Protecting Our Daughters: Intersection of Race, Class and Gender in African American Mothers’ Socialization of Their Daughters’ Heterosexuality

Exploring the Orgasm Gap Across Racial/Ethnic Groups: A Descriptive Analysis

Orgasm gaps between heterosexual men and women, and for women across sexual orientations, are well-established in research. However, no large-scale assessments of orgasm frequency by race/ethnicity exist. Here, we analyzed 10 years of cross-sectional Singles in America survey data between 2011 and 2021 to investigate the orgasm gap at the intersection of gender and racial/ethnic identity (i.e. White, Black, Hispanic/Latino, and Asian) for heterosexual participants (N = 27,347). White and Hispanic/Latino men reported greater orgasm frequency than Black and Asian men. Hispanic/Latino women reported the greatest orgasm frequency, and Asian women reported the lowest, with White and Black women's frequencies in between. The orgasm gap between men and women was largest for White (d = 0.89) and Asian (d = 0.86) groups, although Asian participants reported a lower orgasm frequency than White participants overall. The orgasm gap was smaller for Hispanic/Latino participants (d = 0.66), because Hispanic/Latino women reported a greater orgasm frequency than other racial/ethnic groups of women. The orgasm gap was smaller for Black participants (d = 0.61), because Black men reported a lower orgasm frequency than some other racial/ethnic groups of men. This descriptive study serves as an important starting point for future research on orgasm experiences across racial/ethnic groups.

Application of ADAPT-ITT: adapting an evidence-based HIV/STI mother-daughter prevention intervention for Black male caregivers and girls

BACKGROUND

Black girls are disproportionately impacted by HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), underscoring the urgent need for innovative strategies to enhance the adoption and maintenance of HIV/STI prevention efforts. Historically, Black male caregivers have been left out of girls' programming, and little guidance exists to inform intervention development for Black girls and their male caregivers. Engaging Black male caregivers in Black girls' sexual and reproductive health may reduce sexual risk-taking and improve the sustainability of preventative behaviors.

OBJECTIVE

This paper describes the formative phases, processes, and methods used to adapt an evidence-based mother-daughter sexual and reproductive health intervention for Black girls 9-18 years old and their male caregivers.

METHODS

We used the ADAPT-ITT model to tailor IMARA for Black girls and their male caregivers. Diverse qualitative methods (interviews, focus groups, and theater testing) were used throughout the adaption process.

RESULTS

Findings support using the ADAPT-ITT model to tailor an evidence-based HIV/STI intervention for Black girls and their Black male caregivers. Findings highlight the importance of community engagement and the use of qualitative methods to demonstrate the acceptability and feasibility of the adapted intervention. Key lessons learned are reviewed.

CONCLUSIONS

Adapting evidence-based interventions to incorporate Black girls and their Black male caregivers should be driven by a relevant theoretical framework that aligns with the target population(s). Adapting the intervention in partnership with the community has been shown to improve acceptability and feasibility as it is responsive to community needs. Using a systematic process like the ADAPT-ITT model will ensure that the new program is ready for efficacy trials.

From Sin to Sexual Self-Awareness: Black Women's Reflection on Lifetime Masturbation

To date, there has been very little empirical research on Black women's masturbation practices and views on masturbation. This study fills the gap by exploring the messages Black women received about masturbation and self-pleasure and the sources of these messages using valence theory. Data were collected in 2021 from 242 Black women who participated in a survey during phase one of the triphasic Big Sex Study. Thematic analysis was used to analyze this short-form qualitative data. Results indicated a range of responses, with mixed messages reported more than negative, positive, and neutral messages. The three primary sources of messages were religion, family, and friends. There were several themes across the valence of messages including the development of positive messages, sexual self-awareness, masturbation as sin, health benefits and consequences, relationship difficulties, devaluation, and masturbation as dirty and gross. These results provide a basis for sexuality professionals to improve sociocultural knowledge about masturbation beliefs, practices, and message sources among Black women.

The Role of the Strong Black Woman in Black Female Sexual Development

Black girls and women are disproportionately impacted by sexual health disparities, including an increased risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STI). Early sexual development among Black females heightens their risk of HIV/STI. Utilizing the Becoming a Sexual Black Woman (SBW) framework, this study sought to understand how early sexual development and stereotype messages may underpin HIV/STI risk, building on and furthering the discussion of the consequences of the SBW schema. To better understand this phenomenon, we conducted a secondary thematic data analysis from two previously completed grounded theory studies with Black girls and women ranging in age from 11 to 62 (N = 40). Findings revealed that Black women have been socialized to be strong and independent and yet are highly vulnerable to HIV/STI. This clash between Black girl's and women's ideals of strength and heightened vulnerability to HIV/STI presents a paradox that may help explain disparities in HIV/STI risk. Four themes emerged among both Black girls and women: complex construction of the SBW schema, burden and consequences of strength, pressure to be strong, and being strong and sexual. Findings also highlight how becoming both a strong and sexual Black woman occurs over the life course and is inherent to Black female sexual development. We discuss the implications of these findings for parents, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers with the aim to improve sexual health outcomes for Black females across the life course.

Being fast or cautious? Sociocultural conditions influencing the sexual pathways of Black females in the United States

Background

Black females in the United States face unique sociocultural conditions that impact their sexual development and increase their risk for sexually transmitted infections (STI), including but not limited to chlamydia, gonorrhea, and HIV. Research has not adequately explained how sociocultural conditions contribute to this increased risk. The purpose of our investigation was to explore the sociocultural conditions that influence Black cisgender females risk for STI.

Methods

This grounded theory study involved in-depth audio-recorded interviews with 20, primarily heterosexual, Black females ages 19–62.

Results

Findings informed a conceptual model that builds on previous theory about the sexual development of Black females and explains how sociocultural conditions impact two, participant identified, sexual pathways: Fast and Cautious. Movement on these sexual pathways was not always a linear trajectory; some participants shifted between pathways as their sociocultural contexts changed (i.e., sexual assault, STI, and level of protection). The Fast sexual pathway often led to greater STI risk.

Conclusions

This model may inform future research designed to prevent STI/HIV and promote the sexual health of Black females across the life course.

Investigating Longitudinal Associations Between Racial Microaggressions, Coping, Racial/Ethnic Identity, and Mental Health in Black Girls and Women

Racial microaggressions pose significant risk to health and well-being among Black adolescents and adults. Yet, protective factors (i.e., coping, racial/ethnic identity) can moderate the impact of racial microaggressions over time. Unfortunately, few studies have evaluated the role of these protective factors longitudinally or specifically among Black girls and women. In the current study, we focused on the experiences of Black girls and women and investigated the longitudinal links between racial microaggressions and mental health symptoms over 1 year. We then explored the role of two key protective factors as moderators-coping with racial discrimination and racial/ethnic identity-for mental health. Participants included 199 Black adolescent girls (M_age  = 16.02) and 199 Black women (M_age  = 42.82) who completed measures on two types of racial microaggressions, three types of coping strategies, racial/ethnic identity, and mental health symptomology. Girls and women completed measures at three time points over 1 year. Results indicated both types of microaggressions predicted increased mental health symptoms in Black women. Among Black girls, assumptions of criminality predicted increased externalizing symptoms only when protective factors were included in the model. Analysis of the protective factors indicated a potential direct benefit rather than a moderating role of coping with racial discrimination through positive thinking for mental health in both Black girls and women. Evidence suggests that coping may have had a direct rather than an indirect effect on Black girls' mental health over time. We conclude with future directions for research and considerations for practice.

The Impact of COVID-19 Among Black Girls: A Social-Ecological Perspective

Objective

To explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Black adolescent girls’ physical, psychological, and sexual development.

Methods

Semistructured interviews were conducted with 25 girls (9–18 years old) primarily across the Midwestern United States. Interviews were conducted until theoretical saturation was reached. We conducted a conventional content analysis by reviewing transcripts, coding data, and developing themes.

Results

Utilizing the social-ecological model findings revealed themes related to the individual-, interpersonal-, institutional-, and community-level changes that Black girls experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusions

Black adolescent girls need opportunities to discuss the changes, receive relevant resources, and have spaces to support their physical, psychological, and sexual development. Systems such as families, schools, and clinics should implement programming to facilitate discussions around the impact of COVID-19 on Black girls.

Balancing the sexology scales: a content analysis of Black women's sexuality research

Existing research adopting a sex positive and intersectional framework for investigating Black women's sexualities is scarce. We conducted a 46-year (1972-2018) content analysis of sexualities research focussed on Black women. It sought to examine which sexualities topics were published most; whether the publications aligned with sex-positive, neutral or negative discourse; what methodologies were used; and differences in how various identities were investigated among Black women. Using human coding, we applied an integrative approach to the content analysis. Results found 245 articles meeting criteria. Approximately one-third of articles within the analysis focussed on the topic of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), HIV and sexual risk behaviours among Black women. Only 6.5% of articles utilised a sex-positive discourse. Quantitative articles were the most published methodology, and publications disproportionately overlooked Black women's intersectional identities. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Partnered Sexual Behaviors, Pleasure, and Orgasms at Last Sexual Encounter: Findings from a U.S. Probability Sample of Black Women Ages 18 to 92 Years

The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of sexual behaviors and experiences of Black women's partnered behaviors at their most recent sexual event. Data were from a subset of 980 Black women ages 18 to 92 who participated in the 2018 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior. Findings provide a sex-positive view of Black women and their partnered experiences, indicating a range of activities; most wanted their sexual experiences, experienced orgasms, and reported pleasurable experiences. These results provide a foundation for sexual health practitioners, educators, and therapists to improve societal knowledge about Black women's sexuality.

Are Sexually Transmitted Infection/HIV Behavioral Interventions for Women of Color Culturally Grounded? A Review of the Literature

Although behavioral interventions for women of color have been shown to be effective in reducing sexually transmitted infections (STIs), STI/HIV rates continue to increase. To alleviate sexual health disparities, it is necessary to understand the cultural behaviors of the target population to design culturally grounded interventions. The purposes of our review were to examine the current state of STI/HIV behavioral interventions for women of color, determine how culture has been incorporated into interventions, and identify gaps in the literature. We reviewed 17 articles targeting women of color between the ages of 13 and 65 years. Findings suggest the need for interventions that are culturally grounded, group based, and delivered face-to-face and in multiple sessions to reduce STI/HIV risk behaviors. Although many of the studies were effective, we found three major gaps: (a) the need to examine intervention sustainability, (b) limitations in the adaption of theoretical frameworks, and (c) clarity in how to infuse culture into interventions.

Protecting young Black female sexuality

In the USA, Black girls and women face significant health disparities and disproportionately experience violence, racism, discrimination, stereotype messaging and elevated STI/HIV rates. Research shows the importance of familial systems and effective communication in decreasing risky behaviours among Black girls. This grounded theory study explored the sociocultural conditions that influence the process of becoming a sexual Black woman. Analytic results of interviews with 20 Black women identified protection as a major category associated with Black female sexual development and related risk behaviour. This paper describes the role of Black women as protectors of young Black female sexuality, the sociocultural protective strategies they used across the life course and the consequences of absent protection. Findings can inform future evidence-based, culturally sensitive interventions to promote the sexual health and development of Black girls and women in the USA.

Following Their Lead? Connecting Mainstream Media Use to Black Women's Gender Beliefs and Sexual Agency

Although media exposure has emerged as a significant predictor of consumers' sexual decision making, less is known about the mechanisms involved and about the dynamics of these relations for adults, in general, and for African American adults, in particular. To address these gaps, we used structural equation modeling (SEM) to test whether heterosexual Black women's endorsement of traditional gender and sexual roles mediates connections between their consumption of four mainstream media (music videos, reality TV programming, movies, and women's magazines) and three dimensions of their sexual well-being (sexual assertiveness, sexual inhibition, and sexual deception). We surveyed 594 heterosexual Black women aged 17 to 55 who were undergraduate and graduate students at two universities (one historically Black university and one predominantly White institution). Results confirmed expectations, such that greater media consumption was associated with greater support of traditional gender and sexual roles; in turn, endorsing these roles predicted lower levels of sexual assertiveness, greater sexual inhibition, and more frequent use of sexual dishonesty to retain a partner. We discuss implications of these findings for psychology and sexuality research and also for Black women's sexual relationships.

The Process of Becoming a Sexual Black Woman: A Grounded Theory Study

Black females in the United States disproportionately suffer from STDs, including HIV. Understanding the sociocultural conditions that affect their risk is essential to developing effective and culturally relevant prevention programs.

METHODS

In 2016-2017 in Madison, Wisconsin, 20 black females aged 19-62 completed interviews that explored the sociocultural conditions associated with sexual development and STD/HIV risk. Interviews were guided by grounded theory; open, axial and selective coding and constant comparative analysis were used to identify developmental phases and relevant sociocultural conditions.

RESULTS

Three phases of becoming a sexual black woman were identified: Girl, when participants reported beginning to understand their sexuality; Grown, marking a transition to adulthood, when participants began to feel more self-sufficient yet still grappled with their emerging sexuality; and Woman, when participants developed a strong sense of self and took ownership of their bodies. Two sociocultural conditions affected progression through these phases: stereotype messaging and protection (both self-protection and protecting others). Negative life events (e.g., sexual trauma) and early sexualization reportedly affected sexual development, and STD experience influenced self-perceptions of sexuality and sexual behavior, often leading to self-protective behaviors. Older participants reported strategies to protect young black females from negative sexual experiences.

CONCLUSION

Interventions at multiple levels of the social ecology throughout the life course may help reduce STD/HIV risk among black women in the United States. Future research should include examination of the experiences of black females younger than 18 and evaluation of the protective strategies employed by older black females.

US Black college women's sexual health in hookup culture: intersections of race and gender

Approximately 60-80% of college students in the USA report a hookup experience in the form of a casual sexual encounter between individuals without the expectation of a dating or romantic relationship. Given the potential health risk posed by these sexual encounters, the need exists to critically examine this cultural phenomenon on college campuses. Yet, the existing hookup literature is overwhelming White and often exclusive of historically marginalised populations such as Black women. Accordingly, this paper examines the role of the intersecting identities of race and gender and other social factors that influence the sexual health and wellbeing of Black women on US college campuses. Specifically, we explore issues related to the gender ratio disparities present on college campuses, relationship power imbalances, inconsistent condom use and low sexual-risk perception. Moving forward, hookup research needs to utilise an intersectional approach; we offer specific suggestions for the important inclusion of Black women in the broader hookup discourse and future research.

Stereotypes of Black American Women Related to Sexuality and Motherhood

Intersectionality theorists and researchers suggest the importance of examining unique stereotypes associated with intersecting group identities. We focus on the unique stereotypes of Black women in the United States related to sexuality and motherhood. In an online experimental study, 435 undergraduates from a Northeastern U.S. university were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions in which they viewed a photograph and read a description of a target young woman. The target's race (Black vs. White) and pregnancy status (pregnant vs. no pregnancy information) were varied. A Black female target (pregnant or not) was perceived more negatively on items related to historically rooted societal stereotypes about sexual activity, sexual risk, motherhood status, and socioeconomic status than was a White female target, but there were no differences on items unrelated to societal stereotypes. A Black target described as pregnant was also perceived as more likely to be a single mother and to need public assistance than was a White target described as pregnant. Current findings, along with evidence that societal stereotypes have damaging effects, underscore the importance of diversifying images of Black women and increasing awareness of how stereotypes affect perceptions of Black women. Findings also highlight the value of research employing intersectionality to understand stereotypes.

An intersectional approach for understanding the vulnerabilities of English-speaking heterosexual Caribbean youth to HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections: Prevention and intervention strategies

Caribbean youth comprise about 30 percent of the English-speaking Caribbean population, and about 81,000 Caribbean and Latin American youth are HIV infected. AIDS is the leading cause of death for 15- to 24-year-old English-speaking Caribbean youth. This article relies on intersectionality theory in the assessment of the macro-level, or structural variables, and micro-level, or individual level, variables that influence the risk-taking sexual behaviors of heterosexual English-speaking Caribbean youth and increase their vulnerability to HIV/sexually transmitted infections. This article offers macro- and micro-level prevention/intervention strategies for reducing the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections in English-speaking Caribbean youth, including the promotion of condom use, voluntary male circumcision, and HIV testing and counseling. Suggestions are offered for future research investigations to explore the contributing factors to youth's vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections and to empirically verify the relationship between and among variables that account for desired outcomes, including decreases in risky sexual behaviors.

Stress and Mental Health

Research indicates that Black women highly endorse the Strong Black Woman (SBW) stereotype—a perception that Black women are naturally strong, resilient, self-contained, and self-sacrificing. This endorsement appears to be a good thing, providing Black women protection against the numerous stressors they must contend with daily. However, anecdotal and qualitative evidence suggests that SBW endorsement limits Black women’s ability to cope healthily which exacerbates the negative mental health outcomes of stress. Because few empirical studies of SBW have been conducted, how SBW endorsement might influence the stress–mental health association is unknown. The current study addresses this gap by quantitatively examining the relationships among SBW endorsement, stress, and anxious and depressive symptoms with a sample of 92 Black female college students. Results revealed that both moderate and high levels of SBW endorsement increase the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms, while low levels of SBW endorsement do not. These data extend previous qualitative findings and suggest that embracing the SBW stereotypic image increases Black women’s vulnerability to depressive symptoms associated with stress.

Exploration of Social, Environmental, and Familial Influences on the Sexual Health Practices of Urban African American Adolescents

Despite efforts to examine social influences and provide interventions that lead to safer sexual practices for African American (AA) adolescent girls, statistics have demonstrated this population continues to have the highest rates of teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV when compared with adolescent girls of other races. Guided by the principles of Black Feminist Thought and Photovoice and focus group methodology, this descriptive study aimed to discover the social realities influencing a group of eight AA adolescent girls aged 15 to 19 years. Data from individual interviews and a focus group session were collected from November 11, 2012, to February 1, 2013. Analysis of selected photographs, interviews, and focus group conversations through a feminist lens suggests AA adolescents of low socioeconomic status continue to foster racial and mental inferiority stereotypes by using their sexuality as a bargaining tool for acceptance, value, and even love.

Cultural Preparation for Womanhood in Urban African American Girls

Purpose: Poor sexual health is a significant contributor to morbidity in young African American women. Knowing how sexual knowledge is transmitted to Black girls is needed to develop effective preventive interventions. The purpose of this study was to explore the ways in which Black mothers transmit sexual values and knowledge to their daughters. Design: Interviews were conducted with 14 mothers, aged 25 to 34 years, with daughters aged 8 to 16 years. Data were analyzed using constant comparative analysis. Findings: The themes derived were (a) truth telling, (b) building strength through self-esteem, and (c) spirituality as helper. The overarching cultural theme was “Growing Strong Black Women.” Discussion/Conclusions: Mothers’ discussions with their daughters were infused with cultural meaning derived from their experiences. Black girls’ behavioral responses to their mothers’ strategies need to be studied. Implications: The findings will help nurses develop effective interventions that take into account the cultural realities of Black mothers.

African American women's safer sexual practices: the influence of ethnic-racial socialisation and body esteem

African American women are disproportionately at risk for sexually transmitted infections (e.g., HIV and gonorrhoea). It is important therefore to explore cultural factors that may influence their sexual practices. The present study examined the relationship between safer sexual practices (i.e., using condoms and inquiring about partner sexual history), participants' ethnic-racial socialisation experiences with maternal and paternal caregivers, and body esteem. Participants were 262, largely middle-class, African American women (ages 18 to 78) from a Midwestern US city who completed an online questionnaire. Results indicated significant differences on measures of safer sexual practice based on relationship status. Regression results suggested that certain paternal cultural practices were negatively related to inquiring about a partner's sexual history. However, body esteem was positively associated with inquiry regarding partner's previous sexual history. Implications for intervention efforts and research are discussed.

A multidimensional framework for the meanings of the sexual double standard and its application for the sexual health of young black women in the U.S

There has been debate in the literature as to whether a sexual double standard (SDS) currently exists in the United States. Studies vary greatly in how the SDS is operationalized, making it difficult to interpret findings across studies and translate academic literature into applied fields such as public health. To advance academic and applied research, we propose a multidimensional framework for the SDS that can accommodate complex and nuanced meanings, is flexible enough to allow for the dynamic nature of social ideologies, and is grounded in an understanding of social systems of inequality. In this article, we describe three dimensions that define the broad elements of the SDS: (a) polarized (hetero)sexualities, (b) active male and passive female roles, and (c) the power struggle narrative. To illustrate the use of the framework, we contextualize each dimension in terms of the intersection of race and gender for young Black women in the United States. And finally, to apply the framework, we explore the effects the SDS can have on sexual health and suggest some directions for public health interventions. These analyses lay the groundwork for more complex and comprehensive investigations of the SDS and its effects on sexual health.

Mothers and daughters: intertwining relationships and the lived experience of breast cancer

No relationship is more profound than the positional mother- daughter dyad. Each shares a physical, emotional, and spiritual link not experienced by others. The intrusion of breast cancer alters this normative dyadic relationship. In this article we explore this change through a hermeneutic reflective narrative inquiry, incorporating Bakhtinian dialogism, of the behavioral science literature, popular press, and other resources, and use of the motet to uncover the lived experience of women in this dyadic relationship.

Sexual socialization in lesbian-parent families: an exploratory analysis

Few studies have examined the sexual socialization of children within lesbian-parent families, despite evidence that these children may experience benefits in this regard. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 10 partnered, lesbian mothers to explore what and how participants taught their children about sexuality-related issues. Themes related to what participants taught their children about these topics included diverse notions of sexual orientation and reproduction. Themes related to how participants taught these concepts included tag-teaming with their partners (i.e., participants shared with their partners the task of teaching their children about sexuality-related issues), although differences in how the partners carried out this task were identified. This study demonstrated a diversity of experiences of lesbian-parent families, often seemingly in relation to family contextual factors (e.g., how children were conceived), and has potential implications for family researchers, practitioners, and, perhaps, all parents.