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Laméris DW, Salas M, Eens M, Gillespie L, Staes N, Torfs JRR, Verspeek J, Vervaecke H, Ward SJ, Stevens JMG. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment of bonobo emotional expressivity across observer groups and zoo housing environments. Anim Welf 2024; 33:e28. [PMID: 38828436 PMCID: PMC11140493 DOI: 10.1017/awf.2024.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Human evaluation of animal emotional expressivity can inform animal welfare. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) has been applied to domesticated and some non-domesticated animals, but its use in primates is limited despite their emotional expressivity. We aimed to develop and apply a QBA for bonobos (Pan paniscus) through two consecutive studies. We applied Free Choice Profiling (FCP) and the Fixed List methodology, respectively, in Study 1 and 2, and invited students and bonobo experts to rate video clips of zoo-living bonobos of different sexes and age classes, and before and after moving to a new enclosure. In Study 1, students described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'angry/active' and dimension 2 from 'sad/anxious' to 'happy/loving'. Experts described dimension 1 ranging from 'quiet/relaxed' to 'nervous/alert' and dimension 2 from 'nervous/bored' to 'playful/happy'. Using a fixed list of descriptors, informed by findings from Study 1, students in Study 2 described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'agitated/frustrated', and dimension 2 from 'sad/stressed' to 'happy/positively engaged'. Experts described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'active/excited', and dimension 2 from 'sad/bored' to 'happy/positively engaged'. Students scored adults as more 'calm/quiet' and experts scored subadults as more 'happy/positively engaged'. Additionally, experts in Study 2 rated bonobos as more 'active/excited' in their new enclosure. Reliability was moderate to good for the dimensions. Additionally, animal-directed empathy of observers influenced QBA scores. This is the first time, FCP has been successfully used as a method to study primate emotional expressivity. Our findings show the promise of employing QBA in primate studies and in industry, with validation of additional metrics to enable its use for welfare-monitoring purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daan W Laméris
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marina Salas
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marcel Eens
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Lisa Gillespie
- Twycross Zoo, East Midland Zoological Society, Burton Rd, AtherstoneCV9 3PX, UK
| | - Nicky Staes
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jonas RR Torfs
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jonas Verspeek
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Hilde Vervaecke
- Salto Research Group, Agro-and Biotechnology, Odisee University of Applied Sciences, Hospitaalstraat 21, 9100Sint-Niklaas, Belgium
| | - Samantha J Ward
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell, NG25 0QF, UK
| | - Jeroen MG Stevens
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610Wilrijk, Belgium
- Salto Research Group, Agro-and Biotechnology, Odisee University of Applied Sciences, Hospitaalstraat 21, 9100Sint-Niklaas, Belgium
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Cordoni G, Ciantia A, Guéry JP, Mulot B, Norscia I. Rapid facial mimicry in Platyrrhini: Play face replication in spider monkeys (Ateles fusciceps, Ateles hybridus, and Ateles paniscus). Am J Primatol 2024; 86:e23607. [PMID: 38369692 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Rapid facial mimicry (RFM), the rapid and automatic replication of facial expression perceived, is considered a basic form of empathy and was investigated mainly during play. RFM occurs in Catarrhini (Old World primates), but it is not still demonstrated in Platyrrhini (New World primates). For this reason, we collected video data on playful interactions (Nplay_interactions = 149) in three species of spider monkeys (Ateles fusciceps-N = 11, Ateles hybridus-N = 14, and Ateles paniscus-N = 6) housed at La Vallée des Singes and the ZooParc de Beauval (France). For the first time, we demonstrated the occurrence of RFM in Platyrrhini (analyzing 175 events). Players' sex, age, species, relationship quality, and kinship did not modulate RFM probably due to the species' complex fission-fusion dynamics and flexible interindividual social relationships. Compared to the absence of any playful expressions or the presence of only not replicated play face, RFM prolonged the session duration and was sequentially associated with more types of more intense offensive playful patterns (patterns aimed at attacking/pursuing the playmate). We proposed that RFM may favor synchronization and context sharing between players, thus decreasing the risk of behavior misinterpretation while simultaneously fostering a more competitive nature of play. In conclusion, this study stimulates additional research on the evolutionary origins of motor mimicry in primates, possibly dating back to before the divergence of New and Old World monkeys. Furthermore, it also points toward the possibility that RFM may not always lead to cooperation but also to competition, depending on the context and species' social and cognitive features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Cordoni
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Annalisa Ciantia
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | | | - Baptiste Mulot
- ZooParc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, Saint Aignan sur Cher, France
| | - Ivan Norscia
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
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Burghardt GM, Pellis SM, Schank JC, Smaldino PE, Vanderschuren LJMJ, Palagi E. Animal play and evolution: Seven timely research issues about enigmatic phenomena. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 160:105617. [PMID: 38458553 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
The nature of play in animals has been long debated, but progress is being made in characterizing play and its variants, documenting its distribution across vertebrate and invertebrate taxa, describing its mechanisms and development, and proposing testable theories about its origins, evolution, and adaptive functions. To achieve a deeper understanding of the functions and evolution of play, integrative and conceptual advances are needed in neuroscience, computer modeling, phylogenetics, experimental techniques, behavior development, and inter- and intra-specific variation. The special issue contains papers documenting many of these advances. Here, we describe seven timely areas where further research is needed to understand this still enigmatic class of phenomena more fully. Growing empirical and theoretical evidence reveals that play has been crucial in the evolution of behavior and psychology but has been underestimated, if not ignored, in both empirical and theoretical areas of evolutionary biology and neuroscience. Play research has important ramifications for understanding the evolution of cognition, emotion, and culture, and research on animals can be both informative and transformative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon M Burghardt
- Departments of Psychology and Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.
| | - Sergio M Pellis
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jeffrey C Schank
- Department of Psychology and Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Paul E Smaldino
- Department of Cognitive and Information Sciences, University of California, Merced, CA, USA, and Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM, USA
| | - Louk J M J Vanderschuren
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Section Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Elisabetta Palagi
- Unit of Ethology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa and Natural History Museum, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Pedretti G, Canori C, Costantini E, Palme R, Valsecchi P, Marshall-Pescini S. Intra and interspecific audience effect on domestic dogs' behavioural displays and facial expressions. Sci Rep 2024; 14:9546. [PMID: 38664496 PMCID: PMC11045831 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58757-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of the current study was to investigate the influence of both intra- and interspecific audiences on dogs' facial expressions and behaviours. Forty-six dogs were exposed to three test conditions in which a food reward, initially available, was denied when in the presence of either a human (Human condition) or a dog audience (Dog condition), or in the absence of a visible audience (Non-social condition). Salivary cortisol was collected to evaluate the stress/arousal activation in the different conditions. Compared to the Non-social condition, the presence of a conspecific evoked more facial expressions, according to the DogFACS (Facial Action Coding System, an anatomically based tool to analyze facial expressions in domestic dogs), (EAD105-Ears downward), displacement behaviours (AD137-Nose licking, AD37-Lip wiping), tail wagging, whining, and panting (AD126). When facing a conspecific, dogs assumed a more avoidant attitude, keeping a distance and not looking at the stimuli, compared to when in the presence of the human partner. Dogs also exhibited more facial expressions (EAD102-Ears Adductor, EAD104-Ears Rotator), displacement behaviours (AD137-Nose licking, AD37-Lip wiping), panting (AD126) and whining when facing the conspecific than the human partner. Post-test cortisol was not influenced by any condition, and no association between pre-test cortisol and behavioural variables was found, thus strong differences in the levels of stress/arousal were unlikely to be responsible for differences in behavior between conditions. Considering the current results in the context of the available literature, we suggest that the higher displacement behaviors exhibited with the conspecifics were likely due to an increased level of uncertainty regarding the situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Pedretti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43126, Parma, Italy.
- Department of Chemistry, Life Science and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Viale Delle Scienze 17/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
| | - Chiara Canori
- Department of Chemistry, Life Science and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Viale Delle Scienze 17/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Elisa Costantini
- Department of Chemistry, Life Science and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Viale Delle Scienze 17/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Rupert Palme
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Paola Valsecchi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43126, Parma, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Life Science and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Viale Delle Scienze 17/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Sarah Marshall-Pescini
- Domestication Lab, Konrad-Lorenz-Institute for Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria.
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Laumer IB, Winkler SL, Rossano F, Cartmill EA. Spontaneous playful teasing in four great ape species. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20232345. [PMID: 38351806 PMCID: PMC10864999 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Joking draws on complex cognitive abilities: understanding social norms, theory of mind, anticipating others' responses and appreciating the violation of others' expectations. Playful teasing, which is present in preverbal infants, shares many of these cognitive features. There is some evidence that great apes can tease in structurally similar ways, but no systematic study exists. We developed a coding system to identify playful teasing and applied it to video of zoo-housed great apes. All four species engaged in intentionally provocative behaviour, frequently accompanied by characteristics of play. We found playful teasing to be characterized by attention-getting, one-sidedness, response looking, repetition and elaboration/escalation. It takes place mainly in relaxed contexts, has a wide variety of forms, and differs from play in several ways (e.g. asymmetry, low rates of play signals like the playface and absence of movement-final 'holds' characteristic of intentional gestures). As playful teasing is present in all extant great ape genera, it is likely that the cognitive prerequisites for joking evolved in the hominoid lineage at least 13 million years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. B. Laumer
- Department of Anthropology, University of California Los Angeles, Haines Hall, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Development and Evolution of Cognition, Konstanz, Germany
| | - S. L. Winkler
- Department of Anthropology, University of California Los Angeles, Haines Hall, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - F. Rossano
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego, San Diego, USA
| | - E. A. Cartmill
- Department of Anthropology, University of California Los Angeles, Haines Hall, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Anthropology, Cognitive Science Program, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
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Pretend play as abstraction: Implications for early development and beyond. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 147:105090. [PMID: 36787871 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Humans are the only species that engages in sustained, complex pretend play. As pretend play is practically ubiquitous across cultures, it might support or afford a context for developmental advances during the juvenile period that have implications for functioning in adulthood. Early in development, learning to separate our thoughts from reality is practiced in pretend play and is associated with changes not just in cognition, but in emotional and social domains as well. Specifically, pretend play affords opportunities to engage in abstractions that could support abilities such as perspective-taking, emotion recognition and regulation, and cooperation and negotiation in childhood. In turn, the abstraction skills promoted by early pretend play might underlie creativity, innovation, and our capacity to feel empathy and moral obligation to others in later childhood and adulthood. In fact, because pretend play affords sharing our abstractions with others, it might be an early context for behaviors that ultimately promote the shared abstractions of human culture itself.
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Iki S, Kutsukake N. Play face in Japanese macaques reflects the sender’s play motivation. Anim Cogn 2022; 26:849-859. [PMID: 36482118 PMCID: PMC10066171 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01730-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAnimals often initiate social interactions by exchanging signals. Especially when initiating amicable interactions, signaling one’s friendly stance toward others in advance may be important to avoid being misunderstood as having hostile intentions. We used data on dyadic play fighting in a group of Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata, to examine the function of “play face” at the opening of a play session. We found no support for the previously proposed hypothesis that play face expression is likelier before entering risky situations (e.g., before gaining an undue advantage over the partner) to avoid being misunderstood. The results showed that play face expression was likelier in male juveniles before initiating play with other males than in females before initiating play with males or other females and that juveniles were likelier to express play face before initiating play with others closer in age. As male Japanese macaques play more frequently than females, and juveniles prefer to play with individuals closer in age, play face expression before play initiation may reflect the individual’s motivation for subsequent play interactions. This interpretation is supported by our observation that play bouts lasted longer when initiated with bidirectional play face by both participants than when initiated without play face. We also argued that since there was no tendency that play face was likelier to be expressed toward individuals with low play propensity (e.g., females) or infrequent partners to play with (e.g., individuals more distant in age), Japanese macaques may not tactically deploy this signal to recruit reluctant partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakumi Iki
- Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan.
- Research Center for Integrative Evolutionary Science, Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Sokendai, Kanagawa, Japan.
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Nobuyuki Kutsukake
- Research Center for Integrative Evolutionary Science, Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Sokendai, Kanagawa, Japan
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Palagi E, Caruana F, de Waal FBM. The naturalistic approach to laughter in humans and other animals: towards a unified theory. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210175. [PMID: 36126670 PMCID: PMC9489289 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This opinion piece aims to tackle the biological, psychological, neural and cultural underpinnings of laughter from a naturalistic and evolutionary perspective. A naturalistic account of laughter requires the revaluation of two dogmas of a longstanding philosophical tradition, that is, the quintessential link between laughter and humour, and the uniquely human nature of this behaviour. In the spirit of Provine's and Panksepp's seminal studies, who firstly argued against the anti-naturalistic dogmas, here we review compelling evidence that (i) laughter is first and foremost a social behaviour aimed at regulating social relationships, easing social tensions and establishing social bonds, and that (ii) homologue and homoplasic behaviours of laughter exist in primates and rodents, who also share with humans the same underpinning neural circuitry. We make a case for the hypothesis that the contagiousness of laughter and its pervasive social infectiousness in everyday social interactions is mediated by a specific mirror mechanism. Finally, we argue that a naturalistic account of laughter should not be intended as an outright rejection of classic theories; rather, in the last part of the piece we argue that our perspective is potentially able to integrate previous viewpoints-including classic philosophical theories-ultimately providing a unified evolutionary explanation of laughter. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cracking the laugh code: laughter through the lens of biology, psychology and neuroscience'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Palagi
- Unit of Ethology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, via A. Volta 6, Pisa 56126, Italy
| | - Fausto Caruana
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via Volturno 39/E, Parma 43125, Italy
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Davila-Ross M, Palagi E. Laughter, play faces and mimicry in animals: evolution and social functions. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210177. [PMID: 36126662 PMCID: PMC9489294 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Human laughter and laugh faces show similarities in morphology and function with animal playful expressions. To better understand primordial uses and effects of human laughter and laugh faces, it is important to examine these positive expressions in animals from both homologous and analogous systems. Phylogenetic research on hominids provided empirical evidence on shared ancestry across these emotional expressions, including human laughter and laugh faces. In addition, playful expressions of animals, in general, arguably have a key role in the development of social cognitive skills, a role that may help explain their polyphyletic history. The present work examines the evolution and function of playful expressions in primates and other animals. As part of this effort, we also coded for muscle activations of six carnivore taxa with regard to their open-mouth faces of play; our findings provide evidence that these carnivore expressions are homologues of primate open-mouth faces of play. Furthermore, our work discusses how the expressions of animal play may communicate positive emotions to conspecifics and how the motor resonance of these expressions increases affiliation and bonding between the subjects, resembling in a number of ways the important social-emotional effects that laughter and laugh faces have in humans. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cracking the laugh code: laughter through the lens of biology, psychology and neuroscience'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Davila-Ross
- Psychology Department, King Henry Building, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2DY, UK
| | - Elisabetta Palagi
- Department of Biology, Ethology Unit, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 6, 56126, Pisa, Italy
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Heesen R, Austry DA, Upton Z, Clay Z. Flexible signalling strategies by victims mediate post-conflict interactions in bonobos. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210310. [PMID: 35934966 PMCID: PMC9358318 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared to other animals, humans supposedly excel at voluntarily controlling and strategically displaying emotional signals. Yet, new data shows that nonhuman great apes' emotion expressions may also be subject to voluntary control. A key context to further explore this is during post-conflict (PC) periods, where signalling by distressed victims may influence bystander responses, including the offering of consolation. To address this, our study investigates the signalling behaviour of sanctuary-living bonobo victims following aggression and its relation to audience composition and PC interactions. Results show that the production of paedomorphic signals by victims (regardless of age) increased their chances of receiving consolation. In adults, the production of such signals additionally reduced the risk of renewed aggression from opponents. Signal production also increased with audience size, yet strategies differed by age: while immatures reduced signalling in proximity of close-social partners, adults did so especially after receiving consolation. These results suggest that bonobos can flexibly adjust their emotion signalling to influence the outcome of PC events, and that this tendency has a developmental trajectory. Overall, these findings highlight the potential role that flexible emotion communication played in the sociality of our last common ancestor with Pan. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cognition, communication and social bonds in primates'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Zoe Upton
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Zanna Clay
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
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Heesen R, Fröhlich M. Revisiting the human ‘interaction engine': comparative approaches to social action coordination. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210092. [PMID: 35876207 PMCID: PMC9315451 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of language was likely facilitated by a special predisposition for social interaction, involving a set of communicative and cognitive skills summarized as the ‘interaction engine'. This assemblage seems to emerge early in development, to be found universally across cultures, and to enable participation in sophisticated joint action through the addition of spoken language. Yet, new evidence on social action coordination and communication in nonhuman primates warrants an update of the interaction engine hypothesis, particularly with respect to the evolutionary origins of its specific ingredients. However, one enduring problem for comparative research results from a conceptual gulf between disciplines, rendering it difficult to test concepts derived from human interaction research in nonhuman animals. The goal of this theme issue is to make such concepts accessible for comparative research, to promote a fruitful interdisciplinary debate on social action coordination as a new arena of research, and to enable mutual fertilization between human and nonhuman interaction research. In consequence, we here consider relevant theoretical and empirical research within and beyond this theme issue to revisit the interaction engine's shared, convergently derived and uniquely derived ingredients preceding (or perhaps in the last case, succeeding) human language. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Revisiting the human ‘interaction engine’: comparative approaches to social action coordination’.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marlen Fröhlich
- Paleoanthropology, Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Senckenberg Center for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Amici F, Oña L, Liebal K. Compositionality in Primate Gestural Communication and Multicomponent Signal Displays. INT J PRIMATOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-022-00316-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
AbstractCompositionality is the ability to combine meaningful elements into new combinations with novel meanings, and it has long been considered one of the main hallmarks of human communication. However, very few studies have addressed the compositional aspects of communication in species other than humans, although a comparative approach is essential to understand the evolutionary origins of human compositionality. We review previous research on compositionality in the gestural communication systems of nonhuman primates, with a special focus on the multicomponent aspects of compositionality. We start by discussing the importance of a comparative approach to study the evolution of human language and then compare the current state of the art on compositionality in the vocal, facial, and gestural communication systems of primates and other species. We further discuss alternative approaches to study compositionality in primates, which may help overcome some of the current methodological limitations in this research area. In particular, we 1) highlight the importance of interdisciplinary tools that facilitate the statistical identification of multicomponent and multimodal combinations of signals, 2) discuss different approaches to infer the meaning of signal combinations, with a special focus on the use of contextual cues and meta-communication, and 3) discuss temporal and intentional aspects of compositionality in primates. Finally, we outline possible lines of research for future studies in this area (e.g., more consistent use of terms across research areas, use of different methodological tools and larger datasets, inclusion of developmental approaches), which might shed light into the evolutionary origins of one of the most crucial properties of human communication.
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Vlaeyen JMR, Heesen R, Kret ME, Clay Z, Bionda T, Kim Y. Bared-teeth displays in bonobos (Pan paniscus): An assessment of the power asymmetry hypothesis. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23419. [PMID: 35848310 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Facial expressions are key to navigating social group life. The Power Asymmetry Hypothesis of Motivational Emancipation predicts that the type of social organization shapes the meaning of communicative displays in relation to an individual's dominance rank. The bared-teeth (BT) display represents one of the most widely observed communicative signals across primate species. Studies in macaques indicate that the BT display in despotic species is often performed unidirectionally, from low- to high-ranking individuals (signaling submission), whereas the BT display in egalitarian species is usually produced irrespective of dominance (mainly signaling affiliation and appeasement). Despite its widespread presence, research connecting BT displays to the power asymmetry hypothesis outside the Macaca genus remains scarce. To extend this knowledge, we investigated the production of BT in relation to social dominance in dyadic interactions (N = 11,377 events) of 11 captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). Although adult bonobos were more despotic than previously suggested in the literature, BT displays were produced irrespective of dominance rank. Moreover, while adults produced the BT exclusively during socio-sexual interactions, especially during periods of social tension, immature bonobos produced the BT in a wider number of contexts. As such, the results indicate that the communicative meaning of the BT display is consistent with signaling appeasement, especially in periods of social tension. Moreover, the BT display does not seem to signal social status, supporting the prediction for species with a high degree of social tolerance. These results advance our understanding of the origins of communicative signals and their relation to species' social systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolinde M R Vlaeyen
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.,Institute of Cognitive Science Comparative BioCognition, University of Osnabrück, Osnabruck, Germany
| | | | - Mariska E Kret
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Zanna Clay
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | | | - Yena Kim
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
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14
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Graham KE, Badihi G, Safryghin A, Grund C, Hobaiter C. A socio-ecological perspective on the gestural communication of great ape species, individuals, and social units. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022; 34:235-259. [PMID: 35529671 PMCID: PMC9067943 DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2021.1988722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Over the last 30 years, most research on non-human primate gestural communication has been produced by psychologists, which has shaped the questions asked and the methods used. These researchers have drawn on concepts from philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, and ethology, but despite these broad influences the field has neglected to situate gestures into the socio-ecological context in which the diverse species, individuals, and social-units exist. In this review, we present current knowledge about great ape gestural communication in terms of repertoires, meanings, and development. We fold this into a conversation about variation in other types of ape social behaviour to identify areas for future research on variation in gestural communication. Given the large variation in socio-ecological factors across species and social-units (and the individuals within these groups), we may expect to find different preferences for specific gesture types; different needs for communicating specific meanings; and different rates of encountering specific contexts. New tools, such as machine-learning based automated movement tracking, may allow us to uncover potential variation in the speed and form of gesture actions or parts of gesture actions. New multi-group multi-generational datasets provide the opportunity to apply analyses, such as Bayesian modelling, which allows us to examine these rich behavioural landscapes. Together, by expanding our questions and our methods, researchers may finally be able to study great ape gestures from the perspective of the apes themselves and explore what this gestural communication system reveals about apes’ thinking and experience of their world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty E. Graham
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Mary’s Quad, South St, St Andrews KY16 9JP, Scotland, UK
| | - Gal Badihi
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Mary’s Quad, South St, St Andrews KY16 9JP, Scotland, UK
| | - Alexandra Safryghin
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Mary’s Quad, South St, St Andrews KY16 9JP, Scotland, UK
| | - Charlotte Grund
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Mary’s Quad, South St, St Andrews KY16 9JP, Scotland, UK
| | - Catherine Hobaiter
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Mary’s Quad, South St, St Andrews KY16 9JP, Scotland, UK
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15
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The face never lies: facial expressions and mimicry modulate playful interactions in wild geladas. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03126-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Play fighting, the most common form of social play in mammals, is a fertile field to investigate the use of visual signals in animals’ communication systems. Visual signals can be exclusively emitted during play (e.g. play faces, PF, context-dependent signals), or they can be released under several behavioural domains (e.g. lip-smacking, LS, context-independent signals). Rapid facial mimicry (RFM) is the involuntary rapid facial congruent response produced after perceiving others’ facial expressions. RFM leads to behavioural and emotional synchronisation that often translates into the most balanced and longest playful interactions. Here, we investigate the role of playful communicative signals in geladas (Theropithecus gelada). We analysed the role of PF and LS produced by wild immature geladas during play fighting. We found that PFs, but not LS, were particularly frequent during the riskiest interactions such as those including individuals from different groups. Furthermore, we found that RFM (PF→PF) was highest when playful offensive patterns were not biased towards one of the players and when the session was punctuated by LS. Under this perspective, the presence of context-independent signals such as LS may be useful in creating an affiliative mood that enhances communication and facilitates most cooperative interactions. Indeed, we found that sessions punctuated by the highest frequency of RFM and LS were also the longest ones. Whether the complementary use of PF and LS is strategically guided by the audience or is the result of the emotional arousal experienced by players remains to be investigated.
Significance Statement
Facial expressions and their rapid replication by an observer are fundamental communicative tools during social contacts in human and non-human animals. Play fighting is one of the most complex forms of social interactions that can easily lead to misunderstanding if not modulated through an accurate use of social signals. Wild immature geladas are able to manage their play sessions thus limiting the risk of aggressive escalation. While playing with unfamiliar subjects belonging to other groups, they make use of a high number of play faces. Moreover, geladas frequently replicate others’ play faces and emit facial expressions of positive intent (i.e. lip-smacking) when engaging in well-balanced long play sessions. In this perspective, this “playful facial chattering” creates an affiliative mood that enhances communication and facilitates most cooperative interactions.
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16
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Laméris DW, Verspeek J, Eens M, Stevens JMG. Social and nonsocial stimuli alter the performance of bonobos during a pictorial emotional Stroop task. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23356. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daan W. Laméris
- Department of Biology Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp Antwerp Belgium
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA) Antwerp Belgium
| | - Jonas Verspeek
- Department of Biology Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp Antwerp Belgium
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA) Antwerp Belgium
| | - Marcel Eens
- Department of Biology Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp Antwerp Belgium
| | - Jeroen M. G. Stevens
- Department of Biology Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp Antwerp Belgium
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA) Antwerp Belgium
- SALTO, Agro‐ and Biotechnology, Odisee University College Brussels Belgium
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17
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18
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Bresciani C, Cordoni G, Palagi E. Playing together, laughing together: rapid facial mimicry and social sensitivity in lowland gorillas. Curr Zool 2021; 68:560-569. [PMID: 36324534 PMCID: PMC9616060 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In nonhuman animals, the phenomenon of rapid facial mimicry (RFM)—the automatic, involuntary, and rapid (<1 s) replication of others’ facial expressions—has been mainly investigated in the playful domain. In immature lowland gorillas Gorilla gorilla gorilla both play face (PF) and full PF (FPF) are rapidly mimicked between the players. This makes the species suitable to test hypotheses on the factors influencing RFM during play. The observations on 3 captive groups of lowland gorillas (N = 27) revealed that contrary to expectations, the closeness of social bond negatively influenced the occurrence of RFM but it did not affect either RFM latency or its overlapping index (OVERLAP). RFM was affected by the degree of symmetry of play fighting: the more balanced the session, the higher the occurrence of RFM. Players of the same sex class responded faster than players of different sex. These findings suggest that RFM may help synchronizing behaviors of playmates matching in size (same-sex) and promote symmetric playful interactions. “Laughing together” (measured by the RFM OVERLAP) lasted longer when the responder perfectly mirrored the partner expression (PF→PF; FPF→FPF). If PF and FPF convey information on the different play roughness degree, through “laughing together” the players could coordinate their actions and share positive moods and playful intensity. If the perfect congruency in the motor resonance, also known as social sensitivity, can foster a possible emotional dialogue between gorillas remains to be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Bresciani
- Natural History Museum, University of Pisa, Via Roma 79, Calci (Pisa) 56011, Italia
| | - Giada Cordoni
- Natural History Museum, University of Pisa, Via Roma 79, Calci (Pisa) 56011, Italia
| | - Elisabetta Palagi
- Natural History Museum, University of Pisa, Via Roma 79, Calci (Pisa) 56011, Italia
- Department of Biology, Unit of Ethology, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 6, Pisa 56126, Italia
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Nolfo AP, Casetta G, Palagi E. Visual communication in social play of a hierarchical carnivore species: the case of wild spotted hyenas. Curr Zool 2021; 68:411-422. [PMID: 36090136 PMCID: PMC9450175 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Communication relies on signals that can be produced via different sensory modalities to modify receivers’ behavior. During social interactions, the possibility to perceive subtle visual cues enhances the use of facial expressions to exchange information. One of the most appropriate fields to explore the specific design features of visual signals is play fighting. Here, we explored the production and potential role of Relaxed Open Mouth (ROM) and Head Bobbing (HB) in regulating play fighting of wild spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta, a highly hierarchical carnivore species. In accordance with the assumptions of the signal optimization theory, wild hyenas produced ROM and HB almost exclusively when the sender was in direct visual contact with the receiver thus suggesting that senders were attentive to the playmates’ face. Contrary to HB, the sequential analysis revealed that ROM often anticipated offensive patterns such as play biting thus supporting the hypothesis that ROM, but not HB, is a metacomunicative signal. Moreover, when the offensive patterns were biased toward one of the 2 players, the session was punctuated by a higher number of ROMs. Our findings support the general hypothesis that these 2 visual signals can play different roles in the management of play fighting in this carnivore species. The complementary use of ROM and HB would suggest that spotted hyenas are highly competent and fast in processing facial displays of different nature to correctly “read others’ intentions” and respond with appropriate motor actions to avoid misunderstanding during one of the most multifaceted and risky social interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Paolo Nolfo
- Department of Biology, Unit of Ethology, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 6, Pisa, 56126, Italy
| | - Grazia Casetta
- Department of Biology, Unit of Ethology, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 6, Pisa, 56126, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Palagi
- Department of Biology, Unit of Ethology, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 6, Pisa, 56126, Italy
- Natural History Museum, University of Pisa, Via Roma 79, Calci, Pisa, 56011, Italy
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20
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Bremhorst A, Mills DS, Würbel H, Riemer S. Evaluating the accuracy of facial expressions as emotion indicators across contexts in dogs. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:121-136. [PMID: 34338869 PMCID: PMC8904359 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01532-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Facial expressions potentially serve as indicators of animal emotions if they are consistently present across situations that (likely) elicit the same emotional state. In a previous study, we used the Dog Facial Action Coding System (DogFACS) to identify facial expressions in dogs associated with conditions presumably eliciting positive anticipation (expectation of a food reward) and frustration (prevention of access to the food). Our first aim here was to identify facial expressions of positive anticipation and frustration in dogs that are context-independent (and thus have potential as emotion indicators) and to distinguish them from expressions that are reward-specific (and thus might relate to a motivational state associated with the expected reward). Therefore, we tested a new sample of 28 dogs with a similar set-up designed to induce positive anticipation (positive condition) and frustration (negative condition) in two reward contexts: food and toys. The previous results were replicated: Ears adductor was associated with the positive condition and Ears flattener, Blink, Lips part, Jaw drop, and Nose lick with the negative condition. Four additional facial actions were also more common in the negative condition. All actions except the Upper lip raiser were independent of reward type. Our second aim was to assess basic measures of diagnostic accuracy for the potential emotion indicators. Ears flattener and Ears downward had relatively high sensitivity but low specificity, whereas the opposite was the case for the other negative correlates. Ears adductor had excellent specificity but low sensitivity. If the identified facial expressions were to be used individually as diagnostic indicators, none would allow consistent correct classifications of the associated emotion. Diagnostic accuracy measures are an essential feature for validity assessments of potential indicators of animal emotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bremhorst
- Division of Animal Welfare, DCR-VPHI, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK.
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences (GCB), University of Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - D S Mills
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - H Würbel
- Division of Animal Welfare, DCR-VPHI, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - S Riemer
- Division of Animal Welfare, DCR-VPHI, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
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21
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Bremhorst A, Mills DS, Stolzlechner L, Würbel H, Riemer S. 'Puppy Dog Eyes' Are Associated With Eye Movements, Not Communication. Front Psychol 2021; 12:568935. [PMID: 33679505 PMCID: PMC7925631 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.568935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The inner brow raiser is a muscle movement that increases the size of the orbital cavity, leading to the appearance of so-called 'puppy dog eyes'. In domestic dogs, this expression was suggested to be enhanced by artificial selection and to play an important role in the dog-human relationship. Production of the inner brow raiser has been shown to be sensitive to the attentive stance of a human, suggesting a possible communicative function. However, it has not yet been examined whether it is sensitive to human presence. In the current study, we aimed to test whether the inner brow raiser differs depending on the presence or absence of an observer. We used two versions of a paradigm in an equivalent experimental setting in which dogs were trained to expect a reward; however, the presence/absence of a person in the test apparatus was varied. In the social context, a human facing the dog delivered the reward; in the non-social context, reward delivery was automatized. If the inner brow raiser has a communicative function and dogs adjust its expression to an audience, we expect it to be shown more frequently in the social context (when facing a person in the apparatus) than in the non-social context (when facing the apparatus without a person inside). The frequency of the inner brow raiser differed between the two contexts, but contrary to the prediction, it was shown more frequently in the non-social context. We further demonstrate that the inner brow raiser is strongly associated with eye movements and occurs independently in only 6% of cases. This result challenges the hypothesis that the inner brow raiser has a communicative function in dog-human interactions and suggests a lower-level explanation for its production, namely an association with eye movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Bremhorst
- Division of Animal Welfare, DCR-VPHI, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences (GCB), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Daniel S Mills
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa Stolzlechner
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hanno Würbel
- Division of Animal Welfare, DCR-VPHI, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Stefanie Riemer
- Division of Animal Welfare, DCR-VPHI, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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22
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Beltrán Francés V, Castellano-Navarro A, Illa Maulany R, Ngakan PO, MacIntosh AJJ, Llorente M, Amici F. Play behavior in immature moor macaques (Macaca maura) and Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23192. [PMID: 32882065 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Play is widespread across mammalian taxa, but species strongly vary in the ways they play. In less despotic primate species (i.e., with less steep dominance hierarchies, less severe conflicts, and more reconciliation), play has been described as being more frequent, cooperative, and freely expressed. To study the link between social play and dominance style, we compared play behavior in free-ranging infants, juveniles and subadults of more despotic Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata, N = 24) and less despotic moor macaques (Macaca maura, N = 17). We found interspecific differences in play behavior that corresponded with the contrasting dominance styles of the study species, largely confirming our predictions. In particular, moor macaques spent a larger proportion of time in solitary and social play than Japanese macaques, while Japanese macaques spent a larger proportion of time in grooming interactions. In moor macaques, play sessions included more players, a larger variety of play behaviors, greater play face rates, a greater proportion of time in contact play, and a higher rate of reciprocal play-biting than in Japanese macaques. Aggressive escalations were not common, but more frequent in Japanese macaques. Finally, a higher frequency of play faces during play sessions predicted the occurrence of more reciprocal play-bites, but not the proportion of time spent in contact play behaviors. Additional studies on other groups and species will allow a better understanding of the link between dominance style and social play.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alba Castellano-Navarro
- Ethology and Animal Welfare Section, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - Risma Illa Maulany
- Forestry Department, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Sulawesi, Indonesia
| | - Putu O Ngakan
- Forestry Department, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Sulawesi, Indonesia
| | | | - Miquel Llorente
- Facultat d'Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain.,Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, Riudellots de la Selva, Spain.,Institut de Recerca i Estudis en Primatologia (IPRIM), Girona, Spain
| | - Federica Amici
- Research Group Primate Behavioral Ecology, Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Behavioral Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Life Science, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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23
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Emotional expressions in human and non-human great apes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 115:378-395. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus) adapt their interspecific gestural communication to the recipient's behaviour. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12843. [PMID: 32732945 PMCID: PMC7393380 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69847-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensitivity to recipient’s attention and responsiveness are critical markers of intentional communication. Although previous research showed that ape gestures can be intentional, few studies have yet addressed this question concerning monkeys. Here, we characterise the effect of a recipient’s presence, attentional state and responsiveness on the interspecific gestural communication of captive red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus). Previous reports showed that they produced learnt begging gestures towards a human recipient preferentially when the latter was facing them. We used here a novel setup that allows subjects to move around an experimenter and to use different modalities (visual and acoustic) to communicate. We found that when the recipient was not facing them, mangabeys moved to a position in the visual field of their recipient rather than using attention-getters. Interestingly, unlike apes, they did not elaborate their communication visually or acoustically when the experimenter did not respond favourably to their begging. However, our results may suggest that begging gestures were goal-directed, since mangabeys inhibited them when the experimenter was not available to answer immediately (i.e. give a reward). Overall, red-capped mangabeys’ interspecific visual communication presented intentionality features, but their use of begging gestures was less flexible than that of great apes in similar situations.
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Graham KE, Wilke C, Lahiff NJ, Slocombe KE. Scratching beneath the surface: intentionality in great ape signal production. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20180403. [PMID: 31735155 PMCID: PMC6895546 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite important similarities having been found between human and animal communication systems, surprisingly little research effort has focussed on whether the cognitive mechanisms underpinning these behaviours are also similar. In particular, it is highly debated whether signal production is the result of reflexive processes, or can be characterized as intentional. Here, we critically evaluate the criteria that are used to identify signals produced with different degrees of intentionality, and discuss recent attempts to apply these criteria to the vocal, gestural and multimodal communicative signals of great apes and more distantly related species. Finally, we outline the necessary research tools, such as physiologically validated measures of arousal, and empirical evidence that we believe would propel this debate forward and help unravel the evolutionary origins of human intentional communication. This article is part of the theme issue 'What can animal communication teach us about human language?'
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26
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Kiss O, Topál J. How do dogs monitor the human's attentional state after challenged by the presence of forbidden food? Biol Futur 2019; 70:103-111. [PMID: 34554421 DOI: 10.1556/019.70.2019.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Converging evidence suggests that the presence of (attentive) others has a positive effect on people's propensity to conform to social rules. It is also increasingly accepted that pet dogs are promising test subjects to study non-human analogues of 'audience effect.' This study investigates whether dogs show a tendency to change their behavior according to the visual attention of familiar and unfamiliar human partners in a situation in which human partners disallowed the dog from eating a piece of food. METHODS Dogs (n = 64) participated in two observational conditions (Attentive Owner and Attentive Experimenter) and a control condition in which both human participants engaged in distracting activity. RESULTS The results showed that the identity of the attentive or inattentive partner has little relevance to the dogs' gazing behavior (i.e., head orientation toward the different partners and the food) and their decisions about breaking or following the rule. This is in line with previous studies suggesting that the presence of the owner predominantly determines the dogs' responses to such situations. DISCUSSION Further analysis of dogs responding differently to the obedience challenge showed marked differences in the role of the 'audience effect' might play in modulating 'fully obedient,' 'ignorer,' and 'hesitating' dogs' gazing behavior. These findings point to the context-dependent nature of the audience effect in dogs and highlight the importance of frequently ignored individual differences in dogs' tendency to conform to the situational rules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orsolya Kiss
- Istitute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary. .,Department of Cognitive Science, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - József Topál
- Istitute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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27
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Is birth attendance a uniquely human feature? New evidence suggests that Bonobo females protect and support the parturient. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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28
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Abstract
Visual signals convey emotions and intentions between individuals. Darwin underlined that human facial expressions represent a shared heritage between our species and many other social mammals. Social play is a fertile field to examine the role and the potential communicative function of facial expressions. The relaxed open-mouth (or play face) is a context-specific playful expression, which is widespread in human and non-human mammals. Here, we focus on playful communication by applying Tinbergen's four areas of inquiry: proximate causation, ontogeny, function, and evolution. First of all we explore mimicry by focusing on its neural substrates and factors of modulation within playful and non-playful context (proximate causation). Play face is one of the earliest facial expressions to appear and be mimicked in neonates. The motor resonance between infants and their caregivers is essential later in life when individuals begin to engage in increasingly complex social interactions, including play (ontogeny). The success of a playful session can be evaluated by its duration in time. Mirroring facial expressions prolongs the session by favoring individuals to fine-tune their own motor sequences accordingly (function). Finally, through a comparative approach we also demonstrate that the elements constituting play communication and mimicry are sensitive to the quality of interindividual relationships of a species, thus reflecting the nature of its social network and style (evolution). In conclusion, our goal is to integrate Tinbergen's four areas of ethological inquiry to provide a broader framework regarding the importance of communication and mimicry in the play domain of humans and other social mammals.
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Social play as joint action: A framework to study the evolution of shared intentionality as an interactional achievement. Learn Behav 2018; 45:390-405. [PMID: 28779386 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-017-0287-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Social play has a complex, cooperative nature that requires substantial coordination. This has led researchers to use social games to study cognitive abilities like shared intentionality, the skill and motivation to share goals and intentions with others during joint action. We expand this proposal by considering play as a joint action and examining how shared intentionality is achieved during human joint action. We describe how humans get into, conduct, and get out of joint actions together in an orderly way, thereby constructing the state of "togetherness" characteristic of shared intentionality. These processes play out as three main phases, the opening (where participants are ratified and joint commitments are established), the main body (where progress, ongoing commitments, and possible role reversals are coordinated), and the closing (where the intention to terminate the action is coordinated and where participants take leave of each other). We use this process in humans as a framework for examining how various animal species get into, maintain, and get out of play bouts. This comparative approach constitutes an alternative measure of those species' possession of shared intentionality. Using this framework, we review the play literature on human children and different social species of mammals and birds in search of behavioral markers of shared intentionality in the coordination of play bouts. We discuss how our approach could shed light on the evolution of the special human motivation to cooperate and share psychological states with others.
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Not just for fun! Social play
as a springboard for adult social competence in human and non-human
primates. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2506-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Cordoni G, Norscia I, Bobbio M, Palagi E. Differences in play can illuminate differences in affiliation: A comparative study on chimpanzees and gorillas. PLoS One 2018. [PMID: 29513696 PMCID: PMC5841745 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Play behaviour reinforces social affiliation in several primate species, including humans. Via a comparative approach, we tested the hypothesis that play dynamics in a group of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) are different from those in a group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) as a reflection of their difference in social affiliation and agonistic support. We selected one group of lowland gorillas and one of chimpanzees, hosted at the ZooParc de Beauval (France), managed in a similar way and living in similar enclosures. The same observers video-collected and analysed data on play behaviour in both groups, by applying identical methodological procedures. Data showed that adult play was less frequent in the group of gorillas compare to chimpanzees. Polyadic play, which involves more than two players and is characterised by the most uncertain outcome, was also less frequent in gorillas than chimpanzees. Play sessions were more unbalanced (more unidirectional patterns by one of the player towards the other) in chimpanzees than in gorillas but in the latter play escalated more frequently into serious aggression. Play asymmetry in the gorilla group increased as the number of players increased, which explains why gorillas limited their polyadic playful interactions. In conclusion, our findings on the study groups of apes can be a valuable starting point to expand the study of social play in the great apes to evaluate if inter-individual affiliative relationships really account for the differences in play distribution and dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Cordoni
- Museo di Storia Naturale, Università di Pisa, Calci (Pisa), Italy
| | - Ivan Norscia
- Museo di Storia Naturale, Università di Pisa, Calci (Pisa), Italy
- Department of Life Sciences and System Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Maria Bobbio
- Museo di Storia Naturale, Università di Pisa, Calci (Pisa), Italy
| | - Elisabetta Palagi
- Museo di Storia Naturale, Università di Pisa, Calci (Pisa), Italy
- * E-mail:
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Cespedes-Guevara J, Eerola T. Music Communicates Affects, Not Basic Emotions - A Constructionist Account of Attribution of Emotional Meanings to Music. Front Psychol 2018; 9:215. [PMID: 29541041 PMCID: PMC5836201 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Basic Emotion theory has had a tremendous influence on the affective sciences, including music psychology, where most researchers have assumed that music expressivity is constrained to a limited set of basic emotions. Several scholars suggested that these constrains to musical expressivity are explained by the existence of a shared acoustic code to the expression of emotions in music and speech prosody. In this article we advocate for a shift from this focus on basic emotions to a constructionist account. This approach proposes that the phenomenon of perception of emotions in music arises from the interaction of music's ability to express core affects and the influence of top-down and contextual information in the listener's mind. We start by reviewing the problems with the concept of Basic Emotions, and the inconsistent evidence that supports it. We also demonstrate how decades of developmental and cross-cultural research on music and emotional speech have failed to produce convincing findings to conclude that music expressivity is built upon a set of biologically pre-determined basic emotions. We then examine the cue-emotion consistencies between music and speech, and show how they support a parsimonious explanation, where musical expressivity is grounded on two dimensions of core affect (arousal and valence). Next, we explain how the fact that listeners reliably identify basic emotions in music does not arise from the existence of categorical boundaries in the stimuli, but from processes that facilitate categorical perception, such as using stereotyped stimuli and close-ended response formats, psychological processes of construction of mental prototypes, and contextual information. Finally, we outline our proposal of a constructionist account of perception of emotions in music, and spell out the ways in which this approach is able to make solve past conflicting findings. We conclude by providing explicit pointers about the methodological choices that will be vital to move beyond the popular Basic Emotion paradigm and start untangling the emergence of emotional experiences with music in the actual contexts in which they occur.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tuomas Eerola
- Department of Music, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
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Human attention affects facial expressions in domestic dogs. Sci Rep 2017; 7:12914. [PMID: 29051517 PMCID: PMC5648750 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-12781-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most mammalian species produce facial expressions. Historically, animal facial expressions have been considered inflexible and involuntary displays of emotional states rather than active attempts to communicate with others. In the current study, we aimed to test whether domestic dog facial expressions are subject to audience effects and/ or changes in response to an arousing stimulus (e.g. food) alone. We presented dogs with an experimental situation in which a human demonstrator was either attending to them or turned away, and varied whether she presented food or not. Dogs produced significantly more facial movements when the human was attentive than when she was not. The food, however, as a non-social but arousing stimulus, did not affect the dogs’ behaviour. The current study is therefore evidence that dogs are sensitive to the human’s attentional state when producing facial expressions, suggesting that facial expressions are not just inflexible and involuntary displays of emotional states, but rather potentially active attempts to communicate with others.
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Llamazares-Martín C, Scopa C, Guillén-Salazar F, Palagi E. Relaxed Open Mouth reciprocity favours playful contacts in South American sea lions ( Otaria flavescens ). Behav Processes 2017; 140:87-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Schneider C, Liebal K, Call J. "Giving" and "responding" differences in gestural communication between nonhuman great ape mothers and infants. Dev Psychobiol 2017; 59:303-313. [PMID: 28323346 PMCID: PMC5434908 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In the first comparative analysis of its kind, we investigated gesture behavior and response patterns in 25 captive ape mother–infant dyads (six bonobos, eight chimpanzees, three gorillas, and eight orangutans). We examined (i) how frequently mothers and infants gestured to each other and to other group members; and (ii) to what extent infants and mothers responded to the gestural attempts of others. Our findings confirmed the hypothesis that bonobo mothers were more proactive in their gesturing to their infants than the other species. Yet mothers (from all four species) often did not respond to the gestures of their infants and other group members. In contrast, infants “pervasively” responded to gestures they received from their mothers and other group members. We propose that infants’ pervasive responsiveness rather than the quality of mother investment and her responsiveness may be crucial to communication development in nonhuman great apes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katja Liebal
- Comparative Developmental Psychology, Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Josep Call
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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Fröhlich M, Wittig RM, Pika S. Play-solicitation gestures in chimpanzees in the wild: flexible adjustment to social circumstances and individual matrices. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:160278. [PMID: 27853603 PMCID: PMC5108953 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Social play is a frequent behaviour in great apes and involves sophisticated forms of communicative exchange. While it is well established that great apes test and practise the majority of their gestural signals during play interactions, the influence of demographic factors and kin relationships between the interactants on the form and variability of gestures are relatively little understood. We thus carried out the first systematic study on the exchange of play-soliciting gestures in two chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) communities of different subspecies. We examined the influence of age, sex and kin relationships of the play partners on gestural play solicitations, including object-associated and self-handicapping gestures. Our results demonstrated that the usage of (i) audible and visual gestures increased significantly with infant age, (ii) tactile gestures differed between the sexes, and (iii) audible and visual gestures were higher in interactions with conspecifics than with mothers. Object-associated and self-handicapping gestures were frequently used to initiate play with same-aged and younger play partners, respectively. Our study thus strengthens the view that gestures are mutually constructed communicative means, which are flexibly adjusted to social circumstances and individual matrices of interactants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlen Fröhlich
- Humboldt Research Group ‘Evolution of Communication’, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Straße 9, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany
| | - Roman M. Wittig
- Primatology Department, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, BP 1303 Abidjan 01, Ivory Coast
| | - Simone Pika
- Humboldt Research Group ‘Evolution of Communication’, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Straße 9, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany
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37
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Waller BM, Caeiro CC, Davila-Ross M. Orangutans modify facial displays depending on recipient attention. PeerJ 2015; 3:e827. [PMID: 25802802 PMCID: PMC4369341 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Primate facial expressions are widely accepted as underpinned by reflexive emotional processes and not under voluntary control. In contrast, other modes of primate communication, especially gestures, are widely accepted as underpinned by intentional, goal-driven cognitive processes. One reason for this distinction is that production of primate gestures is often sensitive to the attentional state of the recipient, a phenomenon used as one of the key behavioural criteria for identifying intentionality in signal production. The reasoning is that modifying/producing a signal when a potential recipient is looking could demonstrate that the sender intends to communicate with them. Here, we show that the production of a primate facial expression can also be sensitive to the attention of the play partner. Using the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) Facial Action Coding System (OrangFACS), we demonstrate that facial movements are more intense and more complex when recipient attention is directed towards the sender. Therefore, production of the playface is not an automated response to play (or simply a play behaviour itself) and is instead produced flexibly depending on the context. If sensitivity to attentional stance is a good indicator of intentionality, we must also conclude that the orangutan playface is intentionally produced. However, a number of alternative, lower level interpretations for flexible production of signals in response to the attention of another are discussed. As intentionality is a key feature of human language, claims of intentional communication in related primate species are powerful drivers in language evolution debates, and thus caution in identifying intentionality is important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget M Waller
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth , UK
| | - Cátia C Caeiro
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth , UK ; Perception, Action and Cognition Research Group, School of Psychology, University of Lincoln , UK
| | - Marina Davila-Ross
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth , UK
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Palagi E, Burghardt GM, Smuts B, Cordoni G, Dall'Olio S, Fouts HN, Řeháková‐Petrů M, Siviy SM, Pellis SM. Rough‐and‐tumble play as a window on animal communication. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:311-27. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Palagi
- Natural History Museum, University of Pisa Via Roma, 79, CALCI 56011 Pisa Italy
- CNR, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies Via Aldrovandi 16b 00197 Rome Italy
| | - Gordon M. Burghardt
- Department of Psychology University of Tennessee 1404 Circle Drive Knoxville TN 37996‐0900 U.S.A
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of Tennessee 1404 Circle Drive Knoxville TN 37996‐0900 U.S.A
| | - Barbara Smuts
- Department of Psychology University of Michigan 530 Church St. Ann Arbor MI 48109‐1043 U.S.A
| | - Giada Cordoni
- Natural History Museum, University of Pisa Via Roma, 79, CALCI 56011 Pisa Italy
| | - Stefania Dall'Olio
- Natural History Museum, University of Pisa Via Roma, 79, CALCI 56011 Pisa Italy
| | - Hillary N. Fouts
- Department of Child and Family Studies University of Tennessee 1215 Cumberland Avenue 422 Knoxville TN 37996–1912 U.S.A
| | | | - Stephen M. Siviy
- Department of Psychology Gettysburg College 300 North Washington St. Gettysburg PA 17325‐1400 U.S.A
| | - Sergio M. Pellis
- Department of Neuroscience University of Lethbridge 4401 University Drive Lethbridge Alberta T1K 3M4 Canada
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