African-American parents' racial and ethnic socialization and adolescent academic grades: teasing out the role of gender

When resilience is not enough: Imagining novel approaches to supporting Black youth navigating racism

The narrative surrounding the impact racism has had on the well-being of Black youth has shifted across sociocultural and historical context. Early discourse around these topics were problem-saturated, focusing on deficits "within" Black youth. Over time, an important narrative shift occurred: greater attention was paid to the inherent assets of Black youth, their families, and communities, including how racial-ethnic protective factors such as racial socialization afforded them resilience. What resulted was decades of research seeking to understand the mechanisms that allow Black youth to bounce back in spite of racism-related adversity. Notwithstanding the viable practice and policy implications that have emerged from such inquiry, at what point does our focus on the resilience of Black youth - whether individual or multisystemic - fall short? It is with this question in mind that this paper challenges those committed to the optimal development of Black youth to consider yet another narrative shift: one that stands upon the legacy of cultural ecological frameworks and the seminal models underlying resilience research, and calls us toward not supporting Black youth's adaptation to racism, but toward collective efforts to transform our approach, pushing back against the perniciousness of racism.

At the Intersection: The Influence of Race on Women’s Leadership Self-Efficacy Development

Leadership self-efficacy (LSE), one’s beliefs in their own ability, knowledge, and skills in leading others effectively, can play a large role in how individuals develop and perform as leaders. Understanding the dynamics of LSE growth may be particularly important when considering the development of female leaders. The institutional barriers and gender inequities experienced by women can change the trajectory of their course to leadership; however, the ways in which the course changes likely differ as a function of intersecting identities. Rather than presume all women share common leadership development opportunities and experiences, we contend that women’s LSE is informed by experiences unique to their racial and ethnic backgrounds. According to intersectionality theory, individuals are part of multiple social categories that can shape their experiences. In the current paper, we focus on how the intersection of gender and race influence the development of LSE across the life span for White, Black, Asian American women, and Latinas. Integrating social cognitive theory with intersectionality theory, we explore how gendered and racialized experiences prior to and during adulthood shape women’s leadership self-efficacy. We also discuss ways that organizations can help reduce and counteract negative consequences of barriers to LSE for different women.

Home Based Racialized Messages Transmitted to African American Students Transitioning to Predominantly White Institutions

This study focused on the cultural differences faced by African American students transitioning to a predominantly White institution and the protective factors that aided them with these transitions. In-depth individual interviews were conducted and used as the primary method of data collection for this study. In addition, a focus group session provided member checking opportunity and served to strengthen the trustworthiness of the study. The focus group was also used as a secondary data source to corroborate the key findings from the individual interviews. Analysis revealed participants were exposed to several risk factors in the university context. Students developed coping strategies to combat these risk factors and promote successful transitions from the home to the university.

Countering Educational Disparities Among Black Boys and Black Adolescent Boys from Pre-K to High School: A Life Course-Intersectional Perspective

Accounts of educational opportunity gaps for Black boys are overwhelmingly focused on later years of development. Achievement and discipline disparities are evident across their lifespan. Life course and intersectionality theories were used to develop a framework for understanding obstacles Black boys face during their preschool through high school years. Outlining the cumulative impact of threats and protective factors for their academic success provides insight for supporting Black boys at various developmental stages. Implications include tools for families, educators, and practitioners. This perspective will enhance the collective understanding of the resiliency of Black boys and support their educational success throughout the life course.

Ethnic Socialization, Ethnic Identity, and Self-Esteem in Chinese Mulao Adolescents

We examined the associations and likely pathways between ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and self-esteem among junior high school students of Chinese Mulao ethnic minority. A total of 469 Mulao students (220 boys and 249 girls) completed the Ethnic Socialization Measurement revised by Yin et al. (2016), the Revised Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM-R) by Roberts et al. (1999), and Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale (Chinese Version) by Wang et al. (1999). The main results indicated that adolescents who perceived more promotion of harmony messages tended to report stronger ethnic identity and higher self-esteem. Adolescents who perceived cultural socialization displayed stronger ethnic identity and higher self-esteem, while the promotion of distrust messages was negatively associated with self-esteem. Multiple-group analysis revealed that the relationships were stable across gender, parental education, but varied significantly across students’ grade. These findings emphasize the important role of positive ethnic socialization messages in adolescents’ ethnic identity and self-esteem. In addition, it is also important that we pay attention to negative ethnic socialization messages and consider their grade when communicating ethnic information with adolescents. Finally, our results are analyzed and notable suggestions are presented for ethnic family education.

Racial discrimination and ethnic racial identity in adolescence as modulators of HPA axis activity

We review evidence of racial discrimination as a critical and understudied form of adversity that has the potential to impact stress biology, particularly hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. We highlight ethnic racial identity (ERI) as a positive regulatory influence on HPA axis activity, as indexed by levels of salivary cortisol. In past research by our group, Black individuals with high adolescent discrimination had low adult cortisol levels (hypocortisolism). Here, we present new analyses showing that ERI, measured prospectively from ages 12 through 32 in 112 Black and white individuals, is related to better-regulated cortisol levels in adulthood, particularly for Black participants. We also describe ongoing research that explores whether the promotion of ERI during adolescence can reduce ethnic-racial disparities in stress biology and in emotional health and academic outcomes.

Racial Discrimination Stress, School Belonging, and School Racial Composition on Academic Attitudes and Beliefs among Black Youth

It is important to consider racialized experiences and proximal indicators of academic success for Black youth when understanding the achievement gap. Acknowledging that racial discrimination is detrimental for the academic success of Black youth, this study extended previous research by examining the influence of racial discrimination stress. Using hierarchical regression analysis and a moderated moderation model, this study examined racial discrimination stress and school belonging as predictors of academic attitudes and beliefs among 344 Black youth (M age = 15.6). Additionally, we examined the interactive effects of school belonging as a buffer for racial discrimination stress, with particular focus on majority White schools. Analyses revealed that school belonging was linked with academic competence, academic efficacy, and academic skepticism. Furthermore, school belonging buffered the impact of racial discrimination stress on academic efficacy among Black youth in majority White schools. These findings highlight the co-occurrence of risk and protective factors among Black youth and demonstrate the additive influence of school racial composition on academic attitudes and beliefs. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings demonstrate the crucial role of school context in understanding risk and protective factors for the academic attitudes and beliefs of Black youth.

The initial development and validation of the Racial Socialization Competency Scale: Quality and quantity

OBJECTIVES

The present study investigated the reliability and validity of the Racial Socialization Competency Scale (RaSCS). As posited by the Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST), the RaSCS consists of 3 factors representing 3 novel dimensions of racial socialization competency present in families (e.g., stress, skills, and confidence).

METHOD

Responses to the RaSCS were collected from 361 self-identified Black and African American parents and primary caretakers across the United States.

RESULTS

After factor analysis, three scales and 27 items were maintained. Evidence was consistently found for 2 subscales within the stress dimension, namely "Call to Action" and "General" racial socialization stressors. Dimensions were also related to their respectively hypothesized constructs, including overall stress, racial socialization frequency, and self-efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

Future directions and recommendations on the measure's use, particularly in the context of interventions, are also discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Profiles of ethnic-racial socialization from family, school, neighborhood, and the Internet: Relations to adolescent outcomes

Given that ecological models of development highlight the interacting influences of multiple environments, further research is needed that explores ethnic-racial socialization from multiple contexts. The current study explores how families, schools, neighborhoods, and the Internet jointly impact academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and psychological well-being in adolescents, both through socialization messages and experiences with racial discrimination. The research questions were: (a) What profiles of multiple contexts of socialization exist? and (b) How are the different profiles associated with academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and psychological well-being? The sample consisted of 1,084 U.S. adolescents aged 13-17 (M = 14.99, SD = 1.37; 49% girls) from four ethnic-racial groups: 25.6% Asian American, 26.3% Black/African American, 25.3% Latinx, and 22.9% White. The participants completed online surveys of socialization and discrimination from four contexts and three types of outcomes: academic outcomes, critical consciousness, and well-being. A latent profile analysis revealed three profiles: Average, High Discrimination, and Positive School. The Positive School class had the most positive academic outcomes and well-being. The High Discrimination class reported the highest critical consciousness. Their academic outcomes and well-being were similar to the Average group. The findings support complexity in perceptions of socialization from different contexts and the associations of socialization with youth outcomes.

FAMILY-LEVEL FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL AND ACADEMIC COMPETENCE OF AFRICAN AMERICAN CHILDREN

BACKGROUND

Research shows children's life trajectories and outcomes are strongly influenced by factors affecting development of social and academic competence that also interact with racial disparities in academic settings. Given the importance of social and academic competencies, identifying factors that promote these competencies among African American children is critical to their success over the life course.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines a socioeconomically diverse sample of African American children to determine whether family-level factors promote and protect social and academic competence.

METHODS

We analyze longitudinal data from a convenience sample of 97 African American children (54 girls, 43 boys) and their families who participated in a larger study of social and academic development. We analyze 2 waves of data collected when children were 7 and 10 years old.

RESULTS

A series of 2-level, random-intercept, fixed-effects models show social competence is positively affected by quality of parent-child relationships, positive parenting practices, low parental stress, and routine family home environment. Similarly, academic competence is positively affected by low parental stress and family social support.

CONCLUSIONS

Study findings fill a critical knowledge gap regarding predictors of social and academic competence of African American children from various socioeconomic strata. Potential avenues for intervention are discussed.

The Role of Cognitive Stimulation in the Home and Maternal Responses to Low Grades in Low-Income African American Adolescents' Academic Achievement

Parental involvement in education has generally been shown to foster adolescent academic achievement, yet little is known about whether two important forms of parental involvement-how parents respond to academic underachievement and how parents provide cognitive stimulation in the home-are related to academic achievement for African American adolescents. This study uses two waves of data to evaluate whether these forms of parental involvement are related to future academic achievement for low-income African American adolescents and whether there are gender differences in these associations. African American mothers and adolescents (N = 226; 48% girls) were interviewed when adolescents were ages 14 and 16. Mothers of girls reported higher mean levels of punitive responses to grades than mothers of boys, but child gender did not moderate associations between parental involvement and academic achievement. Cognitive stimulation in the home was related to changes in academic achievement from 14 to 16 years of age, controlling for age 14 academic achievement. This study provides evidence that nonpunitive responses to inadequate grades and cognitive stimulation at home are linked to academic achievement among African American adolescents.

The Role of Parents' Ethnic-Racial Socialization Practices in the Discrimination-Depression Link among Mexican-Origin Adolescents

The present study investigated the moderating role of parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices (T1) in the link between adolescents' discrimination experiences (T1-T3) and adolescent anxiety and depression, respectively (T1-T3). Using a 3-wave longitudinal design with multiple informants (adolescent, mother, father) reporting on parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices, the data analytic sample comprised a total of 251 (T1) Mexican-origin families from the midwestern United States. Mother and father reports of their own ethnic-racial socialization practices (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust) were entered simultaneously into multilevel moderation models. Results from these multilevel moderation analyses indicated that fathers' promotion of mistrust was a significant moderator in the adolescent discrimination-depression link over time. Specifically, fathers' promotion of mistrust exacerbated the youth discrimination-depression association. Moreover, the difference between the moderating effects of fathers' versus mothers' promotion of mistrust on the youth discrimination-depression association was significant. Cultural socialization and preparation for bias did not significantly moderate the adolescent association between discrimination and mental health, regardless of parent gender (fathers or mothers) or mental health outcome (anxiety or depression). The results are discussed in light of a socioecological framework, with special emphasis on the importance of including (and differentiating between) both fathers and mothers in the investigation of ethnic-racial socialization and implications for future theory building, research, and clinical practice.

Parental Ethnic-Racial Socialization and Children of Color's Academic Success: A Meta-Analytic Review

Increased attention is being placed on the importance of ethnic-racial socialization in children of color's academic outcomes. Synthesizing research on the effects of parental ethnic-racial socialization, this meta-analysis of 37 studies reveals that overall the relation between ethnic-racial socialization and academic outcomes was positive, though the strength varied by the specific academic outcome under consideration, dimension of ethnic-racial socialization utilized, developmental age of the child receiving the socialization, and racial/ethnic group implementing the socialization. Ethnic-racial socialization was positively related to academic performance, motivation, and engagement, with motivation being the strongest outcome. Most dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization were positively related to academic outcomes, except for promotion of mistrust. In addition, the link between ethnic-racial socialization and academic outcomes was strongest for middle school and college students, and when looking across ethnic-racial groups, this link was strongest for African American youth. The results suggest that different dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization have distinct relationships with diverse academic outcomes and that the effects of ethnic-racial socialization vary by both youth developmental levels and racial/ethnic groups.

Gender Differences in How Family Income and Parental Education Relate to Reading Achievement in China: The Mediating Role of Parental Expectation and Parental Involvement

The impact of social economic status (SES) on children's academic outcomes has been well documented. However, the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain poorly understood. Furthermore, the process by which SES relates to academic achievement needs to be studied separately for boys and girls. Using a sample of 598 Chinese children (299 boys, 299 girls) in grades 4 to 6 and their parents, this study examined the process of how family SES, specifically family income and parental education, indirectly relates to children's reading achievement through parental expectation and parental involvement and whether this process differs between boys and girls. The results revealed that parental expectation and specific parental involvement behaviors played critical mediating roles between family SES and reading achievement. Moreover, the exact nature of these links differed by the gender of children. For boys, both the effect of parental education and the effect of family income were partially mediated by parental expectation and parent-child communication orderly. For girls, the effect of parental education was partially mediated by three separate pathways: (1) home monitoring; (2) parent-child communication; and (3) parental expectation followed by parent-child communication, while the effect of family income was fully mediated by parent-child communication. These findings suggest a process through which SES factors are related to children's academic development and identify a context under which these associations may differ. The practical implications of these findings are discussed, along with possible future research directions.

Racial-Ethnic Protective Factors and Mechanisms in Psychosocial Prevention and Intervention Programs for Black Youth

Extending previous reviews related to cultural responsiveness in the treatment of ethnic minority youth, the current review provides a critical assessment and synthesis of both basic and applied research on the integration of three racial-ethnic protective factors (racial identity, racial socialization, Africentric worldview) in psychosocial prevention and intervention programs for Black children and adolescents. Seventeen programs meeting inclusion and exclusion criteria were evaluated for the extent to which racial-ethnic protective factors and related mechanisms were integrated, applied, and tested in such programs. A systematic assessment of these programs revealed that several prevention and intervention programs drew upon the three factors, particularly Africentric worldview. In addition, a number of studies hypothesized and assessed mechanisms, both those previously identified in conceptual literature and those that emerged from the interventions themselves. A set of recommendations encouraging the implementation of these factors into future prevention and intervention programs, examples of how clinicians can infuse these factors into psychotherapy, and areas for future research are discussed.

Observed Racial Socialization and Maternal Positive Emotions in African American Mother-Adolescent Discussions About Racial Discrimination

This study examined patterns of (a) observed racial socialization messages in dyadic discussions between 111 African American mothers and adolescents (Mage  = 15.50) and (b) mothers' positive emotions displayed during the discussion. Mothers displayed more advocacy on behalf of their adolescents in response to discrimination by a White teacher than to discrimination by a White salesperson. Mothers displayed consistent emotional support of adolescents' problem solving across both dilemmas but lower warmth in response to the salesperson dilemma. Findings illustrate evidence of the transactional nature of racial socialization when presented with adolescents' racial dilemmas. The role of adolescent gender in mothers' observed racial socialization responses is also discussed. A framework for a process-oriented approach to racial socialization is presented.

Linking Racial-Ethnic Socialization to Culture and Race-Specific Coping Among African American College Students

In addition to the use of coping strategies generally shared by all Americans, research has shown that African Americans tend to make use of culture and race-specific coping styles that distinguish them from other racial/ethnic group populations. These coping styles are important for the negotiation of multiple types of stressors. Little has been written on the antecedents of culture and race-specific coping (i.e., Africultural coping and John Henryism). This exploratory online investigation sought to determine if childhood racial-ethnic socialization (i.e., a cultural practice and protective factor) experiences predicted present self-reported culture and race-specific coping among a group of African American college students ( N = 191). Results indicated that past racial socialization messages encouraging participants to engage in positive cross-racial interactions (i.e., cross-racial relationship messages) were positively predictive of spiritual-centered and collective coping. Racial socialization messages that prescribed how participants should cope with racism were negatively associated with prolonged, active high-effort coping (i.e., John Henryism). Ethnic socialization messages emphasizing participation in African American cultural activities (i.e., African American heritage messages) positively predicted spiritual-centered, collective, and ritual-centered coping. Finally, ethnic socialization messages encouraging participants to have respect for authority figures, retain close relationships with family members, and maintain a collectivistic orientation (i.e., African American cultural values messages) were negatively predictive of John Henryism. Taken together, childhood racial-ethnic socialization experiences are an important resource for coping during college.

Future Directions in Research on Racism-Related Stress and Racial-Ethnic Protective Factors for Black Youth

Research on racism-related stress and racial-ethnic protective factors represents an important enterprise for optimizing the mental health of African American and other racial and ethnic minority youth. However, there has been a relative dearth of work on these factors in the clinical psychology research literature, and more work is needed in outlets such as these. To this end, the current article adopts a developmental psychopathology framework and uses recent empirical findings to outline our current understanding of racism-related stress and racial-ethnic protective factors (i.e., racial identity, racial socialization, Africentric worldview) for African American youth. We then provide nine recommendations-across basic, applied, and broader/cross-cutting research lines-that we prioritize as essential to advancing the future scientific investigation of this crucial research agenda. Within and across these recommendations, we issue a charge to researchers and clinicians alike, with the ultimate goal of alleviating the negative mental health impact that racism-related stress can have on the well-being and mental health of African American and other racial and ethnic minority youth.

Framing black boys: parent, teacher, and student narratives of the academic lives of black boys

The discourse on Black boys tends to suggest that Black boys are in complete peril. We begin with evidence that Black boys are excelling in certain contexts (i.e., in certain states, in certain schools, and in certain courses). We then discuss the ways in which the narratives used by parents, teachers, and Black boys themselves may serve to further reinforce views that Black boys are beyond hope. Research on Black parents suggests that they tend to view their sons as vulnerable and have lower expectations for sons than for daughters. Studies of teachers show that they tend to view Black boys as unteachable, as social problems, and as scary. Research on Black boys shows that they are sometimes complicit in supporting these narratives by engaging in negative or ste reotypical behavior. We also include recent research that includes counter-narratives of Black boys. We end with suggestions for future research.

Linking Contextual Affordances

This exploratory investigation examined the link between self-reported racial–ethnic socialization experiences and perceived parental career support among African American undergraduate and graduate students. The results of two separate multivariate multiple regression analyses found that messages about coping with racism positively predicted parental career supports involving opportunities to practice career behaviors, modeling of career behaviors, verbal encouragement of career development, and providing emotional support. Messages involving intergroup interactions were positively predictive of emotional support messages and opportunities to practice career development activities. The self-report of exposure to African American cultural artifacts (i.e., nonverbal ethnic socialization) positively predicted parental modeling of career behaviors and verbal encouragement of career development. Messages about African American history positively predicted verbal encouragement of career development and emotional support. Finally, messages about engaging in African American cultural activities negatively predicted verbal encouragement of career development. Recommendations for research and practice are provided.

Parental racial socialization as a moderator of the effects of racial discrimination on educational success among African American adolescents

This study investigated whether parental racial socialization practices moderated the relation between racial discrimination in school and adolescents' educational outcomes. Using data from a longitudinal study of an economically diverse sample of 630 African American adolescents (mean age=14.5) from a major East Coast metropolis, the results revealed that cultural socialization attenuated the effect of teacher discrimination on grade point average (GPA) and educational aspirations, as well as the effect of peer discrimination on GPA. Also, preparation for bias and cultural socialization interacted to make unique contributions to African American adolescents' educational outcomes. Finally, there was some evidence that teacher discrimination was more detrimental to the academic engagement of African American males than females. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Racial group regard, barrier socialization, and African American adolescents' engagement: patterns and processes by gender

The current study examined gendered processes via 1) profiles of racial barrier socialization, regard for one's racial group (private regard), and behavioral engagement and grades and, 2) gender and private regard as a moderator in the link between barrier messages and academic engagement outcomes. One-hundred and twenty-five African American adolescents (ages 10-14, M = 12.39, SD = 1.07) completed measures of socialization, private regard, grades and behavioral engagement. Latent Profile Analysis revealed a 2-cluster solution fit the data best - 1) High Engagement-Race Salient (HERS) cluster and 2) Low Engagement-Non-Salient cluster (LENS). Girls had higher representation in the HERS cluster. When private regard was examined as a moderator, girls' grades were unrelated to barrier socialization and private regard. In contrast, barrier socialization was associated with lower grades for low private regard boys. Findings are discussed in the context of gendered racial school contexts that African American youth must navigate to be academically successful.

Racial Barrier Socialization and the Well-being of African American Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Mother-Adolescent Relationship Quality

Racial socialization has been suggested as an important factor in helping African American adolescents cope effectively with racism and discrimination. Although multiple studies have reported a positive link between racial pride socialization and psychological adjustment among African American youth, assessments of the association between adolescent adjustment and another dimension of racial socialization-racial barrier socialization-have yielded inconsistent findings. Using a sample of 190 African American adolescents, the present study focuses attention on the quality of mother-adolescent relations as an indicator of affective context, and examines its moderating influence on the association between racial barrier socialization and adolescent adjustment. Regression analyses indicated that the link between racial barrier socialization and adolescent adjustment is moderated by mother-adolescent relationship quality. However, these associations varied by gender.