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Zexer N, Kumar S, Elbaum R. Silica deposition in plants: scaffolding the mineralization. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2023; 131:897-908. [PMID: 37094329 PMCID: PMC10332400 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcad056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Silicon and aluminium oxides make the bulk of agricultural soils. Plants absorb dissolved silicon as silicic acid into their bodies through their roots. The silicic acid moves with transpiration to target tissues in the plant body, where it polymerizes into biogenic silica. Mostly, the mineral forms on a matrix of cell wall polymers to create a composite material. Historically, silica deposition (silicification) was supposed to occur once water evaporated from the plant surface, leaving behind an increased concentration of silicic acid within plant tissues. However, recent publications indicate that certain cell wall polymers and proteins initiate and control the extent of plant silicification. SCOPE Here we review recent publications on the polymers that scaffold the formation of biogenic plant silica, and propose a paradigm shift from spontaneous polymerization of silicic acid to dedicated active metabolic processes that control both the location and the extent of the mineralization. CONCLUSION Protein activity concentrates silicic acid beyond its saturation level. Polymeric structures at the cell wall stabilize the supersaturated silicic acid and allow its flow with the transpiration stream, or bind it and allow its initial condensation. Silica nucleation and further polymerization are enabled on a polymeric scaffold, which is embedded within the mineral. Deposition is terminated once free silicic acid is consumed or the chemical moieties for its binding are saturated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerya Zexer
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Santosh Kumar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, K. K. Birla Goa Campus, Zuarinagar 403726, Goa, India
- School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar 751024, Odisha, India
| | - Rivka Elbaum
- R. H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
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Sheng H, Li Y, Feng J, Liu Y. Regulation of thermodynamics and kinetics of silica nucleation during the silicification process in higher plants. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2023; 198:107674. [PMID: 37018864 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.107674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The formation mechanism of SiO2 aggregates is controversial because two contrasting hypotheses are often proposed to explain plant silicification. In this review, we summarize the physicochemical fundamentals of amorphous silica nucleation and discuss how plants regulate the process of silicification by influencing the thermodynamics and kinetics of silica nucleation. At silicification positions, plants overcome the thermodynamic barrier by establishing the supersaturation of the H4SiO4 solution and reducing the interfacial free energy. Among the thermodynamic-drivers, the establishment of supersaturation of H4SiO4 solution mainly depends on the expression of Si transporters for H4SiO4 supply, evapotranspiration for concentrating Si, and the other solutes in H4SiO4 solution for influencing the dissolution equilibrium of SiO2; while the interfacial free energy was reduced seemingly by the overexpression Na+/H+ antiporter SOS1 in high NaCl-stressed rice. Moreover, some kinetic-drivers, such as silicification-related proteins (Slp1 and PRP1) and new cell wall components, are actively expressed or synthesized by plants to interact with silicic acid, thereby reducing the kinetic barrier. According to classical nucleation theory, when the thermodynamic barrier is overcome, the super-saturated silicic acid solution (such as H4SiO4 in xylem sap) does not necessarily have to precipitate, just has the potential ability to precipitation. Thus, based on the mediators of SiO2 deposition at the thermodynamic-driven stage, it is difficult to evaluate whether the process of plant silicification is active or passive. We conclude that the characteristics of kinetic-drivers determine the mechanism of plant silicification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huachun Sheng
- Institute of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; Tibetan Plateau Ethnic Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Key Laboratory of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; Sichuan Provincial Qiang-Yi Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Technology and Engineering Laboratory, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China.
| | - Ying Li
- Tibetan Plateau Ethnic Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Key Laboratory of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; Sichuan Provincial Qiang-Yi Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Technology and Engineering Laboratory, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; College of Pharmacy, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China
| | - Jingqiu Feng
- Institute of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; Tibetan Plateau Ethnic Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Key Laboratory of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; Sichuan Provincial Qiang-Yi Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Technology and Engineering Laboratory, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China.
| | - Yuan Liu
- Institute of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; Tibetan Plateau Ethnic Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Key Laboratory of National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China; Sichuan Provincial Qiang-Yi Medicinal Resources Protection and Utilization Technology and Engineering Laboratory, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610225, PR China.
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Mueller KK, Pfeifer L, Schuldt L, Szövényi P, de Vries S, de Vries J, Johnson KL, Classen B. Fern cell walls and the evolution of arabinogalactan proteins in streptophytes. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 114:875-894. [PMID: 36891885 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Significant changes have occurred in plant cell wall composition during evolution and diversification of tracheophytes. As the sister lineage to seed plants, knowledge on the cell wall of ferns is key to track evolutionary changes across tracheophytes and to understand seed plant-specific evolutionary innovations. Fern cell wall composition is not fully understood, including limited knowledge of glycoproteins such as the fern arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs). Here, we characterize the AGPs from the leptosporangiate fern genera Azolla, Salvinia, and Ceratopteris. The carbohydrate moiety of seed plant AGPs consists of a galactan backbone including mainly 1,3- and 1,3,6-linked pyranosidic galactose, which is conserved across the investigated fern AGPs. Yet, unlike AGPs of angiosperms, those of ferns contained the unusual sugar 3-O-methylrhamnose. Besides terminal furanosidic arabinose, Ara (Araf), the main linkage type of Araf in the ferns was 1,2-linked Araf, whereas in seed plants 1,5-linked Araf is often dominating. Antibodies directed against carbohydrate epitopes of AGPs supported the structural differences between AGPs of ferns and seed plants. Comparison of AGP linkage types across the streptophyte lineage showed that angiosperms have rather conserved monosaccharide linkage types; by contrast bryophytes, ferns, and gymnosperms showed more variability. Phylogenetic analyses of glycosyltransferases involved in AGP biosynthesis and bioinformatic search for AGP protein backbones revealed a versatile genetic toolkit for AGP complexity in ferns. Our data reveal important differences across AGP diversity of which the functional significance is unknown. This diversity sheds light on the evolution of the hallmark feature of tracheophytes: their elaborate cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim-Kristine Mueller
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Gutenbergstr. 76, 24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Lukas Pfeifer
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Gutenbergstr. 76, 24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Lina Schuldt
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Gutenbergstr. 76, 24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Péter Szövényi
- Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zurich, Zollikerstr. 107, 8008, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center (PSC), ETH Zürich, Tannenstrasse 1, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Sophie de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Goettingen, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Jan de Vries
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Goettingen, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077, Goettingen, Germany
- Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Goettingen, Goettingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), Goldschmidtsr. 1, 37077, Goettingen, Germany
- Campus Institute Data Science (CIDAS), University of Goettingen, Goldschmidstr. 1, 37077, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Kim L Johnson
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Science, La Trobe Institute for Agriculture & Food, La Trobe University, AgriBio Building, Bundoora, Victoria, 3086, Australia
| | - Birgit Classen
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Gutenbergstr. 76, 24118, Kiel, Germany
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Mehltreter K, Wachter H, Trabi C, Testo W, Sundue M, Jansen S. Hydathodes in ferns: their phylogenetic distribution, structure and function. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2022; 130:331-344. [PMID: 35696156 PMCID: PMC9486916 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcac076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Ferns are the second largest group of vascular plants and are distributed nearly worldwide. Although ferns have been integrated into some comparative ecological studies focusing on hydathodes, there is a considerable gap in our understanding of the functional anatomy of these secretory tissues that are found on the vein endings of many fern leaves. In this study, we aimed to investigate the phylogenetic distribution, structure and function of fern hydathodes. METHODS We performed a global review on fern hydathodes and their phylogenetic distribution, carried out an ancestral character state reconstruction, and studied the structure, guttation and elemental composition of salt residues of eight species, and the diurnal patterns of xylem pressure of two species. KEY RESULTS Hydathodes are known from 1189 fern species, 92 genera and 19 families of 2 orders, Equisetales and Polypodiales. Stochastic character mapping indicated multiple gains and losses of hydathodes at the genus level, occurring especially during the last 50 million years of fern evolution. Hydathodes were located on the adaxial leaf surface and characterized by a cytoplasm-rich, pore-free epidermis, and became functional for several weeks after nearly complete leaf expansion. In two species, positive xylem pressure built up at night, potentially facilitating guttation. Guttation fluid was rich in Ca and often Si, but also contained P, Mg, Na and Al. CONCLUSIONS Stochastic character mapping and the structural and functional diversity of hydathodes indicate multiple origins, and their presence/absence in closely related taxa implies secondary losses during fern evolution. Positive xylem pressure and high air humidity play an important role as drivers of guttation. Hydathodes may contribute to the regulation of leaf nutrient stoichiometry by the release of excessive compounds and minerals other than waste products, but the presence of essential chemical elements in salt residues also indicates possible leakage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Mehltreter
- Red de Ecología Funcional, Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Xalapa 91073, Veracruz, México
- Institute of Systematic Botany and Ecology, Ulm University, D-89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Hanna Wachter
- Institute of Systematic Botany and Ecology, Ulm University, D-89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Christophe Trabi
- Institute of Systematic Botany and Ecology, Ulm University, D-89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Weston Testo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, 40530 Goteborg, Sweden
- Botanical Research Institute of Texas, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA
| | - Michael Sundue
- The Pringle Herbarium, Department of Plant Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
| | - Steven Jansen
- Institute of Systematic Botany and Ecology, Ulm University, D-89081 Ulm, Germany
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Möller SR, Lancefield CS, Oates NC, Simister R, Dowle A, Gomez LD, McQueen-Mason SJ. CRISPR/Cas9 suppression of OsAT10, a rice BAHD acyltransferase, reduces p-coumaric acid incorporation into arabinoxylan without increasing saccharification. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:926300. [PMID: 35937377 PMCID: PMC9355400 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.926300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Ester-linked hydroxycinnamic acids ferulic acid (FA) and para-coumaric acid (p-CA) play important roles in crosslinking within cell wall arabinoxylans (AX) and between AX and lignin in grass cell walls. The addition of hydroxycinnamates to AX, is mediated by the Mitchell clade of BAHD acyl-coenzyme A-utilizing transferases. Overexpression of OsAT10 (a Mitchell clade BAHD acyl transferase) in rice, has previously been shown to increase p-CA content in AX in leaves and stems, leading to increased cell wall digestibility, potentially associated with a concomitant decrease in FA content. To investigate the physiological role of OsAT10 we established CRISPR/Cas9 rice knock-out mutants devoid of OsAT10. Our analysis of hydroxycinnamic acid content in wild type plants revealed that AX associated p-CA is found almost exclusively in rice husks, with very little found in other tissues. Mutant plants were essentially devoid of ester-linked p-CA associated with AX, indicating that OsAT10 represents the major enzyme responsible for the addition of p-CA to arabinoxylan in rice plants. We found no change in the digestibility of rice husk lacking AX-associated p-CA, suggesting that the changes in digestibility seen in OsAT10 overexpressing plants were solely due to compensatory decreases in AX-associated FA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher S. Lancefield
- School of Chemistry and Biomedical Science Research Complex, University of St. Andrews, St.Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola C. Oates
- CNAP, Biology Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Rachael Simister
- CNAP, Biology Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Dowle
- Biology Department, Bioscience Technology Facility, University of York, York, United Kingdom
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Hussain S, Shuxian L, Mumtaz M, Shafiq I, Iqbal N, Brestic M, Shoaib M, Sisi Q, Li W, Mei X, Bing C, Zivcak M, Rastogi A, Skalicky M, Hejnak V, Weiguo L, Wenyu Y. Foliar application of silicon improves stem strength under low light stress by regulating lignin biosynthesis genes in soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 401:123256. [PMID: 32629356 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In order to improve soybean's resistance to lodging, silicon (Si) solutions at concentrations of 0,100, 200,300 mg kg-1 were applied during the seedling stage. The Si accumulation in different parts of the plants, the photosynthetic parameters of leaves and chlorophyll content, the stem bending resistance, the expression of genes of lignin biosynthesis and associated enzyme activity and sap flow rates were measured at early and late growth stages. The potential mechanisms for how Si improve growth and shade tolerance, enhances lodging resistance and improves photosynthesis were analyzed to provide a theoretical basis for the use of Si amendments in agriculture. After application of Si at 200 mg kg-1, the net photosynthetic rate of soybeans increased by 46.4 % in the light and 33.3 % under shade. The application of Si increased chlorophyll content, and fresh weight of leaves, reduced leaf area and enhanced photosynthesis by increasing stomatal conductance. The activity of peroxidase (POD), 4-coumarate:CoA ligase (4CL), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) increased during pre-and post-growth periods, whereas Si also increased lignin accumulation and inhibited lodging. We concluded that Si affects the composition of plant cell walls components, mostly by altering linkages of non-cellulosic polymers and lignin. The modifications of the cell wall network through Si application could be a useful strategy to reduce shading stress in intercropping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajad Hussain
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China.
| | - Li Shuxian
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Maryam Mumtaz
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China
| | - Iram Shafiq
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Nasir Iqbal
- School of Agriculture, Food & Wine, The University of Adelaide, PMB1, Glen Osmond, Adelaide 5064, Australia
| | - Marian Brestic
- Department of Plant Physiology, Slovak University of Agriculture, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia; Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Muhammad Shoaib
- College of Resources, Sichuan Agricultural University, PR China
| | - Qin Sisi
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Wang Li
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Xu Mei
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Chen Bing
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Marek Zivcak
- Department of Plant Physiology, Slovak University of Agriculture, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia
| | - Anshu Rastogi
- Laboratory of Bioclimatology, Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Piątkowska 94, 60-649 Poznan, Poland
| | - Milan Skalicky
- Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Vaclav Hejnak
- Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Liu Weiguo
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China.
| | - Yang Wenyu
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, 211-Huimin Road, Wenjiang District, Chengdu 611130, PR China; Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Crop Strip Intercropping System, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in Southwest China (Ministry of Agriculture), Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, PR China.
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Guerriero G, Deshmukh R, Sonah H, Sergeant K, Hausman JF, Lentzen E, Valle N, Siddiqui KS, Exley C. Identification of the aquaporin gene family in Cannabis sativa and evidence for the accumulation of silicon in its tissues. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 287:110167. [PMID: 31481224 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.110167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa is an economically important crop providing bast fibres for the textile and biocomposite sector. Length is a fundamental characteristic determining the properties of bast fibres. Aquaporins, channel-forming proteins facilitating the passage of water, urea, as well as elements such as boron and silicon, are known to play a role in the control of fibre length in other species, like cotton. By mining the available genome, we here identify, for the first time, the aquaporin gene family of C. sativa. The analysis of published RNA-Seq data and targeted qPCR on a textile variety reveal an organ-specific expression of aquaporin genes. Computational analyses, including homology-based search, phylogeny and protein modelling, identify two NOD26-like intrinsic proteins harbouring the Gly-Ser-Gly-Arg (GSGR) aromatic/Arg selectivity filter and 108 amino acid NPA (Asn-Pro-Ala) spacing, features reported to be associated with silicon permeability. SIMS nano-analysis and silica extraction coupled to fluorescence microscopy performed on hemp plantlets reveal the presence of silicon in the bast fibres of the hypocotyl and in leaves. The accumulation of silica in the distal cell walls of bast fibres and in the basal cells of leaf trichomes is indicative of a mechanical role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gea Guerriero
- Research and Innovation Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362, Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg.
| | - Rupesh Deshmukh
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Sector-81 (Knowledge City), P.O. Manauli, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, 140306, Punjab, India
| | - Humira Sonah
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Sector-81 (Knowledge City), P.O. Manauli, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, 140306, Punjab, India
| | - Kjell Sergeant
- Research and Innovation Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362, Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Jean-Francois Hausman
- Research and Innovation Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362, Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Esther Lentzen
- Research and Innovation Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362, Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Nathalie Valle
- Research and Innovation Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362, Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Khawar Sohail Siddiqui
- Life Sciences Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), 31261, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
| | - Christopher Exley
- The Birchall Centre, Lennard Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
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Głazowska S, Baldwin L, Mravec J, Bukh C, Hansen TH, Jensen MM, Fangel JU, Willats WGT, Glasius M, Felby C, Schjoerring JK. The impact of silicon on cell wall composition and enzymatic saccharification of Brachypodium distachyon. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2018; 11:171. [PMID: 29951115 PMCID: PMC6009033 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-018-1166-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plants and in particular grasses benefit from a high uptake of silicon (Si) which improves their growth and productivity by alleviating adverse effects of biotic and abiotic stress. However, the silicon present in plant tissues may have a negative impact on the processing and degradation of lignocellulosic biomass. Solutions to reduce the silicon content either by biomass engineering or development of downstream separation methods are therefore targeted. Different cell wall components have been proposed to interact with the silica pool in plant shoots, but the understanding of the underlying processes is still limited. RESULTS In the present study, we have characterized silicon deposition and cell wall composition in Brachypodium distachyon wild-type and low-silicon 1 (Bdlsi1-1) mutant plants. Our analyses included different organs and plant developmental stages. In the mutant defective in silicon uptake, low silicon availability favoured deposition of this element in the amorphous form or bound to cell wall polymers rather than as silicified structures. Several alterations in non-cellulosic polysaccharides and lignin were recorded in the mutant plants, indicating differences in the types of linkages and in the three-dimensional organization of the cell wall network. Enzymatic saccharification assays showed that straw from mutant plants was marginally more degradable following a 190 °C hydrothermal pretreatment, while there were no differences without or after a 120 °C hydrothermal pretreatment. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that silicon affects the composition of plant cell walls, mostly by altering linkages of non-cellulosic polymers and lignin. The modifications of the cell wall network and the reduced silicon concentration appear to have little or no implications on biomass recalcitrance to enzymatic saccharification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Głazowska
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Laetitia Baldwin
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Jozef Mravec
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Christian Bukh
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Thomas Hesselhøj Hansen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Mads Mørk Jensen
- Department of Chemistry and INANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Jonatan U. Fangel
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - William G. T. Willats
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Marianne Glasius
- Department of Chemistry and INANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Claus Felby
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Jan Kofod Schjoerring
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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Soukup M, Martinka M, Bosnić D, Čaplovičová M, Elbaum R, Lux A. Formation of silica aggregates in sorghum root endodermis is predetermined by cell wall architecture and development. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2017; 120:739-753. [PMID: 28651339 PMCID: PMC5714252 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcx060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Background and Aims Deposition of silica in plant cell walls improves their mechanical properties and helps plants to withstand various stress conditions. Its mechanism is still not understood and silica-cell wall interactions are elusive. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of silica deposition on the development and structure of sorghum root endodermis and to identify the cell wall components involved in silicification. Methods Sorghum bicolor seedlings were grown hydroponically with (Si+) or without (Si-) silicon supplementation. Primary roots were used to investigate the transcription of silicon transporters by quantitative RT-PCR. Silica aggregation was induced also under in vitro conditions in detached root segments. The development and architecture of endodermal cell walls were analysed by histochemistry, microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Water retention capability was compared between silicified and non-silicified roots. Raman spectroscopy analyses of isolated silica aggregates were also carried out. Key Results Active uptake of silicic acid is provided at the root apex, where silicon transporters Lsi1 and Lsi2 are expressed. The locations of silica aggregation are established during the development of tertiary endodermal cell walls, even in the absence of silicon. Silica aggregation takes place in non-lignified spots in the endodermal cell walls, which progressively accumulate silicic acid, and its condensation initiates at arabinoxylan-ferulic acid complexes. Silicification does not support root water retention capability; however, it decreases root growth inhibition imposed by desiccation. Conclusion A model is proposed in which the formation of silica aggregates in sorghum roots is predetermined by a modified cell wall architecture and takes place as governed by endodermal development. The interaction with silica is provided by arabinoxylan-ferulic acid complexes and interferes with further deposition of lignin. Due to contrasting hydrophobicity, silicification and lignification do not represent functionally equivalent modifications of plant cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Soukup
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 6, 84215 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Michal Martinka
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 6, 84215 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Dragana Bosnić
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, 11010 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Mária Čaplovičová
- Department of Geology of Mineral Deposits, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Rivka Elbaum
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alexander Lux
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 6, 84215 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 84538 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
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Gierlinger N. New insights into plant cell walls by vibrational microspectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY REVIEWS 2017; 53:517-551. [PMID: 30057488 PMCID: PMC6050719 DOI: 10.1080/05704928.2017.1363052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Vibrational spectroscopy provides non-destructively the molecular fingerprint of plant cells in the native state. In combination with microscopy, the chemical composition can be followed in context with the microstructure, and due to the non-destructive application, in-situ studies of changes during, e.g., degradation or mechanical load are possible. The two complementary vibrational microspectroscopic approaches, Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Microspectroscopy and Confocal Raman spectroscopy, are based on different physical principles and the resulting different drawbacks and advantages in plant applications are reviewed. Examples for FT-IR and Raman microscopy applications on plant cell walls, including imaging as well as in-situ studies, are shown to have high potential to get a deeper understanding of structure-function relationships as well as biological processes and technical treatments. Both probe numerous different molecular vibrations of all components at once and thus result in spectra with many overlapping bands, a challenge for assignment and interpretation. With the help of multivariate unmixing methods (e.g., vertex components analysis), the most pure components can be revealed and their distribution mapped, even tiny layers and structures (250 nm). Instrumental as well as data analysis progresses make both microspectroscopic methods more and more promising tools in plant cell wall research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Notburga Gierlinger
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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11
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Guerriero G, Hausman JF, Legay S. Silicon and the Plant Extracellular Matrix. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:463. [PMID: 27148294 PMCID: PMC4828433 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Silicon (Si) is one of the most abundant elements on earth. Although not considered essential for the growth and development of higher plants, it is nonetheless known to increase vigor and to play protective roles. Its protective effects include for instance alleviation of (a)biotic stress damages and heavy metal toxicity. Si was shown to interact with several components of the plant cell walls in the form of silica (SiO2). In plants SiO2 promotes strengthening of the cell walls and provides increased mechanical support to the aerial parts. The relationship SiO2-plant cell wall has been well documented in monocots and pteridophytes, which are known Si accumulators, while much less is known on the interaction of Si with the cell walls of dicots. We here provide a concise up-to-date survey on the interaction between Si and plant cell wall components by focussing on cellulose, hemicelluloses, callose, pectins, lignin, and proteins. We also describe the effects of Si on cell wall-related processes by discussing the published results in both monocots and dicots. We conclude our survey with a description of the possible mechanisms by which Si exerts priming in plants.
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12
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Zhang J, Zou W, Li Y, Feng Y, Zhang H, Wu Z, Tu Y, Wang Y, Cai X, Peng L. Silica distinctively affects cell wall features and lignocellulosic saccharification with large enhancement on biomass production in rice. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 239:84-91. [PMID: 26398793 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 07/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Rice is a typical silicon-accumulating crop with enormous biomass residues for biofuels. Silica is a cell wall component, but its effect on the plant cell wall and biomass production remains largely unknown. In this study, a systems biology approach was performed using 42 distinct rice cell wall mutants. We found that silica levels are significantly positively correlated with three major wall polymers, indicating that silica is associated with the cell wall network. Silicon-supplied hydroculture analysis demonstrated that silica distinctively affects cell wall composition and major wall polymer features, including cellulose crystallinity (CrI), arabinose substitution degree (reverse Xyl/Ara) of xylans, and sinapyl alcohol (S) proportion in three typical rice mutants. Notably, the silicon supplement exhibited dual effects on biomass enzymatic digestibility in the mutant and wild type (NPB) after pre-treatments with 1% NaOH and 1% H2SO4. In addition, silicon supply largely enhanced plant height, mechanical strength and straw biomass production, suggesting that silica rescues mutant growth defects. Hence, this study provides potential approaches for silicon applications in biomass process and bioenergy rice breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Weihua Zou
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Ying Li
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yongqing Feng
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhiliang Wu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yuanyuan Tu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yanting Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xiwen Cai
- Department of Plant Science, North Dakota State University, Loftsgard Hall, P.O. Box 6050, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Liangcai Peng
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; Biomass and Bioenergy Research Centre, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China; College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, China.
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Exley C. A possible mechanism of biological silicification in plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:853. [PMID: 26500676 PMCID: PMC4598575 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Plants are significant exponents of biological silicification. While not all plants are generally considered as biosilicifiers the extent to which all plants deposit biogenic silica is largely unknown. There are plants which are known as silica accumulators though even in these plants the extent and degree to which their tissues are silicified is neither appreciated nor understood. An elucidation of the mechanism of silicification in biota is complicated by a lack of known bio-organic chemistry of silicic acid, the starting point in this process. Herein I argue the case that biological silicification is an entirely passive process. It is passive from the point of view that its underlying mechanisms and processes do not require us to invoke any as yet undiscovered silicon biochemistry. It is also passive in that although silicification confers clear biological/ecological advantages under certain conditions, it is actually non-essential in all plants and potentially, at least, toxic in some.
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Bai X, Hu H, Chen H, Wei Q, Yang Z, Huang Q. Expression of a β-mannosidase from Paenibacillus polymyxa A-8 in Escherichia coli and characterization of the recombinant enzyme. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111622. [PMID: 25423086 PMCID: PMC4244029 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Paenibacillus polymyxa A-8, which secretes β-mannosidase, was isolated from the soil sample under a pine tree located in the "Laoban" mountain region of Sichuan, China. The β-mannosidase gene (MANB) was isolated from P. polymyxa A-8, using primers according to the complete genome. The MANB (2,550 bp) encoding 849 amino acid residues was expressed in Escherichia coli. The specific activities of β-mannosidase produced by P. polymyxa A-8 and E. coli pET30a-MANB were 12 nkat/mg and 635 nkat/mg respectively. SDS-PAGE analysis indicated that the molecular mass of the recombinant MANB was approximately 96 kDa. The recombinant MANB was active between pH 7.0-8.5 with the maximum activity at pH 7.0. It had good pH stability and adaptability. The MANB had the optimal temperature of 35°C and was relatively stable at 35-40°C. In addition, the MANB activity was enhanced by K+, Ca2+, Mn2+, and Mg2+ and inhibited by Zn2+, Cu2+, and Hg2+.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Bai
- College of Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Yaan, Sichuan 625000, P. R. China
| | - Hong Hu
- College of Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Yaan, Sichuan 625000, P. R. China
- College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Anhui 233100, P. R. China
| | - Huaping Chen
- College of Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Yaan, Sichuan 625000, P. R. China
| | - Quanbin Wei
- College of Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Yaan, Sichuan 625000, P. R. China
| | - Zeshen Yang
- Liang Shan Zhong Ze New Technology Development Co., Ltd, Xichang, Sichuan 615000, P. R. China
| | - Qianming Huang
- College of Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Yaan, Sichuan 625000, P. R. China
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Eeckhout S, Leroux O, Willats WGT, Popper ZA, Viane RLL. Comparative glycan profiling of Ceratopteris richardii 'C-Fern' gametophytes and sporophytes links cell-wall composition to functional specialization. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2014; 114:1295-307. [PMID: 24699895 PMCID: PMC4195545 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcu039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Innovations in vegetative and reproductive characters were key factors in the evolutionary history of land plants and most of these transformations, including dramatic changes in life cycle structure and strategy, necessarily involved cell-wall modifications. To provide more insight into the role of cell walls in effecting changes in plant structure and function, and in particular their role in the generation of vascularization, an antibody-based approach was implemented to compare the presence and distribution of cell-wall glycan epitopes between (free-living) gametophytes and sporophytes of Ceratopteris richardii 'C-Fern', a widely used model system for ferns. METHODS Microarrays of sequential diamino-cyclohexane-tetraacetic acid (CDTA) and NaOH extractions of gametophytes, spores and different organs of 'C-Fern' sporophytes were probed with glycan-directed monoclonal antibodies. The same probes were employed to investigate the tissue- and cell-specific distribution of glycan epitopes. KEY RESULTS While monoclonal antibodies against pectic homogalacturonan, mannan and xyloglucan widely labelled gametophytic and sporophytic tissues, xylans were only detected in secondary cell walls of the sporophyte. The LM5 pectic galactan epitope was restricted to sporophytic phloem tissue. Rhizoids and root hairs showed similarities in arabinogalactan protein (AGP) and xyloglucan epitope distribution patterns. CONCLUSIONS The differences and similarities in glycan cell-wall composition between 'C-Fern' gametophytes and sporophytes indicate that the molecular design of cell walls reflects functional specialization rather than genetic origin. Glycan epitopes that were not detected in gametophytes were associated with cell walls of specialized tissues in the sporophyte.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Eeckhout
- Research Group Pteridology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Olivier Leroux
- Research Group Pteridology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium Botany and Plant Science and The Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, University Road, Galway, Ireland
| | - William G T Willats
- Department of Plant Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Buelowsvej 17-1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Zoë A Popper
- Botany and Plant Science and The Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, University Road, Galway, Ireland
| | - Ronald L L Viane
- Research Group Pteridology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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