human diseases including arteriosclerosis, cancer, arthritis, and diabetes. The high relevance of modulating LXR activities to treat numerous skin diseases, mainly those with exacerbated inflammation processes, contrasts with the lack of approved therapeutic use. This review makes an assessment to sum up the findings regarding the physiological roles of LXRs in skin and help progress towards the therapeutic and safe management of their activities. It focuses on the possible pharmacological targeting of LXRs to cure or prevent selected skin diseases.

Differential expression of E-type prostanoid receptors 2 and 4 in microglia stimulated with lipopolysaccharide

BACKGROUND

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is induced under inflammatory conditions, and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) is one of the products of COX activity. PGE₂ has pleiotropic actions depending on the activation of specific E-type prostanoid EP1-4 receptors. We investigated the involvement of PGE₂ and EP receptors in glial activation in response to an inflammatory challenge induced by LPS.

METHODS

Cultures of mouse microglia or astroglia cells were treated with LPS in the presence or absence of COX-2 inhibitors, and the production of PGE₂ was measured by ELISA. Cells were treated with PGE₂, and the effect on LPS-induced expression of TNF-α messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein was studied in the presence or absence of drug antagonists of the four EP receptors. EP receptor expression and the effects of EP2 and EP4 agonists and antagonists were studied at different time points after LPS.

RESULTS

PGE₂ production after LPS was COX-2-dependent. PGE₂ reduced the glial production of TNF-α after LPS. Microglia expressed higher levels of EP4 and EP2 mRNA than astroglia. Activation of EP4 or EP2 receptors with selective drug agonists attenuated LPS-induced TNF-α in microglia. However, only antagonizing EP4 prevented the PGE₂ effect demonstrating that EP4 was the main target of PGE₂ in naïve microglia. Moreover, the relative expression of EP receptors changed during the course of classical microglial activation since EP4 expression was strongly depressed while EP2 increased 24 h after LPS and was detected in nuclear/peri-nuclear locations. EP2 regulated the expression of iNOS, NADPH oxidase-2, and vascular endothelial growth factor. NADPH oxidase-2 and iNOS activities require the oxidation of NADPH, and the pentose phosphate pathway is a main source of NADPH. LPS increased the mRNA expression of the rate-limiting enzyme of the pentose pathway glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and EP2 activity was involved in this effect.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show that while selective activation of EP4 or EP2 exerts anti-inflammatory actions, EP4 is the main target of PGE₂ in naïve microglia. The level of EP receptor expression changes from naïve to primed microglia where the COX-2/PGE₂/EP2 axis modulates important adaptive metabolic changes.

Polydatin improves the developmental competence of bovine embryos in vitro via induction of sirtuin 1 (Sirt1)

The aim of the present study was to investigate the beneficial effect of polydatin (PD), the glycoside form of resveratrol, on embryo development in vitro. Oocytes were aspirated from ovaries of Korean Hanwoo cows and cultured until Day 8 in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 in air at 38.5°C. Protein and gene expression levels were determined through confocal microscopy and reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction respectively, whereas the number of total and apoptotic cells in Day 8 blastocysts was determined using Hoechst 33342 staining and terminal deoxyribonucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP–digoxigenin nick end-labelling. Of the different concentrations of PD (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 µM) added to the IVM medium, only 1.0 µM PD significantly improved blastocyst development. Immunofluorescence analysis confirmed that protein levels of sirtuin 1 (Sirt1) increased significantly (P < 0.05) after PD treatment, whereas levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased, as evidenced by reductions in 8-oxoguanine immunoreactivity. Similarly, protein levels of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2  were significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the PD-treated group than in the control group. Treatment with 1.0 µM PD reduced gene expression of BCL2-associated X protein, inducible nitric oxide synthase, COX2 and Nfkb, but increased the expression of Sirt1, supporting the immunofluorescence data. PD possesses antioxidant activity and is useful for embryo development in vitro. We conclude that supplementation of IVM medium with PD improves embryo developmental competence via Sirt1.

G-CSF-induced sympathetic tone provokes fever and primes antimobilizing functions of neutrophils via PGE2

Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) is widely used for peripheral blood stem/progenitor mobilization. G-CSF causes low-grade fever that is ameliorated by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), suggesting the activation of arachidonic acid (AA) cascade. How G-CSF regulated this reaction was assessed. G-CSF treatment in mice resulted in fever, which was canceled in prostaglandin E synthase (mPGES-1)-deficient mice. Mobilization efficiency was twice as high in chimeric mice lacking mPGES-1, specifically in hematopoietic cells, suggesting that prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) from hematopoietic cells modulated the bone marrow (BM) microenvironment. Neutrophils from steady-state BM constitutively expressed mPGES-1 and significantly enhanced PGE₂ production in vitro by β-adrenergic stimulation, but not by G-CSF, which was inhibited by an NSAID. Although neutrophils expressed all β-adrenergic receptors, only β3-agonist induced this phenomenon. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry traced β-agonist-induced PGE₂ synthesis from exogenous deuterium-labeled AA. Spontaneous PGE₂ production was highly efficient in Gr-1^high neutrophils among BM cells from G-CSF-treated mice. In addition to these in vitro data, the in vivo depletion of Gr-1^high neutrophils disrupted G-CSF-induced fever. Furthermore, sympathetic denervation eliminated both neutrophil priming for PGE₂ production and fever during G-CSF treatment. Thus, sympathetic tone-primed BM neutrophils were identified as one of the major PGE₂ producers. PGE₂ upregulated osteopontin, specifically in preosteoblasts, to retain progenitors in the BM via EP4 receptor. Thus, the sympathetic nervous system regulated neutrophils as an indispensable PGE₂ source to modulate BM microenvironment and body temperature. This study provided a novel mechanistic insight into the communication of the nervous system, BM niche components, and hematopoietic cells.

Deficiency of mPGES-1 exacerbates renal fibrosis and inflammation in mice with unilateral ureteral obstruction

Microsomal prostaglandin E₂ synthase-1 (mPGES-1), an inducible enzyme that converts prostaglandin H₂ to prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), plays an important role in a variety of inflammatory diseases. We investigated the contribution of mPGES-1 to renal fibrosis and inflammation in unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) for 7 days using wild-type (WT) and mPGES-1 knockout (KO) mice. UUO induced increased mRNA and protein expression of mPGES-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 in WT mice. UUO was associated with increased renal PGE₂ content and upregulated PGE₂ receptor (EP) 4 expression in obstructed kidneys of both WT and mPGES-1 KO mice; EP4 expression levels were higher in KO mice with UUO than those in WT mice. Protein expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components ASC and interleukin-1β was significantly increased in obstructed kidneys of KO mice compared with that in WT mice. mRNA expression levels of fibronectin, collagen III, and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) were significantly higher in obstructed kidneys of KO mice than that in WT mice. In KO mice, protein expression of fibronectin and collagen III was markedly increased in obstructed kidneys compared with WT mice, which was associated with increased phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT). EP4 agonist CAY10598 attenuated increased expression of collagen I and fibronectin induced by TGF-β1 in inner medullary collecting duct 3 cells. Moreover, CAY10598 prevented the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes induced by angiotensin II in human proximal tubule cells (HK2). In conclusion, these findings suggested that mPGES-1 exerts a potentially protective effect against renal fibrosis and inflammation induced by UUO in mice.

Eupafolin ameliorates COX-2 expression and PGE2 production in particulate pollutants-exposed human keratinocytes through ROS/MAPKs pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Eupafolin is a major bioactive compound derived from the methanolic extract of the medicinal herb Phyla nodiflora, which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat various inflammatory diseases. Recently, particulate air pollutants have been shown to induce inflammation of the skin. In this study, we seek to determine whether eupafolin can inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators in a human skin keratinocyte cell line exposed to particulate air pollutants (particulate matter, PM), and determine the molecular mechanisms involved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human keratinocyte HaCaT cells were treated with PM in the presence or absence of eupafolin. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein and gene expression levels were determined by Western blotting, RT-PCR and luciferase activity assay. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production was evaluated by the enzyme immunoassay method. Generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured by the dichlorofluorescin (DCFH) oxidation assay, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase activity was determined by a chemiluminescence assay. For in vivo studies, COX-2 expression in the skin of BALB/c nude mice was analyzed by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Eupafolin inhibited PM-induced COX-2 protein and gene expression and PGE2 production in HaCaT cells. In addition, eupafolin suppressed PM-induced intracellular ROS generation, NADPH oxidase activity, MAPK (ERK, JNK and p38) activation and NK-κB activation. In vivo studies showed that topical treatment with eupafolin inhibited COX-2 expression in the epidermal keratinocytes of PM-treated mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Eupafolin exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects on skin keratinocytes exposed to particulate air pollutants, and may have potential use in the treatment or prevention of air pollutant-induced inflammatory skin diseases in the future.

Influenza A viruses suppress cyclooxygenase-2 expression by affecting its mRNA stability

Infection with influenza A viruses (IAV) provokes activation of cellular defence mechanisms contributing to the innate immune and inflammatory response. In this process the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) plays an important role in the induction of prostaglandin-dependent inflammation. While it has been reported that COX-2 is induced upon IAV infection, in the present study we observed a down-regulation at later stages of infection suggesting a tight regulation of COX-2 by IAV. Our data indicate the pattern-recognition receptor RIG-I as mediator of the initial IAV-induced COX-2 synthesis. Nonetheless, during on-going IAV replication substantial suppression of COX-2 mRNA and protein synthesis could be detected, accompanied by a decrease in mRNA half-life. Interestingly, COX-2 mRNA stability was not only imbalanced by IAV replication but also by stimulation of cells with viral RNA. Our results reveal tristetraprolin (TTP), which is known to bind COX-2 mRNA and promote its rapid degradation, as regulator of COX-2 expression in IAV infection. During IAV replication and viral RNA accumulation TTP mRNA synthesis was induced, resulting in reduced COX-2 levels. Accordingly, the down-regulation of TTP resulted in increased COX-2 protein expression after IAV infection. These findings indicate a novel IAV-regulated cellular mechanism, contributing to the repression of host defence and therefore facilitating viral replication.

Inhibitory Effects of Polydatin on Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Cells

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of polydatin (PD) on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expressions at protein and transcriptional levels, as well as the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and nitric oxide (NO) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. To elucidate the underlying mechanism responsible for these symptoms, we investigated the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) expression. NO was analyzed with the Griess method. PGE2 was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). iNOS and COX-2 messenger RNA (mRNA) were identified by qPCR assay. iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 protein expressions were detected with Western blot. The results revealed that PD effectively inhibited NO and PGE2 production, and it is not surprising that PD reduced iNOS and COX-2 expression at protein and transcriptional levels. Additionally, PD significantly ameliorated the activation of NF-κB and the phosphorylation of MAPKs in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. These findings suggested that PD exerted potent anti-inflammatory activity in macrophages.

Methylglyoxal activates NF-κB nuclear translocation and induces COX-2 expression via a p38-dependent pathway in synovial cells

AIMS

There is growing evidence of an increased prevalence of osteoarthritis (OA) among people with diabetes. Synovial inflammation and increased expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) are two key features of patients with OA. Methylglyoxal (MGO) is a common intermediate in the formation of advanced glycation end-products, and its concentration is also typically higher in diabetes. In this study, we investigated the effects of the treatment of different MGO concentrations to rabbit HIG-82 synovial cells on COX-2 expression.

MAIN METHODS

The MGO induced COX-2 mRNA expression was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The MGO induced COX-2 protein production and its signaling pathways were detected by western blotting. The nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) nuclear translocation by MGO was examined by immunofluorescence.

KEY FINDINGS

In the present study, we find that MGO has no toxic effects on rabbit synovial cells under the experimental conditions. Our analysis demonstrates that MGO induced COX-2 mRNA and protein production. Moreover, MGO induces p38-dependent COX-2 protein expression as well as the phosphorylations of extracellular signal-regulated kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/p70S6K; however, inhibition of JNK and Akt/mTOR/p70S6K phosphorylations further activates COX-2 protein expression. Furthermore, MGO is shown to activate of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) nuclear translocation.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results suggest that MGO can induce COX-2 expression via a p38-dependent pathway and activate NF-κB nuclear translocation in synovial cells. These results provide insight into the pathogenesis of the synovial inflammation under the diabetic condition associated with higher MGO levels.

Structural and functional biology of arachidonic acid 15-lipoxygenase-1 (ALOX15)

Lipoxygenases (LOX) form a family of lipid peroxidizing enzymes, which have been implicated in a number of physiological processes and in the pathogenesis of inflammatory, hyperproliferative and neurodegenerative diseases. They occur in two of the three domains of terrestrial life (bacteria, eucarya) and the human genome involves six functional LOX genes, which encode for six different LOX isoforms. One of these isoforms is ALOX15, which has first been described in rabbits in 1974 as enzyme capable of oxidizing membrane phospholipids during the maturational breakdown of mitochondria in immature red blood cells. During the following decades ALOX15 has extensively been characterized and its biological functions have been studied in a number of cellular in vitro systems as well as in various whole animal disease models. This review is aimed at summarizing the current knowledge on the protein-chemical, molecular biological and enzymatic properties of ALOX15 in various species (human, mouse, rabbit, rat) as well as its implication in cellular physiology and in the pathogenesis of various diseases.

Designing an orally available nontoxic p38 inhibitor with a fragment-based strategy

The MAPK p38 became a focal point of inflammatory research when it was recognized that it played a key role in the production of the pro-inflammatory molecules TNF-alpha, IL-beta, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). The pharmaceutical industry devoted enormous efforts to creating p38 inhibitors, because blocking p38 had the potential of downregulating a group of pro-inflammatory mediators, and thus, one drug could have a cocktail effect. The market potential seemed to be clearly established (Bonafede et al., Clinicoecon Outcomes Res 6:381-388, 2014) with a multiplicity of TNF-alpha antibodies and a soluble receptor (Mewar and Wilson, Br J Pharmacol 162:785-791, 2011) already on the market, although the relationship between TNF-alpha production and p38 activation is a complicated two-way (Sabio and Davis, Semin Immunol 26:237-245, 2014) signal transduction process. With the discovery that activated p38 stabilizes (Mancini and Di Battista, Inflamm Res 60:1083-1092, 2011) COX-2 mRNA and upregulates expression of IL-beta (Bachstetter and Van Eldik, Aging Dis 1:199-211, 2010) probably in a similar manner, inhibiting p38 appeared to be a way of blocking TNF-alpha, COX-2, and IL-beta simultaneously. At Locus Pharmaceuticals we jumped on this opportunity, because we believed that our fragment-based drug discovery approach was ideally suited for making a potent small molecule p38 inhibitor that did not bind in the ATP site, but also had the solubility, lack of planarity, and low molecular weight required of a clinical candidate. Just to be clear, in our experience highly planar compounds often result in poor pharmacokinetics, because they tend to bind strongly to plasma proteins. At Locus we typically repeated assays by adding increasing amounts of plasma to check for potency degradation in the presence of blood. We found this to be a useful early indicator of pharmacokinetics and in vivo behavior. It became clear from our work and the work of others that binding to the ATP site resulted in nonspecific isoform toxicities, but binding in the adjacent allosteric DFG-site resulted in molecules that were too planar and too hydrophobic. Applying the computational method of Simulated Annealing of Chemical Potential (SACP) to this problem, we at Locus were able to come up with surprising fragment substitution patterns that led to potent non-ATP p38 inhibitors with the solubility and lack of planarity that resulted in potent in vivo efficacy in rodents with 33 % oral bioavailability. By using the simulations, we made only a small number of molecules and created a high quality clinical candidate. We also did extensive co-crystallography work, which demonstrated that the compounds bound in the mode predicted by the simulations. Unfortunately, all p38 programs ultimately shut down, because compelling evidence emerged that inhibiting p38 had no long-term clinical (Genovese, Arthritis Rheum 60:317-320, 2009) benefit. Devoting a large amount of limited resources to a target that ultimately turns out to be a mistake because it was not properly validated is a fatal error for a small company, and this is one of the reasons that Locus ultimately failed.

Vitamin D Induces Cyclooxygenase 2 Dependent Prostaglandin E2 Synthesis in HaCaT Keratinocytes

The active metabolite of vitamin D calcitriol and its analogs are well-known for their anti-inflammatory action in the skin, while their main side effect associated with topical treatment of inflammatory disorders is irritant contact dermatitis. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ) is pro-inflammatory at the onset of inflammation and anti-inflammatory at its resolution. We hypothesized that induction of PGE2 synthesis by calcitriol in epidermal keratinocytes may contribute both to its pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects on the skin. Treatment of human immortalized HaCaT keratinocytes with calcitriol (3-100 nM, 2-24 h) increased PGE2 production due to increased mRNA and protein expression of COX-2, but not to increase of COX-1 or release of arachidonic acid. The effect of calcitriol on COX-2 mRNA was observed also in primary human keratinocytes. The increase in COX-2 mRNA is associated with COX-2 transcript stabilization. Calcitriol exerts this effect by a rapid (2 h) and protein synthesis independent mode of action that is dependent on PKC and Src kinase activities. Treatment with a COX-2 inhibitor partially prevented the attenuation of the keratinocyte inflammatory response by calcitriol. We conclude that upregulation of COX-2 expression with the consequent increase in PGE2 synthesis may be one of the mechanisms explaining the Janus face of calcitriol as both a promoter and attenuator of cutaneous inflammation. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 837-843, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Perspective of microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1 as drug target in inflammation-related disorders

Prostaglandin (PG)E2 encompasses crucial roles in pain, fever, inflammation and diseases with inflammatory component, such as cancer, but is also essential for gastric, renal, cardiovascular and immune homeostasis. Cyclooxygenases (COX) convert arachidonic acid to the intermediate PGH2 which is isomerized to PGE2 by at least three different PGE2 synthases. Inhibitors of COX - non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) - are currently the only available therapeutics that target PGE2 biosynthesis. Due to adverse effects of COX inhibitors on the cardiovascular system (COX-2-selective), stomach and kidney (COX-1/2-unselective), novel pharmacological strategies are in demand. The inducible microsomal PGE2 synthase (mPGES)-1 is considered mainly responsible for the excessive PGE2 synthesis during inflammation and was suggested as promising drug target for suppressing PGE2 biosynthesis. However, 15 years after intensive research on the biology and pharmacology of mPGES-1, the therapeutic value of mPGES-1 as drug target is still vague and mPGES-1 inhibitors did not enter the market so far. This commentary will first shed light on the structure, mechanism and regulation of mPGES-1 and will then discuss its biological function and the consequence of its inhibition for the dynamic network of eicosanoids. Moreover, we (i) present current strategies for interfering with mPGES-1-mediated PGE2 synthesis, (ii) summarize bioanalytical approaches for mPGES-1 drug discovery and (iii) describe preclinical test systems for the characterization of mPGES-1 inhibitors. The pharmacological potential of selective mPGES-1 inhibitor classes as well as dual mPGES-1/5-lipoxygenase inhibitors is reviewed and pitfalls in their development, including species discrepancies and loss of in vivo activity, are discussed.

Protective effects of resveratrol against UVA-induced damage in ARPE19 cells

Ultraviolet radiation, especially UVA, can penetrate the lens, reach the retina, and induce oxidative stress to retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. Even though it is weakly absorbed by protein and DNA, it may trigger the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and generate oxidative injury; oxidative injury to the retinal pigment epithelium has been implicated to play a contributory role in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Studies showed that resveratrol, an abundant and active component of red grapes, can protect several cell types from oxidative stress. In this study, adult RPE cells being treated with different concentrations of resveratrol were used to evaluate the protective effect of resveratrol on RPE cells against UVA-induced damage. Cell viability assay showed that resveratrol reduced the UVA-induced decrease in RPE cell viability. Through flow cytometry analysis, we found that the generation of intracellular H₂O₂ induced by UVA irradiation in RPE cells could be suppressed by resveratrol in a concentration-dependent manner. Results of Western blot analysis demonstrated that resveratrol lowered the activation of UVA-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase, c-jun-NH₂ terminal kinase and p38 kinase in RPE cells. In addition, there was also a reduction in UVA-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in RPE cells pretreated with resveratrol. Our observations suggest that resveratrol is effective in preventing RPE cells from being damaged by UVA radiation, and is worth considering for further development as a chemoprotective agent for the prevention of early AMD.

Effect of pulsed electromagnetic field treatment on programmed resolution of inflammation pathway markers in human cells in culture

Inflammation is a complex process involving distinct but overlapping biochemical and molecular events that are highly regulated. Pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) therapy is increasingly used to treat pain and edema associated with inflammation following surgery involving soft tissue. However, the molecular and cellular effects of PEMF therapy on pathways involved in the resolution of inflammation are poorly understood. Using cell culture lines relevant to trauma-induced inflammation of the skin (human dermal fibroblasts, human epidermal keratinocytes, and human mononuclear cells), we investigated the effect of PEMF on gene expression involved in the acute and resolution phases of inflammation. We found that PEMF treatment was followed by changes in the relative amount of messenger (m)RNAs encoding enzymes involved in heme catabolism and removal of reactive oxygen species, including an increase in heme oxygenase 1 and superoxide dismutase 3 mRNAs, in all cell types examined 2 hours after PEMF treatment. A relative increase in mRNAs encoding enzymes involved in lipid mediator biosynthesis was also observed, including an increase in arachidonate 12- and 15-lipoxygenase mRNAs in dermal fibroblasts and epidermal keratinocytes, respectively. The relative amount of both of these lipoxygenase mRNAs was elevated in mononuclear cells following PEMF treatment relative to nontreated cells. PEMF treatment was also followed by changes in the mRNA levels of several cytokines. A decrease in the relative amount of interleukin 1 beta mRNA was observed in mononuclear cells, similar to that previously reported for epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. Based on our results, we propose a model in which PEMF therapy may promote chronic inflammation resolution by mediating gene expression changes important for inhibiting and resolving inflammation.

Mechanisms Underlying the Antinociceptive, Antiedematogenic, and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of the Main Flavonoid from Kalanchoe pinnata

Kalanchoe pinnata (KP) is popularly used for treating inflammatory diseases. This study investigated the antinociceptive, antiedematogenic, and anti-inflammatory potential of the subcutaneous administration of KP flower aqueous extract (KPFE), its ethyl acetate (EtOAcF) and butanol (BuOHF) fractions, and the main KP flavonoid [quercetin 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl (1 → 2) α-L-rhamnopyranoside] (KPFV) in mice, as well as its possible mechanisms of action. KPFE (30–300 mg/kg) and KPFV (1–10 mg/kg) inhibited the acetic acid-induced writhing (ID₅₀ = 164.8 and 9.4 mg/kg, resp.). KPFE (300 mg/kg), EtOAcF (12 mg/kg), BuOHF (15 mg/kg), or KPFV (0.3–3.0 mg/kg) reduced leukocyte migration on carrageenan-induced pleurisy (ID₅₀ = 2.0 mg/kg for KPFV). KPFE (3–30 mg/kg) and KPFV (0.3–3.0 mg/kg) reduced the croton oil-induced ear edema (ID₅₀ = 4.3 and 0.76 mg/kg, resp.). KPFE and KPFV reduced the TNF-α concentration in the pleural exudates on carrageenan-induced pleurisy test. Moreover, KPFV inhibited COX-1 (IC₅₀ = 22.1 μg/mL) and COX-2 (IC₅₀ > 50 μg/mL). The selectivity index (COX-1_IC50/COX-2_IC50) was <0.44. These results indicate that KPFE and KPFV produced antinociceptive, antiedematogenic, and anti-inflammatory activities through COX inhibition and TNF-α reduction, revealing that the main flavonoid in KP flowers and leaves plays an important role in the ethnomedicinal use of the plant.

Downregulation of the proangiogenic prostaglandin E receptor EP3 and reduced angiogenesis in a mouse model of diabetes mellitus

Vascular complications such as foot ulcers are a hallmark of diabetes mellitus (DM), although the molecular mechanisms that underlie vascular dysfunction remain unclear. Herein, we show that angiogenesis, which is indispensable to the healing of ulcers, is suppressed in polyurethane sponge implants in mice with DM and reduced proangiogenic signaling. DM was induced in male C57BL/6 mice by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (100mg/kg). Polyurethane sponge disks were implanted into subcutaneous tissues on the backs of mice, and angiogenesis and expression of related factors were analyzed in sponge granulation tissues. Densities of platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1)-positive vascular structures and PECAM-1 expression in sponge granulation tissues were increased over time in control mice and reduced in diabetic mice. The reductions in diabetic mice were accompanied by reduced expression of inducible cyclo-oxygenase-2 and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1. The prostaglandin E receptor subtype EP3 was downregulated in sponge granulation tissues in diabetic mice, whereas EP1, EP2, and EP4 were not. The expression of the proangiogenic growth factor vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A and the chemokine stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) were both reduced in diabetic mice. Treatment of diabetic mice with a selective agonist of EP3, ONO-AE 248 (30 nmol/site/day, topical injection), reversed suppression of angiogenesis in diabetic mice. These results indicate that proangiogenic EP3 signaling is suppressed in diabetic mice with reduced expression of VEGF and SDF-1. Stimulation of EP3 signaling restored angiogenesis in a sponge implant model in mice with DM. This suggests that topical application of an EP3 agonist could be a novel strategy to treat foot ulcers in patients with DM.

Mammalian lipoxygenases and their biological relevance

Lipoxygenases (LOXs) form a heterogeneous class of lipid peroxidizing enzymes, which have been implicated not only in cell proliferation and differentiation but also in the pathogenesis of various diseases with major public health relevance. As other fatty acid dioxygenases LOXs oxidize polyunsaturated fatty acids to their corresponding hydroperoxy derivatives, which are further transformed to bioactive lipid mediators (eicosanoids and related substances). On the other hand, lipoxygenases are key players in the regulation of the cellular redox homeostasis, which is an important element in gene expression regulation. Although the first mammalian lipoxygenases were discovered 40 years ago and although the enzymes have been well characterized with respect to their structural and functional properties the biological roles of the different lipoxygenase isoforms are not completely understood. This review is aimed at summarizing the current knowledge on the physiological roles of different mammalian LOX-isoforms and their patho-physiological function in inflammatory, metabolic, hyperproliferative, neurodegenerative and infectious disorders. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Oxygenated metabolism of PUFA: analysis and biological relevance".

Mechanical stress is a pro-inflammatory stimulus in the gut: in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo evidence

Aims

Inflammatory infiltrates and pro-inflammatory mediators are found increased in obstructive and functional bowel disorders, in which lumen distention is present. However, what caused the low level inflammation is not well known. We tested the hypothesis that lumen distention- associated mechanical stress may induce expression of specific inflammatory mediators in gut smooth muscle.

Methods

Static mechanical stretch (18% elongation) was applied in vitro in primary culture of rat colonic circular smooth muscle cells (RCCSMCs) with a Flexercell FX-4000 Tension Plus System. Mechanical distention in vivo was induced in rats with an obstruction band placed in the distal colon.

Results

In the primary culture of RCCSMCs, we found that static stretch significantly induced mRNA expression of iNOS, IL-6, and MCP-1 in 3 hours by 6.0(±1.4), 2.5(±0.5), and 2.2(±0.5) fold (n = 6∼8, p<0.05), respectively. However, gene expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8 was not significantly affected by mechanical stretch. In the in vivo model of colon obstruction, we found that gene expression of iNOS, IL-6, and MCP-1 is also significantly increased in a time-dependent manner in the mechanically distended proximal segment, but not in the sham controls or distal segments. The conditioned medium from the muscle strips of the stretched proximal segment, but not the distal segment or control, significantly induced translocation and phosphorylation of NF-κB p65. This treatment further increased mRNA expression of inflammatory mediators in the naïve cells. However, treatment of the conditioned medium from the proximal segment with neutralizing antibody against rat IL-6 significantly attenuated the activation of NF-κB and gene expression of inflammatory mediators.

Conclusions

Our studies demonstrate that mechanical stress induces gene expression of inflammatory mediators i.e. iNOS, IL-6, and MCP-1 in colonic SMC. Further ex vivo study showed that mechanical stress functions as a pro-inflammatory stimulus in the gut.

Oligodendrocyte-microglia cross-talk in the central nervous system

Communication between the immune system and the central nervous system (CNS) is exemplified by cross-talk between glia and neurons shown to be essential for maintaining homeostasis. While microglia are actively modulated by neurons in the healthy brain, little is known about the cross-talk between oligodendrocytes and microglia. Oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells in the CNS, are essential for the propagation of action potentials along axons, and additionally serve to support neurons by producing neurotrophic factors. In demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis, oligodendrocytes are thought to be the victims. Here, we review evidence that oligodendrocytes also have strong immune functions, express a wide variety of innate immune receptors, and produce and respond to chemokines and cytokines that modulate immune responses in the CNS. We also review evidence that during stress events in the brain, oligodendrocytes can trigger a cascade of protective and regenerative responses, in addition to responses that elicit progressive neurodegeneration. Knowledge of the cross-talk between microglia and oligodendrocytes may continue to uncover novel pathways of immune regulation in the brain that could be further exploited to control neuroinflammation and degeneration.

Deregulated balance of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids following infection by the zoonotic pathogen Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis is an important swine pathogen and an emergent zoonotic pathogen. Excessive inflammation caused by S. suis is responsible for early high mortality in septic shock-like syndrome cases. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) may contribute to regulating inflammatory processes. This study shows that mouse infection by S. suis is accompanied by an increase of arachidonic acid, a proinflammatory omega-6 (ω-6) PUFA, and by a decrease of docosahexaenoic acid, an anti-inflammatory ω-3 PUFA. Macrophages infected with S. suis showed activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and cyclooxygenase-2 upregulation. Fenretinide, a synthetic vitamin A analog, reduced in vitro expression of inflammatory mediators. Pretreatment of mice with fenretinide significantly improved their survival by reducing systemic proinflammatory cytokines during the acute phase of an S. suis infection. These findings indicate a beneficial effect of fenretinide in diminishing the expression of inflammation and improving survival during an acute infection by a virulent S. suis strain.

Low molecular weight hyaluronan activates cytosolic phospholipase A2α and eicosanoid production in monocytes and macrophages

Hyaluronan (HA) is the major glycosaminoglycan in the extracellular matrix. During inflammation, there is an increased breakdown of HA, resulting in the accumulation of low molecular weight (LMW) HA and activation of monocytes and macrophages. Eicosanoids, derived from the cytosolic phospholipase A2 group IVA (cPLA2α) activation, are potent lipid mediators also attributed to acute and chronic inflammation. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of LMW HA on cPLA2α activation, arachidonic acid (AA) release, and subsequent eicosanoid production and to examine the receptors and downstream mechanisms involved in these processes in monocytes and differently polarized macrophages. LMW HA was a potent stimulant of AA release in a time- and dose-dependent manner, induced cPLA2α, ERK1/2, p38, and JNK phosphorylation, as well as activated COX2 expression and prostaglandin (PG) E2 production in primary human monocytes, murine RAW 264.7, and wild-type bone marrow-derived macrophages. Specific cPLA2α inhibitor blocked HA-induced AA release and PGE2 production in all of these cells. Using CD44, TLR4, TLR2, MYD88, RHAMM or STAB2 siRNA-transfected macrophages and monocytes, we found that AA release, cPLA2α, ERK1/2, p38, and JNK phosphorylation, COX2 expression, and PGE2 production were activated by LMW HA through a TLR4/MYD88 pathway. Likewise, PGE2 production and COX2 expression were blocked in Tlr4(-/-) and Myd88(-/-) mice, but not in Cd44(-/-) mice, after LMW HA stimulation. Moreover, we demonstrated that LMW HA activated the M1 macrophage phenotype with the unique cPLA2α/COX2(high) and COX1/ALOX15/ALOX5/LTA4H(low) gene and PGE2/PGD2/15-HETE(high) and LXA4(low) eicosanoid profile. These findings reveal a novel link between HA-mediated inflammation and lipid metabolism.

Novel biphasic role of resolvin D1 on expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated lung fibroblasts is partly through PI3K/AKT and ERK2 pathways

Fibroblasts, far frombeing merely bystander cells, are known to play a specific role in inflammation resolution after an acute injury. As the endogenous “braking signal,” resolvins possess potent anti-inflammatory and proresolution actions. We demonstrated that the expression of COX-2 protein was significantly peaked initially at 6 hours but then also at 48 hours after LPS stimulation in lung fibroblasts. PGE₂ levels also peaked at 6 hours, and PGD₂ levels were increased and peaked at 48 hours. However, no significant change in the protein expression of COX-1 was observed after treatment with LPS in lung fibroblasts. Exogenous resolvin D1 inhibited the first peak of COX-2 expression as well as the production of PGE₂ induced by LPS. In contrast, exogenous resolvin D1 increased the second peak of COX-2 expression as well as the production of PGD₂ induced by LPS. In addition, resolvin D1 inhibited COX-2 expression at 6 hours, which was partly through PI3K/AKT and ERK2 signalling pathways.

Evidence for a pro-proliferative feedback loop in prostate cancer: the role of Epac1 and COX-2-dependent pathways

Objective

In human prostate cancer cells, a selective Epac agonist, 8-CPT-2Me-cAMP, upregulates cell proliferation and survival via activation of Ras-MAPK and PI- 3-kinase-Akt-mTOR signaling cascades. Here we examine the role of inflammatory mediators in Epac1-induced cellular proliferation by determining the expression of the pro-inflammatory markers p-cPLA2, COX-2, and PGE₂ in prostate cancer cells treated with 8-CPT-2Me-cAMP.

Methods

We employed inhibitors of COX-2, mTORC1, and mTORC2 to probe cyclic AMP-dependent pathways in human prostate cancer cells. RNAi targeting Epac1, Raptor, and Rictor was also employed in these studies.

Results

8-CPT-2Me-cAMP treatment caused a 2–2.5-fold increase of p-cPLA2^S505, COX-2, and PGE₂ levels in human prostate cancer cell lines. Pretreatment of cells with the COX-2 inhibitor SC-58125 or the EP4 antagonist AH-23848, or with an inhibitor of mTORC1 and mTORC2, Torin1, significantly reduced the Epac1-dependent increase of p-cPLA2 and COX-2, p-S6-kinase^T389, and p-AKT^S473. In addition, Epac1-induced protein and DNA synthesis were greatly reduced upon pretreatment of cells with either COX-2, EP4, or mTOR inhibitors. Transfection of prostate cancer cells with Epac1 dsRNA, Raptor dsRNA, or Rictor dsRNA profoundly reduced Epac1-dependent increases in p-cPLA2 and COX-2.

Conclusion

We show that Epac1, a downstream effector of cAMP, functions as a pro-inflammatory modulator in prostate cancer cells and promotes cell proliferation and survival by upregulating Ras-MAPK, and PI 3-kinase-Akt-mTOR signaling.

Effects of dietary inulin, Bacillus subtilis and microalgae on intestinal gene expression in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.)

The present work describes effects of dietary inulin, two microalgae (Tetraselmis chuii and Phaeodactylum tricornutum) and Bacillus subtilis (solely or combined with inulin or microalgae) on the expression of different genes in the intestine of the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) following four weeks of a feeding trial. Selected genes were grouped into five categories: genes involved in inflammation (genes encoding proinflammatory proteins), genes related to the cytoskeleton, genes encoding proteins of junction complexes, genes implicated in digestion processes and genes related to transport proteins. Regarding proinflammatory genes, interleukin-8 (IL-8) expression showed a significant increase in the fish fed all the assayed diets, except the B. subtilis + inulin diet, whereas the expression of caspase-1 (CASP-1) was also increased by the B. subtilis and B. subtilis + T. chuii diets. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) gene expression only increased in fish fed the B. subtilis diet. Among cytoskeletal and junctional genes, only β-actin and occludin were significantly affected by the assayed diets. β-actin expression was up-regulated by the inulin-containing diets (inulin and B. subtilis + inulin diets), whereas occludin expression increased in the fish fed all the assayed diets, except the P. tricornutum diet. Finally, the expression of transport protein genes demonstrated that the inulin diet and all the experimental diets containing B. subtilis significantly increased transferrin expression, whereas digestive enzymes were not affected by the experimental diets. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that inulin, B. subtilis and microalgae can modulate intestinal gene expression in the gilthead seabream. To our knowledge, this is the first study of the effects of some food additives on the intestinal expression of different genes in this species. More studies are needed to understand the role of these genes in maintaining the integrity and functionality of the intestine.

PPAR activation induces M1 macrophage polarization via cPLA₂-COX-2 inhibition, activating ROS production against Leishmania mexicana

Defence against Leishmania depends upon Th1 inflammatory response and, a major problem in susceptible models, is the turnoff of the leishmanicidal activity of macrophages with IL-10, IL-4, and COX-2 upregulation, as well as immunosuppressive PGE2, all together inhibiting the respiratory burst. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) activation is responsible for macrophages polarization on Leishmania susceptible models where microbicide functions are deactivated. In this paper, we demonstrated that, at least for L. mexicana, PPAR activation, mainly PPAR γ , induced macrophage activation through their polarization towards M1 profile with the increase of microbicide activity against intracellular pathogen L. mexicana. PPAR activation induced IL-10 downregulation, whereas the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF- α , IL-1 β , and IL-6 remained high. Moreover, PPAR agonists treatment induced the deactivation of cPLA2-COX-2-prostaglandins pathway together with an increase in TLR4 expression, all of whose criteria meet the M1 macrophage profile. Finally, parasite burden, in treated macrophages, was lower than that in infected nontreated macrophages, most probably associated with the increase of respiratory burst in these treated cells. Based on the above data, we conclude that PPAR agonists used in this work induces M1 macrophages polarization via inhibition of cPLA2 and the increase of aggressive microbicidal activity via reactive oxygen species (ROS) production.