Acculturation and Substance Use Among Hispanic Early Adolescents: Investigating the Mediating Roles of Acculturative Stress and Self-Esteem

The Role of Ethnicity and Culture in Adolescent Health in Latine, Hispanic, and Spanish Populations

Caring for Latina/o/e/x, Hispanic, and/or Spanish (LHS) adolescents' health involves challenges and strengths unique to this fast-growing ethnic minority. Through the exploration of self and ethnic identity, LHS adolescents may find themselves represented in core values to protect against the negative effects of discrimination and internalizing symptoms. In order to provide equitable health care to LHS adolescents, health care systems, educational organizations, and government agencies must educate themselves on cultural humility and the role that social determinants of health have on perpetuating poor health care outcomes for this population.

Effect of Social Vulnerability on Cocaine-Related Mortality Rates in U.S. Counties

Cocaine-related mortality rates have risen sharply since 2013 and social vulnerability is a crucial indicator for drug-related mortality rates. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between social vulnerability and cocaine-related mortality rates in U.S. counties. The Data were collected from the CDC WONDER, CDC's Social Vulnerability Index (CDC's SVI), and American Community Survey (ACS). The Data were analyzed by spatial autoregression models. According to present results, first, counties with social vulnerability (socioeconomic) were positively related to higher rates of cocaine overdose death (spatial lag: B = 0.323, p < .05; spatial error: B = 0.513, p < .01). Second, counties with social vulnerability (minority status & language) were negatively related to higher rates of cocaine overdose death (spatial lag: B = -0.233, p < .05). Third, counties with social vulnerability (housing type & transportation) were positively related to higher rates of cocaine overdose death (spatial lag: B = 0.413, p < .001; spatial error: B = 0.378, p < .001). In conclusion, the spread of cocaine overdose on U.S. counties with social vulnerabilities demonstrated a disproportionate burden of cocaine-related mortality.

Acculturation and daily cigarette use among Mexican-origin youth: The moderating role of executive functions

INTRODUCTION

Acculturation and enculturation have been conceptualized, respectively, as risk and protective factors for cigarette use. Although acculturation/enculturation orientations are often studied as stable characteristics, they represent a dynamic process influenced by individuals' social environments and can fluctuate across time. Therefore, investigating how youth actively navigate their acculturation and enculturation beliefs and behaviors on a day-to-day basis can advance scientific understanding of factors related to cigarette use. Executive functions, including inhibitory control, shifting, and working memory, are robust predictors of smoking (e.g., cigarette use). However, we know little about the protective role of executive functions on the daily level associations between acculturation/enculturation and cigarette use among Mexican-origin youth.

OBJECTIVES

In a low-income Mexican-origin youth sample (M = 16.94, SD = 1.01; 52 % female), this study examined within-person associations between daily acculturation/enculturation and daily cigarette use and the moderating role of individual-level executive functions.

METHOD

We captured the daily fluctuations of acculturation/enculturation and smoking by utilizing data from a 4-day daily diary. The study assessed inhibitory control, shifting, and working memory using behavioral paradigms.

RESULTS

A multilevel logistic moderation model revealed statistically significant interactions between acculturation (but not enculturation) and all executive function skills predicting cigarette use. Higher daily acculturation levels were related to greater odds of daily cigarette use only for youth with lower levels of executive function skills.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that interventions aimed at improving executive functions may protect Mexican-origin youth from the possible adverse effect of acculturation on cigarette use.

Acculturation and drinking behavior among Latinxs: a narrative review

Research suggests that acculturation is associated with increased alcohol consumption among Latinxs. The purpose of this narrative review is to contribute to this literature by examining the association between acculturation and alcohol use within current theoretical and etiological frameworks on cultural norms, acculturative stress, and acculturative gaps. This review also compares the utility of these explanatory frameworks for guiding future research. Two databases (PubMed and PsycInfo) were used to identify peer-reviewed studies pertaining to the associations between acculturation and alcohol use among Latinxs. Studies that examined drinking norms, acculturative stress, acculturation gaps, and drinking behavior in Latinxs were included. The types of study approaches and designs included quantitative, qualitative, cross-sectional, cohort, and longitudinal studies published between January 2000 and December 2021. Quality assessment and data synthesis were conducted by two reviewers. A total of 65 articles reporting empirical studies were included in the final review. Eighteen studies did not utilize a specific framework, but generally supported that acculturation is associated with increased alcohol consumption and alcohol related consequences among Latinxs. Additionally, sixteen studies examined cultural norms, twenty-two examined acculturative stress, while only nine utilized a gap discrepancy framework. Studies examining drinking norms appeared to largely explain changes in drinking behavior among Latinas, while studies examining acculturative stress seemed to be better equipped to explain changes in drinking behavior among Latino men. Meanwhile, the Gap Discrepancy Model articulates the gap between old and new cultural influences and can be conceptualized as an additional dimension of acculturative stress.

The role of depressive symptoms between neighbourhood disorder, criminal justice contact, and suicidal ideation: Integrating an ecological stress model with General Strain Theory

BACKGROUND

While much literature has examined the independent effect of perceived neighbourhood disorder on criminal behaviour and/or mental disorder, comparatively little is known about the role of depressive symptoms on these associations over time.

AIMS

Our aim was to examine whether depressive symptoms mediate association between perceived neighbourhood disorder, future criminal justice contact, and future suicidal ideation.

METHODS

We grounded this research in primary arguments derived from General Strain Theory (GST). Data were drawn from structured self-reports in surveys of over 2000 young adult participants from the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, who are the offspring born to the women from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Information on neighbourhood disorder and depressive symptoms were used from the 2012 data collection period, while information on criminal justice contact and suicidal ideation were drawn from the 2014 period. Structural equation modelling was used to examine both direct and indirect pathways between neighbourhood disorder, depression, contact with the justice system, and suicidal ideation from 2012 to 2014.

RESULTS

Depressive symptoms were found to partially mediate the effect of perceived neighbourhood disorder on future criminal justice contact, with the strength of this effect varying across categories of race/ethnicity. The association between perceived neighbourhood disorder and suicidal ideation was fully mediated by depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our findings are consistent with an ecological stress framework integrated with arguments from GST to understand the associations between neighbourhood disorder, criminal justice contact, and severe mental illness. Future research is needed on gender and racial/ethnic pathways. The reported findings suggest that, in addition to neighbourhood improvements, ready access to mental health services could not only reduce the risk of suicide but support safer communities.

Does Ethnic Identity Moderate the Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Cannabis Use among US- and non-US Born Black Emerging Adults?

Race-based experiences of discrimination (EOD) have been documented as a risk factor for substance use among Black individuals, particularly during emerging adulthood, with ethnic identity serving as a protective influence. Our study extends epidemiologic research on EOD and cannabis use by examining this relation in U.S. and non-U.S. born Black emerging adults across immigrant generations (N = 466, 30% first-generation immigrants, 49% second-generation immigrants, and 21% non-immigrants). Results from self-reported data indicated EOD were associated with an increased likelihood of lifetime cannabis use, while ethnic identity was not significantly related to any odds of lifetime cannabis use. Odds of lifetime use was lower among first-generation immigrants compared to non-immigrants. Although the interaction between ethnic identity and EOD was not significantly associated with cannabis use, the results indicated that for second-generation immigrants, the probability of lifetime use decreased as ethnic identity increased. These findings underscore the importance of ethnic identity as a protective factor for cannabis use, especially among Black immigrants who have been racialized over generations in the United States, providing implications for future study and intervention.

Adverse childhood experiences and the substance use behaviors of Latinx youth

PURPOSE

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with substance use, how cultural factors influence this association for Latinx youth is unknown. This study uses longitudinal data to examine associations of cultural factors, ACEs and substance use among Latinx young adults.

METHODS

Latinx youth (N = 1179) completed surveys from a longitudinal study at seven assessment points from 2005 to 2016; ACEs was assessed when participants were on average 21.6 and substance use 23.9 years. ACEs measured psychological, physical, and sexual abuse, parental violence, divorce, substance use, mental illness, and incarceration. A three-stage hierarchical ordinary least squares (alcohol use) and negative binomial regression models (problematic alcohol, marijuana and tobacco use) were estimated to evaluate the role of cultural factors (acculturation, enculturation and ethnic identity) and ACEs in shaping substance use behaviors.

RESULTS

Controlling for cultural variables, ACEs sum (B = 0.03, p = .01), maltreatment (B = 0.16, p < .01), and household (B = 0.12, p = .03) subdomains predicted alcohol use. One additional increase in maltreatment (IRR=1.23, 95 % CI: 1.00, 1.53) predicted 23 % higher count of problematic alcohol use. Maltreatment (IRR=1.50, 95 % CI: 1.05, 2.13) and household (IRR=1.66, 95 % CI: 1.18, 2.32) subdomains predicted increased counts of marijuana use. Four or more ACEs predicted increased counts of tobacco use (IRR=1.49, 95 % CI: 1.08, 2.06) among Latinx young adults.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest a predictive relationship between ACEs, and alcohol, marijuana and tobacco use, after accounting for cultural factors. Beyond acculturation, enculturation and ethnic identity, findings identify ACEs as a salient predictor of substance use among Latinx young adults.

Understanding the Influence of Sexual Risk Taking, Ethnic Identity, and Family and Peer Support on School Importance Among Hispanic Adolescents

Despite the broader academic gains experienced by Hispanic students, who represent the largest minority group in the United States, they remain the least educated of all major ethnic groups, and our understanding of their academic needs and strengths remains woefully inadequate. Therefore, this study examined the risk (e.g., sexual risk taking) and protective factors (e.g., family support, supportive peer networks, and ethnic identity) associated with school importance among Hispanic teens (N = 587) residing in a high-risk, resource poor urban community and the ways in which these relationships vary between adolescent males (46.5%) and adolescent females (53.5%). Schools that are able to harness the numerous assets embedded within the Hispanic community are well positioned to create learning environments that are encouraging, are culturally responsive, and can potentially reduce risk involvement that may interfere with valuing the role of school importance. Implications for school-based personnel are discussed.

Alcohol use severity among Hispanic emerging adults: Examining the roles of bicultural self-efficacy and acculturation

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to (1) examine respective associations of acculturation orientations (e.g., U.S. orientation and Hispanic orientation) and domains (e.g., social groundedness and role repertoire) of bicultural self-efficacy, the perceived confidence to function effectively within the receiving culture and the heritage culture, with alcohol use severity among Hispanic emerging adults. This study also aimed to (2) examine potential moderating factors of respective associations among acculturation orientations and bicultural self-efficacy with alcohol use severity.

METHOD

200 Hispanic emerging adults from Arizona (n = 99) and Florida (n = 101) completed a cross-sectional survey. Inclusion criteria were being ages 18-25, self-identify as Hispanic or Latina/o, and currently living in Maricopa County or Miami-Dade County. Data were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression and moderation analyses.

RESULTS

Findings indicate that neither of the acculturation orientations nor role repertoire had main effects with alcohol use severity. However, higher social groundedness was associated with lower alcohol use severity. Moderation analyses indicate that the interaction between the U.S. orientation and study site and the interaction between the Hispanic orientation and social groundedness were statistically significant in relation to alcohol use severity.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering that the U.S. orientation was associated with alcohol use severity only in Arizona highlights the need for multisite studies on acculturation. Our findings demonstrate that other sociocultural processes such as acculturation can impact bicultural self-efficacy; and that the association between bicultural self-efficacy and alcohol merits further investigation. However, more thorough assessments of bicultural self-efficacy are needed to better understand its effects on alcohol.

Self-esteem, Acculturative Stress, and Marijuana Use Among Hispanic College Students

Previous research has found mixed results regarding the association between acculturation and substance use in Hispanic populations. Additional research is warranted to examine relations among facets of acculturation, particularly acculturative stress, and marijuana use. The purpose of this study was to examine whether self-esteem mediates the relation between acculturative stress and a lifetime history of marijuana use among a sample of Hispanic college students. Hispanic college students ( N = 204; Mean age = 20.3 years) from a large southwestern university participated in an online study and reported on lifetime marijuana use, self-esteem, and acculturative stress. We evaluated the hypothesis that self-esteem would mediate the relation between acculturative stress and the likelihood of reporting a history of marijuana use, utilizing Hayes’ SPSS macro, which provides estimates of boot-strapped confidence intervals for the indirect effect. Results showed that self-esteem did not significantly mediate the relation between acculturative stress and likelihood of marijuana use [ b = .157, 95% CI (−.003, .017)]. Future studies might examine other facets of acculturation in relation to substance use, utilizing a longitudinal approach to better understand these associations.

Attachment Facilitates Acculturative Learning and Adversity Moderates: Validating the Theory of Epistemic Trust in a Natural Experiment

Acculturation has consequences for immigrant health, and provides a natural experimental context in which to test Fonagy and Allison's theory of epistemic trust. Their theory posits that secure attachment in the caregiver-youth dyad is a key mechanism for supporting, and exposure to childhood adversity and trauma is thought to block, the cultural learning process. The aim of this study was to validate the theory of epistemic trust by examining secure attachment as a predictor of acculturation across time and adverse childhood experiences as a moderator in 100 recently immigrated high school students followed for one year. Growth parameters were extracted and regressed on key study variables. Results indicated a significant main effect of maternal attachment on acculturation across time, as well an interaction in which the aforementioned link was blocked by adverse childhood experiences. In the context of acculturative learning, two tenets of the theory of epistemic trust were supported.

Providing Care for Children in Immigrant Families

Children in immigrant families (CIF), who represent 1 in 4 children in the United States, represent a growing and ever more diverse US demographic that pediatric medical providers nationwide will increasingly encounter in clinical care. Immigrant children are those born outside the United States to non-US citizen parents, and CIF are defined as those who are either foreign born or have at least 1 parent who is foreign born. Some families immigrate for economic or educational reasons, and others come fleeing persecution and seeking safe haven. Some US-born children with a foreign-born parent may share vulnerabilities with children who themselves are foreign born, particularly regarding access to care and other social determinants of health. Therefore, the larger umbrella term of CIF is used in this statement. CIF, like all children, have diverse experiences that interact with their biopsychosocial development. CIF may face inequities that can threaten their health and well-being, and CIF also offer strengths and embody resilience that can surpass challenges experienced before and during integration. This policy statement describes the evolving population of CIF in the United States, briefly introduces core competencies to enhance care within a framework of cultural humility and safety, and discusses barriers and opportunities at the practice and systems levels. Practice-level recommendations describe how pediatricians can promote health equity for CIF through careful attention to core competencies in clinical care, thoughtful community engagement, and system-level support. Advocacy and policy recommendations offer ways pediatricians can advocate for policies that promote health equity for CIF.

Self-esteem, cultural identification, and substance use among American Indian youth

OBJECTIVES

Determine potential mediating and moderating effects of self-esteem on the relationship between cultural identification and substance use among American Indian (AI) youth.

METHODS

Anonymous surveys were administered to middle and high school AI students assessing levels of last month alcohol and marijuana use, cultural identification, and self-esteem. Structural equation modeling assessed potential mediating and moderating effects of self-esteem on the relationship between AI and white identification on alcohol and marijuana use.

RESULTS

No mediating effects were found for middle school students. Among high school students, no mediating effects were found for alcohol. Among female high school students, a small mediating effect was found between AI identification and marijuana use, with AI identification protecting against use. Across all students, no moderating effects of self-esteem were found.

CONCLUSIONS

The literature on cultural identification and substance use among minority youth is unclear. It was anticipated that consideration of self-esteem as a potential mediator or moderator might help clarify some of the confusion. However, no moderating effects were found and mediating effects were limited to female high school students for marijuana. Consideration should be given to assessing other measures of cultural identification and subscales of self-esteem to confirm that these findings are robust.

Examining marianismo gender role attitudes, ethnic identity, mental health, and substance use in Mexican American early adolescent girls

Given the increased trend in substance use patterns among Latina adolescents in recent years, the need for research that identifies gender-specific and culturally relevant protective factors is essential in tailoring interventions. The current study examined the links between marianismo gender role attitudes, ethnic identity, and substance use abstinence among 277 low-income Mexican American early adolescent girls. Mental health was also examined as a potential moderator in these links. Results of linear regression analysis revealed that familismo, virtuous/chaste, and spiritual marianismo gender role attitudes were predictive of stronger ethnic identity; conversely, self-silencing marianismo attitudes were predictive of weaker ethnic identity. Second, results of hierarchical logistic regressions revealed that both virtuous/chaste marianismo gender role attitudes and mental health (low rates of psychological distress) were inversely linked with substance use; furthermore, they had a combined link that was related to even lower rates of substance use among participants. However, ethnic identity did not have a direct or moderating effect on substance use. Findings suggest that the promotion of positive components of marianismo and mental health may have a protective effect against early substance use in Mexican American early adolescent girls.

Alcohol initiation among recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents: Roles of acculturation and sociocultural stress

There is a growing recognition for the need for research to explore the unique and interactive effects of acculturation and sociocultural stress on alcohol initiation. Building on this research agenda, the current study sought to explore the independent and interactive effects of acculturation (i.e., heritage and U.S. cultural practices and identification) and sociocultural stress (i.e., perceived discrimination, perceived context of reception, and bicultural stress) on alcohol initiation among recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents. Data were taken from a 6-wave longitudinal study with 302 recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents (53% boys; Mage = 14.51 years at baseline; range = 14-17 years) and their families. Discrete-time survival models indicated that none of the acculturation indicators directly predicted alcohol initiation. Sociocultural stress-and specifically, bicultural stress-predicted alcohol initiation. There were significant interactions between acculturation and sociocultural stress in predicting alcohol initiation. Further research considering multiple components of acculturation and sociocultural stressors is needed to broaden our understanding of the potential role of sociocultural processes in alcohol initiation among Hispanic youth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal effects of acculturation and enculturation on mental health: Does the measure of matter?

A great deal of research has focused on acculturation and enculturation, which represent the processes of adapting to a new culture. Despite this growing literature, results have produced inconsistent findings that may be attributable to differences in terms of the instruments used to assess acculturation and enculturation. Utilizing a 3-year longitudinal data set (with 1-year lags between assessments), the present study explored the psychometric properties of the Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire—Short Version (BIQ-S) and the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans II (ARSMA-II) and examined the overlap between changes in these measures as they relate to internalizing and externalizing problem behavior. The present sample consisted of 216 immigrant Latino youth (43% boys; mean age 13.6 years at baseline;SD= 1.44 years, range 10 to 17). Exploratory structural equation modeling identified factor structures for the BIQ-S and ARSMA-II that diverged from their hypothesized structure. Growth curve models also indicate divergence between the BIQ-S and ARSMA-II in terms ofchangein acculturation and enculturation processes. Finally, the present findings emphasized that measures of acculturation and enculturation are not equivalent in terms of their effects on internalizing and externalizing problems.

Identity Development in Immigrant Youth

Abstract. Rates of immigration are at an all-time high in many Western countries, and immigration can exert profound influences on identity development. These influences occur both at the individual level and at the group level, but these two sets of influences have rarely been considered simultaneously. Accordingly, this article adopts a multilevel approach to identity development among immigrant youth, with a focus on North American receiving contexts. We focus not only on individual ethnic, national, and personal identity development, but also on the societal-level intergroup processes (e.g., threats and stereotypes) that constrain the identity options available to immigrants. We highlight the prominence of biculturalism – endorsement of both heritage and destination-country identities – but also discuss ways in which biculturalism may be difficult to attain for some immigrants and immigrant groups. We also emphasize the interplay between individual immigrants’ identities and the mechanisms through which defensive policies enacted by “threatened” majority groups may harm identity development among immigrant youth. The article concludes with a listing of priorities for future work.

A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of the Associations Between Acculturation and Alcohol Use Outcomes Among Hispanic Americans

Acculturation has been studied as one key sociocultural determinant that helps explain ethnic disparities in alcohol use outcomes among Hispanic Americans. Primary studies and other systematic reviews have found between-study inconsistencies regarding the extent to which acculturation is associated with alcohol use outcomes among Hispanic Americans. To better examine whether acculturation is distinctly linked to drinker status, drinking frequency, volume, intensity, binge drinking, and hazardous alcohol use/drinking problems, and to identify individual and methodological factors that moderate these associations, we conducted a comprehensive research synthesis. A systematic review was conducted on research pertaining to the associations between acculturation and alcohol use among Hispanics. We included 88 independent study samples (N = 68,282) coded from 68 manuscripts published in 1987 to 2017. Standard and robust variance estimation (RVE) meta-analyses were conducted to calculate the correlations between acculturation and overall alcohol use. We also conducted a series of analyses to examine the weighted mean correlations between acculturation and 6 specific drinking outcomes. We found a statistically significant correlation between acculturation and overall alcohol use (r = 0.09, p < 0.001). Acculturation was associated with drinker status (r = 0.10, p < 0.001), drinking intensity (r = 0.09, p = 0.001), binge drinking (r = 0.05, p = 0.006), and hazardous alcohol use/drinking problems (r = 0.06, p = 0.006), but not drinking frequency (r = 0.02, p = 0.56) or volume (r = 0.01, p = 0.73). Gender, acculturation dimension, acculturation domain, age group, and sampling settings were found to explain between-study variability in some of these associations. Findings show small relations between acculturation and various alcohol use outcomes, but the effects are relatively more robust among Hispanic women, adults, and when studies measured U.S. cultural orientation, linguistic acculturation, and behavioral practices.

Self-schema as a non-drinker: a protective resource against heavy drinking in Mexican-American college women

Alcohol use is considered less acceptable for women than men in the Mexican culture. However, recent studies of Mexican-American (MA) women show that prevalence and rates of alcohol use are escalating, particularly in those with high acculturation to Western standards. Building on recent studies that demonstrated that drinking-related identities (self-schemas) are important predictors of alcohol use in college populations, this secondary data analysis investigated the association between acculturation, MA cultural values, and acculturative stress, drinking-related self-schemas and heavy drinking over time in college-enrolled MA women. Data were drawn from a 12-month longitudinal study of self-schemas and health-risk behaviors in 477 college-enrolled MA women. Drinking-related self-schemas, acculturation, MA cultural values and acculturative stress were measured at baseline, and heavy drinking was measured at baseline, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. Thirty-six percent of women had a non-drinker self-schema but only 3% had a drinker self-schema. Higher spirituality was protective against heavy drinking, and this effect can be partially explained by presence of a non-drinker self-schema. Interventions that emphasize the personal relevance of being a non-drinker and support the importance of spirituality may help to prevent heavy drinking in MA college women.

Integrated Social Class Identities Improve Academic Performance, Well-Being, and Workplace Satisfaction

Biculturalism has typically been used as a framework to understand the experiences of people who move to new societies or who have multiple ethnic identities; we argue that first-generation college (FGC) students can also be thought of as bicultural as a function of social class. FGC students undergo adjustment to the middle-class culture of universities and face challenges negotiating different cultural identities. The present research demonstrated that FGC students are more likely to identify as bicultural and experience dissonance between home and school (Study 1), that integrated social class identities are linked to positive outcomes for FGC students during (Study 2) and after college (Study 3), and that these effects are due in part to reduced acculturative stress (Study 4). These findings suggest that integrating different class identities may be key to the success of FGC students.

Longitudinal Trajectory of the Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Substance Use From Adolescence to Young Adulthood

BACKGROUND

We examined the longitudinal trajectory of substance use (binge drinking, marijuana use, and cocaine use) in relation to self-esteem from adolescence to young adulthood.

METHODS

Generalized estimating equation models were fit using SAS to investigate changes in the relation between self-esteem and each substance use (binge drinking, marijuana use, and cocaine use) from adolescence to young adulthood. Data were drawn from the 3 waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, a nationally representative sample of middle and high school students in the United States (N = 6504).

RESULTS

Self-esteem was a significant predictor for the use of all 3 substances at 15 years of age (ps < .001). However, at age 21, self-esteem no longer predicted binge drinking and marijuana use in the controlled model.

CONCLUSIONS

It appears that self-esteem loses its protective role against substance use except cocaine use as adolescents transition to young adulthood.

Pathway of protection: Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and substance use among multiracial youth

Fifty percent of adolescents have tried an illicit drug and 70% have tried alcohol by the end of high school, with even higher rates among multiracial youth. Ethnic identity is a protective factor against substance use for minority groups. However, little is known about the mechanisms that facilitate its protective effects, and even less is known about this relationship for multiracial youth. The purpose of the present study was to examine the protective effect of ethnic identity on substance use and to determine whether this relationship operated indirectly through self-esteem, a strong predictor of substance use for among adolescent populations. Participants included 468 multiracial youth in grades six through 12 (53% female). The results found that ethnic identity was indeed related to substance use, partially through changes in self-esteem. Findings from this study contribute to our understanding and development of models of risk and protection for an understudied population.

The Roles of Familism and Emotion Reappraisal in the Relations Between Acculturative Stress and Prosocial Behaviors in Latino/a College Students

Researchers have demonstrated mixed associations between acculturative stress and prosocial behaviors (actions intended to benefit others) among Latino/a adolescents and emerging adults. The current study aimed to examine the relations between acculturative stress and Latino/a young adults' prosocial behaviors via familism values and emotion reappraisal. Participants were 1,527 Latino/a college students (M _age = 20.35 years, SD = 3.88; 75.2% women) from universities across the United States. The results demonstrated direct and indirect links between acculturative stress and prosocial behaviors. Specifically, acculturative stress was positively related to familism values, which in turn were positively associated with multiple forms of prosocial behaviors. Additionally, emotion reappraisal was positively associated with specific forms of prosocial behaviors. There was also evidence that familism and emotion reappraisals moderated the associations between acculturative stress and specific forms of prosocial behaviors. Discussion focuses on the interplay of culture-related and emotion-regulation processes associated with Latino/a young adults' positive social outcomes.

Bidimensional Measurement of Acculturation in a Sample of Pregnant Latinas and Their Biological Partners

Acculturation has been linked to a number of health outcomes for Latinos including depression, anxiety, self-esteem, substance use, and teen pregnancy. The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans–II (ARSMA-II) is one of the most frequently cited instruments for measuring acculturation in Latinos but empirical investigation of the latent factor structure has lagged behind its use. The main purpose of this study is to confirm the latent factor structure of a brief version of the ARSMA-II in a sample ( N = 205) of pregnant Latina adolescents and their male partners. Analyses revealed via confirmatory factor analysis that a 10-item bidimensional structure of this measure produced the best fit for the sample. Furthermore, a path analysis indicated direct effects between each of the latent factors and the health outcomes of substance use and depressive symptomatology. Implications of the results and suggestions for future research are discussed.

A tale of two measures: Concordance between the ARSMA-II and the BIQ acculturation scales among Latino immigrant families

Acculturation refers to the extent to which an individual immigrant (or immigrant group) acquires the customs and characteristics of a new receiving society and/or retains the customs and characteristics of the person's or group's cultural heritage. Different acculturation measures are often assumed to be interchangeable, although this assumption is rarely tested empirically. The purpose of the present study was to examine the overlap between 2 commonly used measures of acculturation among individuals of Latino/Hispanic ancestry in the United States, the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans II (ARSMA-II) and the Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire-Short Version (BIQ-S). Specifically, we examined the ways in which scores from the 2 measures relate to one another, as well as similarities versus differences in the ways they predict external variables of interest (e.g., family functioning, parenting, and youth adjustment) that acculturation is known to influence. Findings indicate distinct patterns of results for the 2 measures. For instance, though the BIQ-S focuses entirely on language use and other cultural practices, the ARSMA-II more consistently relates to language variables. Further, adolescent BIQ-S cultural heritage scores related negatively to risks for and engagement in alcohol use-supporting prior findings-whereas ARSMA-II scores were unrelated to alcohol use. Given the largely nonoverlapping set of relationships of the BIQ-S and the ARSMA-II subscale scores with measures of language dominance and conflict, measures of parenting, and measures of youth outcomes, we recommend that studies utilize both of these measures to fully appraise acculturation in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record

Psychiatric Symptoms, Parental Attachment, and Reasons for Use as Correlates of Heavy Substance Use Among Treatment-Seeking Hispanic Adolescents

In early adolescence, Hispanics self-report higher drug use rates compared to White and African American peers. Among adolescent users, heavy users have more negative behavioral and health consequences. The purpose of this cross-sectional study is to examine whether psychiatric symptoms, parental attachment, and reasons for use predict heavy alcohol and illicit drug use (more than 10 times in the past three months) among Hispanic adolescents.

METHODS

This study examines baseline data from a study evaluating a family based substance abuse treatment program for Hispanic adolescents. Participants were 14-17 years old (N = 156, 44% female). Adolescent reports on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Predictive Scales measured psychiatric symptoms of major depressive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and anxiety. The Personal Experiences Inventory measured type and amount of drug use, as well as perceived social and psychological benefits of drug use. The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment measured trust, communication, and alienation between adolescents and their mothers. Logistic regression identified correlates of heavy alcohol use and heavy illicit drug use among Hispanic adolescents.

RESULTS

Higher social benefits were associated with increased likelihood of heavy alcohol use. Conduct disorder, higher levels of maternal attachment, lower levels of acculturation, and higher levels of psychological benefits of use were associated with an increased likelihood of heavy illicit drug use.

CONCLUSION

These findings support the assumption that substance use treatment among Hispanic adolescents must be capable of addressing co-occurring psychiatric disorders, familial relationships, and the individual reasons/motivators to use.

Intracultural accusations of assimilation and alcohol use severity among Hispanic emerging adults: Moderating effects of acculturation, enculturation, and gender

Individuals, including Hispanics, tend to drink most heavily during emerging adulthood (ages 18-25 years old). Research has suggested that intercultural stressors (e.g., ethnic discrimination) may increase levels of alcohol use among Hispanics. However, the relationship between intracultural stressors (e.g., accusations of assimilation-when Hispanics accuse a member of their heritage group of acculturating to U.S. culture) and alcohol use has been examined to a lesser extent. Accordingly, the present study aimed to (a) examine the association between family accusations of assimilation and alcohol use severity; and (b) examine if acculturation domains, enculturation domains, and gender moderated that association. A hierarchical multiple regression and moderation analyses were conducted on a cross-sectional sample of 181 Hispanic emerging adults. Results indicated that higher family accusations of assimilation were associated with higher levels of alcohol use severity (β = .18, p < .05), and all variables entered in the model accounted for ΔR2 = 15.1% of the variance of alcohol use severity. A moderation analysis indicated that higher family accusations of assimilation were associated with higher alcohol use severity among men, but not women. Of the four acculturation/enculturation domains, none had a moderation effect. However, there was a statistically significant three-way interaction among family accusations of assimilation, gender, and affective enculturation. This three-way interaction suggests that among men, higher family accusations of assimilation were associated with higher alcohol use severity at lower levels of affective enculturation. This study addresses a literature gap on intracultural stressors and substance use among Hispanics, and discusses recommendations for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record

Shifting the Paradigm: Adolescent Cannabis Abuse and the Need for Early Intervention

This article describes the increasing risks of use of marijuana and related products by adolescents. As THC content increases and methods such as "dabbing" increase frequency of use, risks of marijuana use as perceived by youth are decreasing. At a time when marijuana access is increasing nationally, a new marijuana landscape is forming in which both adolescents and treatment providers must adjust their perceptions of what was once thought of as a "harmless" drug. This article describes this new landscape, and what it may mean for adolescent drug treatment.

Alcohol Expectancies, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Alcohol Use in College Students With a History of Childhood Trauma

OBJECTIVE

Prior research has emphasized that the key mediator in the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom-alcohol use relationship is the expectancy of alcohol's tension-reducing properties. This study extends the literature by examining various alcohol outcome expectancies.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were obtained from 198 college students who reported experiencing at least one traumatic event in childhood. Participants answered surveys measuring PTSD symptoms, alcohol outcome expectancies, and three measures of alcohol consumption and related problems.

RESULTS

Participants included 131 males (mean age = 19.65 years, SD = 1.06, range = 18 to 24) and 67 females (mean age = 19.43 years, SD = 0.82, range = 18 to 23), who were predominantly European-American (82%). For males and females, results of the multivariate analyses suggested that self-perception expectancies mediated the effects of PTSD symptoms on alcohol use severity, whereas sociability expectancies mediated the effects of PTSD symptoms on monthly alcohol use. For women, risk and aggression and sexuality expectancies mediated the relationship between PTSD symptoms and alcohol use severity, while risk and aggression expectancies mediated the relationship between PTSD symptoms and alcohol use consequences. For men, sociability expectancies mediated the effects of PTSD symptoms on alcohol use severity. Across genders, tension-reduction expectancies did not mediate the relationship between PTSD symptom and the three alcohol measures.

CONCLUSIONS

This study was unable to find support for the self-medication hypothesis via the tension-reduction outcome expectancy pathway. However, other significant findings can be interpreted in light of the self-medication hypothesis. For example, alcohol may aid in coping with social impairments related to PTSD symptoms, particularly in a college sample. This study also highlighted gender differences in the association between PTSD symptoms and alcohol consumption and related problems.

Acculturative Stress and Risky Sexual Behavior: The Roles of Sexual Compulsivity and Negative Affect

Recent syndemic models of sexual health disparities affecting racial/ethnic minorities have highlighted the role of discrimination. Yet no previous work has examined how acculturative stress (distress at the transition from one's original culture toward a new culture) associates with sexual HIV-risk behavior (SHRB). Work among other minority populations suggests sexual compulsivity (SC) may contribute to syndemic sexual health disparities as a means of coping with distress. With this in mind, the present study examined whether SC explained the relation between acculturative stress and SHRB. Separate analyses were conducted for males and females within a sample of 758 sexually initiated racial/ethnic minority college students. Among males and females, acculturative stress had an indirect effect on SHRB via SC. As the first study to examine SHRB in relation to acculturative stress, findings provide preliminary evidence that targeting SC among racial/ethnic minorities may help reduce sexual health disparities.

Being lonely or using substances with friends? A cross-sectional study of Hungarian adolescents' health risk behaviours

BACKGROUND

Studying adolescents' health risk behaviours is oddly significant in Central and Eastern European countries, where the prevalence of smoking and drinking among 14-18 year old students is significantly high. The goal of our study is to examine the role of social psychological and social behavioural variables in health risk behaviours among Hungarian adolescents.

METHODS

Our sample was comprised of three high schools of Debrecen (the second largest city of Hungary). In all, 501 students filled in the questionnaire from 22 classes (14-22 years old). Students aged above 18 years were excluded for the purpose of the study, giving a total sample size of 471 high school students. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

According to our results (1) social behavioural factors (namely, smoking and alcohol use of the best friend and peer group) proved to be better predictors of adolescents' health risk behaviours as compared to the included social psychological attributes (2); among the latter ones, loneliness and shyness were negatively related with both smoking and drinking, while competitiveness was a predictor of drinking prevalence among boys.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that social behavioural factors, including smoking and drinking of friends, are oddly important predictors of Hungarian adolescents' health risk behaviours. According to our results, health policy should pay more attention to peer norms related to smoking and drinking during school health promotion. Developing health protective social norms may be an indispensable component of effective health promotion in high schools.

Acculturation and Latino adolescent mental health: integration of individual, environmental, and family influences

In order to address the mental health disparities that exist for Latino adolescents in the United States, psychologists must understand specific factors that contribute to the high risk of mental health problems in Latino youth. Given the significant percentage of Latino youth who are immigrants or the children of immigrants, acculturation is a key factor in understanding mental health among this population. However, limitations in the conceptualization and measurement of acculturation have led to conflicting findings in the literature. Thus, the goal of the current review is to examine and critique research linking acculturation and mental health outcomes for Latino youth, as well as to integrate individual, environmental, and family influences of this relationship. An integrated theoretical model is presented and implications for clinical practice and future directions are discussed.

The influence of cultural variables on treatment retention and engagement in a sample of Mexican American adolescent males with substance use disorders

Adolescent substance abuse is a serious public health concern, and in response to this problem, a number of effective treatment approaches have been developed. Despite this, retaining and engaging adolescents in treatment are 2 major challenges continuously faced by practitioners and clinical researchers. Low retention and engagement rates are especially salient for ethnic minority adolescents because they are at high risk for underutilization of substance abuse treatment compared to their White peers. Latino adolescents, in particular, are part of the fastest growing ethnic minority group in the United States and experience high rates of substance use disorders. Heretofore, the empirical examination of cultural factors that influence treatment retention and engagement has been lacking in the literature. The goal of this study was to investigate the influence of the cultural variables ethnic identity, familism, and acculturation on the retention and engagement of Latino adolescents participating in substance abuse treatment. This study used data collected from a sample of Latino adolescent males (N = 96), predominantly of Mexican descent, and largely recruited from the juvenile justice system. Analysis was conducted using generalized regression models for count variables. Results indicated that higher levels of exploration, a subfactor of ethnic identity, and familism were predictive of attendance and engagement. In contrast, higher levels of Anglo orientation, a subfactor of acculturation, were predictive of lower treatment attendance and engagement. Clinical implications for the variables of ethnic identity, acculturation, and familism as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.

Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes

The construction of an ethnic or racial identity is considered an important developmental milestone for youth of color. This review summarizes research on links between ethnic and racial identity (ERI) with psychosocial, academic, and health risk outcomes among ethnic minority adolescents. With notable exceptions, aspects of ERI are generally associated with adaptive outcomes. ERI are generally beneficial for African American adolescents' adjustment across all three domains, whereas the evidence is somewhat mixed for Latino and American Indian youth. There is a dearth of research for academic and health risk outcomes among Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents. The review concludes with suggestions for future research on ERI among minority youth.

Gender Matters: The Influence of Acculturation and Acculturative Stress on Latino College Student Depressive Symptomatology

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between acculturation-related variables with depressive symptomatology among Latino college students and the extent to which acculturative stress mediates the association. The extent to which gender moderates these relationships was also examined. Participants were 758 Latina and 264 Latino college students from 30 colleges and universities around the United States. Participants completed measures of acculturation, acculturative stress, and depression. Multigroup path analysis provided excellent model fit and suggested moderation by gender. Acculturative stress mediated the acculturation-depression relationship. One indirect effect was moderated by gender with effects stronger for men: Heritage-culture retention to depressive symptoms via Spanish Competency Pressures. Acculturation and acculturative stress contribute to depression differently for male and female Latino college students. Future research should note the influence of gender socialization on the acculturation process and mental health.

Acculturative and enculturative stress, depressive symptoms, and maternal warmth: examining within-person relations among Mexican-origin adolescent mothers

Mexican-origin adolescent mothers face numerous social challenges during dual-cultural adaptation that are theorized to contribute to greater depressive symptoms. Alongside challenges, there are familial resources that may offer protection. As such, the current study examined the trajectories of depressive symptoms among 204 Mexican-origin adolescent mothers (M age = 16.80, SD = 1.00) across a 4-year period (third trimester of pregnancy, and 10, 24, and 36 months postpartum). Further, we examined the within-person relations of two unique sources of stress experienced during dual-cultural adaptation, acculturative and enculturative stress, and youths' depressive symptoms; we also tested whether adolescent mothers' perceptions of warmth from their own mothers emerged as protective. Adolescent mothers reported a decline in depressive symptoms after the transition to parenthood. Acculturative and enculturative stress emerged as significant positive within-person predictors of depressive symptoms. Maternal warmth emerged as a protective factor in the relation between enculturative stressors and depressive symptoms; however, for acculturative stressors, the protective effect of maternal warmth only emerged for US-born youth. Findings illustrate the multidimensionality of stress experienced during the cultural adaptation process and a potential mechanism for resilience among Mexican-origin adolescent mothers.

Ethnic Identity and Sexual Initiation Among East Asian Youth in Canada

Despite the large number of East Asian youth in Canada, little is known about their health and risk behaviors. We examined the relationship between ethnic identity and sexual initiation among East Asians. This secondary analysis of a population-based survey selected 4,311 students in 7-12th grades who described themselves as East Asian (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Korean). Gender-stratified logistic regression analyses examined whether ethnic identity was associated with sexual initiation, controlling for age, living situation, and cultural exposure. Boys with stronger commitment to their ethnic groups were less likely to have ever had sexual intercourse (aOR 0.80). Girls with higher levels of ethnic identity exploration were less likely to report sexual initiation (aOR 0.71). Stronger ethnic identity was associated with not having sexual intercourse among East Asian adolescents. The findings suggest the need to consider ethnocultural factors in future research and practice.

Acculturation and perceived discrimination: predictors of substance use trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood among Hispanics

PURPOSE

Previous studies have documented associations between cultural factors and substance use among Hispanic adolescents. Negative cultural experiences such as discrimination have been associated with an increased risk of substance use among Hispanic adolescents, whereas positive cultural resources, such as maintenance of Hispanic cultural orientations, have shown protective effects. However, few studies have examined the continuing influence of cultural factors on substance use from adolescence to emerging adulthood.

METHODS

We surveyed a cohort of Hispanic adolescents in Southern California in 9th, 10th, and 11th grades, and 3-4 years after high school. Growth curve analyses were conducted to examine the effects of U.S. acculturation, Hispanic acculturation, ethnic identity, and perceived discrimination on change in tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use over time.

RESULTS

Higher perceived discrimination at baseline was significantly associated with a higher intercept (initial level) of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. Higher initial level of Hispanic acculturation was significantly associated with a lower slope of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use.

CONCLUSIONS

Cultural phenomena such as acculturation and perceived discrimination can continue to affect substance use through the transition to emerging adulthood. Health education interventions are needed to help Hispanics navigate this developmental transition without engaging in substance use.

Associations between ethnic labels and substance use among Hispanic/Latino adolescents in Los Angeles

Self-identification with ethnic-specific labels may indicate successful ethnic identity formation, which could protect against substance use. Alternatively, it might indicate affiliation with oppositional subcultures, a potential risk factor. This study examined longitudinal associations between ethnic labels and substance use among 1,575 Hispanic adolescents in Los Angeles. Adolescents who identified as Cholo or La Raza in 9th grade were at increased risk of past-month substance use in 11th grade. Associations were similar across gender and were not confounded by socioeconomic status, ethnic identity development, acculturation, or language use. Targeted prevention interventions for adolescents who identify with these subcultures may be warranted.

Cultural Influences on Substance Use Among Hispanic Adolescents and Young Adults: Findings From Project RED

Hispanic adolescents represent a growing segment of the U.S. population. In addition to the typical stressors encountered during adolescence, Hispanic adolescents may experience acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and conflicts with parents about acculturation, which can lead to maladaptive behaviors such as substance use. Personal cultural resources may help Hispanic youth cope with cultural stressors and avoid substance use, but little is known about how such factors affect decisions about substance use. In 2005, my research group began studying a group of Hispanic adolescents in Los Angeles. The participants completed surveys annually about cultural issues such as acculturation, ethnic identity, and perceived discrimination; family and peer relationships; and use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. We found that Hispanic adolescents' perceptions that they were discriminated against put them at greater risk for substance use, and that Hispanic orientation protected the youth from substance use. The findings can inform the development of culturally relevant prevention interventions for Hispanic adolescents and emerging adults.

The multigroup ethnic identity measure-revised: measurement invariance across racial and ethnic groups

The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised (MEIM-R), a brief instrument assessing affiliation with one's ethnic group, is a promising advance in the ethnic identity literature. However, equivalency of its measurement properties across specific racial and ethnic groups should be confirmed before using it in diverse samples. We examined (a) the psychometric properties of the MEIM-R, including factor structure, measurement invariance, and internal consistency reliability, and (b) levels of and differences in ethnic identity across multiple racial and ethnic groups and subgroups. Asian (n = 630), Black/African American (n = 58), Hispanic (n = 240), multiethnic (n = 160), and White (n = 375) women completed the MEIM-R as part of the "Gestational diabetes' Effect on Moms" diabetes prevention trial in the Kaiser Permanente Northern California health care setting (N = 1,463; M age = 32.5 years, SD = 4.9). Multiple-groups confirmatory factor analyses provided provisional evidence of measurement invariance, i.e., an equal, correlated 2-factor structure, equal factor loadings, and equal item intercepts across racial and ethnic groups. Latent factor means for the 2 MEIM-R subscales, exploration and commitment, differed across groups; effect sizes ranging from small to large generally supported the notion of ethnic identity as more salient among people of color. Pending replication, good psychometric properties in this large and diverse sample of women support the future use of the MEIM-R. Preliminary evidence of measurement invariance suggests that the MEIM-R could be used to measure and compare ethnic identity across multiple racial and ethnic groups.