Fucoidan alleviates microcystin-LR-induced hepatic, renal, and cardiac oxidative stress and inflammatory injuries in mice

Natural polysaccharides as promising reno-protective agents for the treatment of various kidney injury

Renal injury, a prevalent clinical outcome with multifactorial etiology, imposes a substantial burden on society. Currently, there remains a lack of effective management and treatments. Extensive research has emphasized the diverse biological effects of natural polysaccharides, which exhibit promising potential for mitigating renal damage. This review commences with the pathogenesis of four common renal diseases and the shared mechanisms underlying renal injury. The renoprotective roles of polysaccharides in vivo and in vitro are summarized in the following five aspects: anti-oxidative stress effects, anti-apoptotic effects, anti-inflammatory effects, anti-fibrotic effects, and gut modulatory effects. Furthermore, we explore the structure-activity relationship and bioavailability of polysaccharides in relation to renal injury, as well as investigate their utility as biomaterials for alleviating renal injury. The clinical experiments of polysaccharides applied to patients with chronic kidney disease are also reviewed. Broadly, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on the research direction of natural polysaccharides in the context of renal injury, with the primary aim to serve as a reference for the clinical development of polysaccharides as pharmaceuticals and prebiotics for the treatment of kidney diseases.

The effect and mechanism of combined exposure of MC-LR and NaNO2 on liver lipid metabolism

Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and sodium nitrite (NaNO2) co-exist in the environment and are hepatotoxic. The liver has the function of lipid metabolism, but the impacts and mechanisms of MC-LR and NaNO2 on liver lipid metabolism are unclear. Therefore, we established a chronic exposure model of Balb/c mice and used LO2 cells for in vitro verification to investigate the effects and mechanisms of liver lipid metabolism caused by MC-LR and NaNO2. The results showed that after 6 months of exposure to MC-LR and NaNO2, the lipid droplets content was increased, and the activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were raised in the liver (P < 0.05). Moreover, MC-LR and NaNO2 synergistically induced hepatic oxidative stress by decreasing total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity and glutathione (GSH) levels and increasing malondialdehyde (MDA) content levels. In addition, the levels of Nrf2, HO-1, NQO1 and P-AMPK was decreased and Keap1 was increased in the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. The key factors of lipid metabolism, SREBP-1c, FASN and ACC, were up-regulated in the liver. More importantly, there was a combined effect on lipid deposition of MC-LR and NaNO2 co-exposure. In vitro experiments, MC-LR and NaNO2-induced lipid deposition and changes in lipid metabolism-related changes were mitigated after activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway by the Nrf2 activator tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ). Additionally, TBHQ alleviated the rise of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in LO2 cells induced by MC-LR and NaNO2. Overall, our findings indicated that MC-LR and NaNO2 can cause abnormal liver lipid metabolism, and the combined effects were observed after MC-LR and NaNO2 co-exposure. The Nrf2/HO-1 signal pathway may be a potential target for prevention and control of liver toxicity caused by MC-LR and NaNO2.

Alleviation of microcystin-leucine arginine -induced hepatotoxicity: An updated overview

OBJECTIVES

Contamination of surface waters is a major health threat for all living creatures. Some types of blue-green algae that naturally occur in fresh water, are able to produce various toxins, like Microcystins (MCs). Microcystin-leucine arginine (MC-LR) produced by Microcystis aeruginosa is the most toxic and abundant isoforms of MCs, and it causes hepatotoxicity. The present article reviews preclinical experiments examined different treatments, including herbal derivatives, dietary supplements and drugs against MC-LR hepatotoxicity.

METHODS

We searched scientific databases Web of Science, Embase, Medline (PubMed), Scopus, and Google Scholar using relevant keywords to find suitable studies until November 2023.

RESULTS

MC-LR through Organic anion transporting polypeptide superfamily transporters (OATPs) penetrates and accumulates in hepatocytes, and it inhibits protein phosphatases (PP1 and PP2A). Consequently, MC-LR disturbs many signaling pathways and induces oxidative stress thus damages cellular macromolecules. Some protective agents, especially plants rich in flavonoids, and natural supplements, as well as chemoprotectants were shown to diminish MC-LR hepatotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

The reviewed agents through blocking the OATP transporters (nontoxic nostocyclopeptide-M1, captopril, and naringin), then inhibition of MC-LR uptake (naringin, rifampin, cyclosporin-A, silymarin and captopril), and finally at restoration of PPAse activity (silybin, quercetin, morin, naringin, rifampin, captopril, azo dyes) exert hepatoprotective effect against MC-LR.

Marine Microalgal Products with Activities against Age-Related Cardiovascular Diseases

Heart disease is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and it is estimated that 17.9 million people die of it each year. The risk factors for cardiovascular diseases are attributable to an unhealthy and sedentary lifestyle, poor nutrition, stress, genetic predisposition, diabetes, obesity, and aging. Marine microalgae have been the subject of numerous studies for their potential activity against several human diseases. They produce a plethora of primary and secondary metabolites such as essential nutrients, vitamins, pigments, and omega-3 fatty acid. Many of these molecules have antioxidant properties and have been shown to play a role in the prevention of heart diseases. The aim of this review is to summarize recent studies on the discovery of marine microalgal compounds and bioactivities for cardiovascular diseases, including in vitro and in vivo studies, showing and discussing recent discoveries and trends. The most promising results were found for microalgal polysaccharides, peptides and carotenoids. In conclusion, the overall data summarized here show that microalgae-based supplementation has the potential to improve age-related cardiovascular diseases and we expect more clinical studies in the future.

Biofunctional coacervate-based artificial protocells with membrane-like and cytoplasm-like structures for the treatment of persistent hyperuricemia

Coacervate droplets formed by liquid-liquid phase separation have attracted considerable attention due to their ability to enrich biomacromolecules while preserving their bioactivities. However, there are challenges to develop coacervate droplets as delivery vesicles for therapeutics resulting from the lack of physiological stability and inherent lack of membranes in coacervate droplets. Herein, polylysine-polynucleotide complex coacervate droplets with favorable physiological stability are formulated to efficiently and facilely concentrate small molecules, biomacromolecules and nanoparticles without organic solvents. To improve the biocompatibility, the PEGylated phospholipid membrane is further coated on the surface of the coacervate droplets to prepare coacervate-based artificial protocells (ArtPC) with membrane-like and cytoplasm-like structures. The ArtPC can confine the cyclic catalytic system of uricase and catalase inside to degrade uric acid and deplete the toxicity of H2O2. This biofunctional ArtPC effectively reduces blood uric acid levels and prevents renal injuries in mice with persistent hyperuricemia. The ArtPC-based therapy can bridge the disciplines of synthetic biology, pharmaceutics and therapeutics.

Fucoidan's Molecular Targets: A Comprehensive Review of Its Unique and Multiple Targets Accounting for Promising Bioactivities Supported by In Silico Studies

Fucoidan is a class of multifunctional polysaccharides derived from marine organisms. Its unique and diversified physicochemical and chemical properties have qualified them for potential and promising pharmacological uses in human diseases, including inflammation, tumors, immunity disorders, kidney diseases, and diabetes. Physicochemical and chemical properties are the main contributors to these bioactivities. The previous literature has attributed such activities to its ability to target key enzymes and receptors involved in potential disease pathways, either directly or indirectly, where the anionic sulfate ester groups are mainly involved in these interactions. These findings also confirm the advantageous pharmacological uses of sulfated versus non-sulfated polysaccharides. The current review shall highlight the molecular targets of fucoidans, especially enzymes, and the subsequent responses via either the upregulation or downregulation of mediators' expression in various tissue abnormalities. In addition, in silico studies will be applied to support the previous findings and show the significant contributors. The current review may help in understanding the molecular mechanisms of fucoidan. Also, the findings of this review may be utilized in the design of specific oligomers inspired by fucoidan with the purpose of treating life-threatening human diseases effectively.

Advances in investigating microcystin-induced liver toxicity and underlying mechanisms

Microcystins (MCs) are a class of biologically active cyclic heptapeptide pollutants produced by the freshwater alga Microcystis aeruginosa. With increased environmental pollution, MCs have become a popular research topic. In recent years, the hepatotoxicity of MCs and associated effects and mechanisms have been studied extensively. Current epidemiological data indicate that long-term human exposure to MCs can lead to severe liver toxicity, acute toxicity, and death. In addition, current toxicological studies on the liver, a vital target organ of MCs, indicate that MC contamination is associated with the development of liver cancer, nonalcoholic fatty liver, and liver fibrosis. MCs produce hepatotoxicity that affects the metabolic homeostasis of the liver, induces apoptosis, and acts as a pro-cancer factor, leading to liver lesions. MCs mainly mediate the activation of signaling pathways, such as the ERK/JNK/p38 MAPK and IL-6-STAT3 pathways, which leads to oxidative damage and even carcinogenesis. Moreover, MCs can act synergistically with other pollutants to produce combined toxicity. However, few systematic reviews have been performed on these new findings. This review systematically summarizes the toxic effects and mechanisms of MCs on the liver and discusses the combined liver toxicity effects of MCs and other pollutants to provide reference for subsequent research. The toxicity of different MC isomers deserves further study. The detection methods and limit standards of MCs in agricultural and aquatic products will represent important research directions in the future. Standard protocols for fish sampling during harmful algal blooms or to evaluate the degree of MC toxicity in nature are lacking. In future, bioinformatics can be applied to offer insights into MC toxicology research and potential drug development for MC poisoning. Further research is essential to understand the molecular mechanisms of liver function damage in combined-exposure toxicology studies to establish treatment for MC-induced liver damage.

Long-Term Exposure to Microcystin-LR Induces Gastric Toxicity by Activating the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathway

Previous studies have primarily concentrated on the hepatotoxicity of MC-LR, whereas its gastric toxicity effects and mechanisms of long-term exposure under low dosage remain unknown. Herein, the gastric tissue from C57BL/6 mice fed with drinking water contaminated by low-dose MC-LR (including 1, 60, and 120 μg/L) was investigated. The results obtained showed that exposure to different concentrations of MC-LR resulted in significant shedding and necrosis of gastric epithelial cells in mice, and a down-regulation of tight junction markers, including ZO-1, Claudin1, and Occludin in the stomach, which might lead to increased permeability of the gastric mucosa. Moreover, the protein expression levels of p-RAF/RAF, p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2, Pink1, Parkin, and LC3-II/LC-3-I were increased in the gastric tissue of mice exposed to 120 μg/L of MC-LR, while the protein expression level of P62 was significantly decreased. Furthermore, we found that pro-inflammatory factors, including IL-6 and TNF-ɑ, were dramatically increased, while the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10 was significantly decreased in the gastric tissue of MC-LR-exposed mice. The activation of the MAPK signaling pathway and mitophagy might contribute to the development of gastric damage by promoting inflammation. We first reported that long-term exposure to MC-LR induced gastric toxicity by activating the MAPK signaling pathway, providing a new insight into the gastric toxic mechanisms caused by MC-LR.

Fucoidan from Ericaria crinita Alleviates Inflammation in Rat Paw Edema, Downregulates Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Levels, and Shows Antioxidant Activity

Fucoidans are sulfated polysaccharides detected mainly in the cell walls of brown seaweeds. Here, we examined the effects of single doses of fucoidan derived from Ericaria crinita (formerly Cystoseira crinita) on carrageenan-induced paw inflammation in rats. The serum levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 of rats with LPS-induced systemic inflammation after 14 days of treatment were also evaluated. Subchronic treatment with fucoidan from E. crinita attenuated the inflammation during the late phase of the degraded carrageenan-induced paw edema (3rd to 5th hour after carrageenan injection) with peak activity at the 3rd hour after the application. Both doses of fucoidan from E. crinita (25 and 50 mg/kg bw) significantly decreased the levels of all tested pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6) in the serum of rats with a model of system inflammation but had no effect on the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. The results showed that the repeated application of fucoidan has a more prominent effect on the levels of some pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum in comparison to a single dose of the sulfated polysaccharide. This reveals the potential of E. crinita fucoidan as an anti-inflammatory agent. Furthermore, E. crinita fucoidan exhibited in vitro antioxidant capacity, determined by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging and ferric reducing antioxidant power assays as follows: IC50 = 412 µg/mL and 118.72 μM Trolox equivalent/g, respectively.

Novel Fucoidan Pharmaceutical Formulations and Their Potential Application in Oncology-A Review

Fucoidan belongs to the family of marine sulfated, L-fucose-rich polysaccharides found in the cell wall matrix of various brown algae species. In the last few years, sulfated polysaccharides have attracted the attention of researchers due to their broad biological activities such as anticoagulant, antithrombotic, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, anticancer and antiproliferative effects. Recently the application of fucoidan in the field of pharmaceutical technology has been widely investigated. Due to its low toxicity, biocompatibility and biodegradability, fucoidan plays an important role as a drug carrier for the formulation of various drug delivery systems, especially as a biopolymer with anticancer activity, used for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics in oncology. Furthermore, the presence of sulfate residues with negative charge in its structure enables fucoidan to form ionic complexes with oppositely charged molecules, providing relatively easy structure-forming properties in combination with other polymers. The aim of the present study was to overview essential fucoidan characteristics, related to its application in the development of pharmaceutical formulations as a single drug carrier or in combinations with other polymers. Special focus was placed on micro- and nanosized drug delivery systems with polysaccharides and their application in the field of oncology.

Fucoidan alleviates the hepatorenal syndrome through inhibition organic solute transporter α/β to reduce bile acids reabsorption

The high levels of bile acids are a critical factor in hepatorenal syndrome. Organic solute transporter α/β (Ostα/β) participate in bile acids reabsorption in the kidney. Fucoidan has the great potential in protecting against liver and kidney injury. However, whether Ostα/β increase bile acids reabsorption in bile duct ligature (BDL)-induced hepatorenal syndrome and the blockade of fucoidan are still not clear. Male mice that received BDL were given to fucoidan (at 12.5, 25 and 50 ​mg/kg) through intraperitoneal injection once daily for three weeks. The serum, liver and kidney samples of these experimental mice were collected to carry out biochemical, pathological and Western blot analysis. In this study, fucoidan significantly lowered serum activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), decreased serum levels of uric acid, creatinine and uric nitrogen, restored the deregulation of the renal urate transporter 1 (URAT1), organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1), and organic cation/carnitine transporter 1/2 (OCTN1/2), consistence with alleviation BDL-induced liver and kidney dysfunction, inflammation and fibrosis in mice. Furthermore, fucoidan significantly hampered Ostα/β and reduced bile acids reabsorption in BDL-induced mice, protected against AML12 and HK-2 ​cells injury in vitro. These results demonstrate that fucoidan alleviates BDL-induced hepatorenal syndrome through inhibition Ostα/β to reduce bile acids reabsorption in mice. Therefore, suppression of Ostα/β by fucoidan may be a novel strategy for attenuating hepatorenal syndrome.

Microcystin-LR-Exposure-Induced Kidney Damage by Inhibiting MKK6-Mediated Mitophagy in Mice

Previous studies have reported that microcystin-LR (MC-LR) levels are highly correlated with abnormal renal function indicators, suggesting that MC-LR is an independent risk factor for kidney damage. However, the evidence for the exact regulation mechanism of MC-LR on kidney damage is still limited, and further in-depth exploration is needed. In addition, the mitochondria-related mechanism of MC-LR leading to kidney damage has not been elucidated. To this end, the present study aimed to further explore the mechanism of mitophagy related to kidney damage induced by MC-LR through in vitro and in vivo experiments. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed with a standard rodent pellet and exposed daily to MC-LR (20 μg/kg·bw) via intraperitoneal injections for 7 days. Moreover, HEK 293 cells were treated with MC-LR (20 μM) for 24 h. The histopathological results exhibited kidney damage after MC-LR exposure, characterized by structurally damaged nephrotomies, with inflammatory cell infiltration. Similarly, a significant increase in renal interstitial fibrosis was observed in the kidneys of MC-LR-treated mice compared with those of the control group (CT) mice. MC-LR exposure caused impaired kidney function, with markedly increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (Cr), and uric acid (UA) levels in mice. Ultrastructural analysis exhibited obviously swollen, broken, and disappearing mitochondrial crests, and partial mitochondrial vacuoles in the MC-LR-treated HEK 293 cells. The Western blotting results demonstrated that exposure to MC-LR significantly increased the protein expressions of MKK6, p-p38, and p62, while the expression of mitophagy-related proteins was significantly inhibited in the kidneys of mice and HEK293 cells, including parkin, TOM20, and LC3-II, indicating the inhibition of mitophagy. Therefore, our data suggest that the inhibition of MKK6-mediated mitophagy might be the toxicological mechanism of kidney toxicity in mice with acute exposure to MC-LR.

Adverse effects of microcystins on sperm: A systematic review

Eutrophication of water bodies can lead to cyanobacterial blooms, with the resultant release of microcystins (MCs), posing a threat to the ecosystem and human health. MCs are environmental toxins with male reproductive toxicity. However, there is a dearth of reviews focusing on sperm or spermatogenesis. In this paper, studies on sperm toxicity caused by MCs in recent 20 years were collected and summarized, aiming at revealing the toxic effects and potential mechanisms of MCs on sperm. Based on the previous findings, MCs can decline sperm quality and count, and cause malformation in vertebrates and invertebrates. The reason might be that MCs cause indirect damage to sperm through impairing the structure and function of the testis. The mechanisms of MCs-induced sperm toxicity mainly result from alterations in genetic material, abnormalities in the structure and function of sperm. The epigenetic modifications such as miRNA and piRNA were also involved in MC-LR-induced sperm damage. In conclusion, MCs exposure is harmful to sperm, but its direct effects and mechanisms on sperm are still not known, which remains a significant research direction. Our review will provide a basis for the protection of male reproductive health damage caused by microcystins.

Serum microcystin-LR levels and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: A Chinese nested case-control study

Background

Previous experimental studies have reported an association between microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and glucose homeostasis, but whether exposure to MC-LR is a risk factor for the pathogenesis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) requires further epidemiological study. This study aims to explore the effects of MC-LR on GDM.

Methods

A prospective nested case-control study was performed in the Hunan Provincial Maternal and Child Health Hospital (HPMCHH) in South China. A total of 119 patients with GDM and 238 controls were enrolled in the study. The two independent samples t-test, or chi-square test was used to compare the difference between the GDM group and the non-GDM group. Binary logistic regression was used to obtain odds ratios (ORs) by controlling for confounders.

Results

The cumulative incidence of GDM in our sample was 13.7%. The detection rate of MC-LR in the GDM group were significantly higher than those in the control group (44.2% vs. 29.4%; p=0.007). Our results show that an elevated serum MC-LR level in the first trimester of pregnancy was related to an increased risk of GDM (OR: 1.924; 95% CI: 1.092-3.391; p<0.05). When stratified by age, educational level, parity, and passive smoking, significantly relationships were observed among those aged >30 years, lower income, higher education, none passive smoking, and more likely to be multiparous.

Conclusions

Our data reveals that serum MC-LR level in the first trimester is independently associated with GDM.

A Review on Fucoidan Structure, Extraction Techniques, and Its Role as an Immunomodulatory Agent

Functional ingredients for human health have recently become the focus of research. One such potentially versatile therapeutic component is fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides (FCSPs), referred to as fucoidans. The exploitation of marine brown algae provides a rich source of FCSPs because of their role as a structural component of the cell wall. Fucoidans are characterized by a sulfated fucose backbone. However, the structural characterization of FCSPs is impeded by their structural diversity, molecular weight, and complexity. The extraction and purification conditions significantly influence the yield and structural alterations. Inflammation is the preliminary response to potentially injurious inducements, and it is of the utmost importance for modulation in the proper direction. Improper manipulation and/or continuous stimuli could have detrimental effects in the long run. The web of immune responses mediated through multiple modulatory/cell signaling components can be addressed through functional ingredients, benefiting patients with no side effects. In this review, we attempted to address the involvement of FCSPs in the stimulation/downregulation of immune response cell signaling. The structural complexity and its foremost influential factor, extraction techniques, have also attracted attention, with concise details on the structural implications of bioactivity.

The effects of fucoidan as a dairy substitute on diarrhea rate and intestinal barrier function of the large intestine in weaned lambs

This paper explores the effects of fucoidan on the frequency of diarrhea, colon morphology, colon antioxidant status, cytokine content, short-chain fatty acids, and microflora of cecal contents in early weaned lambs in order to provide a reference for the intestinal health of young ruminants. Fucoidan is a natural active polysaccharide extracted from kelp and other large brown algae. It has many biological effects, such as improving immunity, nourishing the stomach and intestines, and anti-tumor properties. This study investigated the effects of fucoidan supplementation in milk replacer on the large intestine's ability to act as an intestinal barrier in weaned lambs. With six duplicate pens and one lamb per pen, a total of 24 weaned lambs (average starting body weight of 7.32 ± 0.37 kg) were randomly assigned to one of four milk replacer treatments. Four concentrations of fucoidan supplementation (0, 0.1, 0.3, and 0.6% dry matter intake) were employed to investigate the effects of fucoidan on cecal fermentation and colon microbial organization. The test period lasted 37 days (1 week before the test and 1 month after the test), and lamb cecal contents and colon organization were collected for examination. In addition, the fecal status of all lambs was observed and recorded daily, allowing us to calculate the incidence of diarrhea in weaned lambs. The findings demonstrated that fucoidan may significantly increase the concentration of short-chain fatty acids (propionic acid and butyric acid) in the cecal digesta of weaned lambs. In weaned lambs, 16S rDNA testing showed that fucoidan at 0.3-0.6% (dry matter intake) was beneficial for boosting the variety of the intestinal bacteria and modifying the relative abundance of a few bacterial strains. In addition, fucoidan enhanced colon antioxidant and immune functions and decreased the diarrhea rate to relieve weaning stress. This result demonstrates that milk replacer supplementation with fucoidan contributes to the improvement in the large intestinal health of weaned lambs.

Microcystin-LR in Primary Liver Cancers: An Overview

The cyanobacterial blooms produced by eutrophic water bodies have become a serious environmental issue around the world. After cellular lysing or algaecide treatment, microcystins (MCs), which are regarded as the most frequently encountered cyanobacterial toxins in fresh water, are released into water. Among all the variants of MCs, MC-LR has been widely studied due to its severe hepatotoxicity. Since 1992, various studies have identified the important roles of MC-LR in the origin and progression of primary liver cancers (PLCs), although few reviews have focused on it. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the major achievements and shortcomings observed in the past few years. Based on the available literature, the mechanisms of how MC-LR induces or promotes PLCs are elucidated in this review. This review aims to enhance our understanding of the role that MC-LR plays in PLCs and provides a rational approach for future applications.

Exploring the direct effects of microcystin-LR on DNA via using cross-technical means

Microcystin-leucine arginine (MC-LR) is the most toxic and abundant microcystin produced by cyanobacteria. Previous studies have demonstrated that MC-LR can lead to DNA damage by increasing intracellular reactive oxygen species content to induce oxidative stress. However, the direct effect of MC-LR on DNA has not been fully described. In this study, the direct effect of MC-LR on DNA was explored by using spectral analysis and molecular biology technology. First, the fluorescent probe Bptp-R2 was developed to monitor different types of DNA and explore the direct interaction between DNA and MC-LR. The significant differences in the fluorescence of probe-plasmid DNA and probe-ds DNA at various MC-LR concentrations (0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 μmol/L) and MC-LR exposure times (0, 6, 12, and 24 h) showed that the direct interaction between DNA and MC-LR was significant (P ≤ 0.01). Gel electrophoresis demonstrated that the direct interaction between DNA and MC-LR cannot cause DNA strand breaks or change DNA configuration. Then, PCR experiments revealed that the direct interaction between DNA and MC-LR cannot affect DNA replication in a PCR system (P ≤ 0.01). This study discovered that the effects of MC-LR on DNA originate mainly from the secondary effects of MC-LR rather than from the direct interaction between DNA and MC-LR.

Fucoidan Protects against Acute Sulfoxaflor-Induced Hematological/Biochemical Alterations and Oxidative Stress in Male Mice

Fucoidan is a sulfated polysaccharide which can be found among a number of macroalgea species. It has a broad spectrum of biological activities including anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, immunoregulation, anti-viral and anti-coagulant. The current study was performed to investigate possible protective effects of fucoidan for sulfoxaflor-induced hematological/biochemical alterations and oxidative stress in the blood of male Swiss albino mice. For this purpose, sulfoxaflor was administered at a dose of 15 mg/kg/day (1/50 oral LD₅₀), and fucoidan was administered at a dose of 50 mg/kg/day by oral gavage alone and combined for 24 h and 7 days. Hematological parameters (RBC, HGB, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC, Plt, WBC, Neu, Lym and Mon), serum biochemical parameters (AST, ALT, GGT, LDH, BUN, Cre and TBil), and serum oxidative stress/antioxidant markers (8-OHdG, MDA, POC and GSH) were analyzed. The results indicated that sulfoxaflor altered hematological and biochemical parameters and caused oxidative stress in mice; fucoidan ameliorated some hematological and biochemical parameters and exhibited a protective role as an antioxidant against sulfoxaflor-induced oxidative stress.

Regulatory Effects of Damaged Renal Epithelial Cells After Repair by Porphyra yezoensis Polysaccharides with Different Sulfation Degree on the Calcium Oxalate Crystal-Cell Interaction

BACKGROUND

The interaction between urinary microcrystals and renal epithelial cells is closely related to kidney stone formation. However, the mechanism of cell state changes that affect crystal-cell interaction remains unclear.

METHODS

This study investigated the relationship between the sulfate group (-OSO3 -) content in Porphyra yezoensis polysaccharide (PYP) and the ability to repair damaged cells, as well as the changes in cell adhesion and endocytosis of nano-calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) crystals before and after PYP repair of damaged renal tubular epithelial cells. The sulfur trioxide-pyridine method was used to sulfate PYP (-OSO3 - content of 14.14%), and two kinds of sulfated PYPs with -OSO3 - content of 20.28% (SPYP1) and 27.14% (SPYP2) were obtained. The above three PYPs were used to repair oxalate-damaged human proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2), and the changes in the biochemical indicators of the cells before and after the repair and the changes in cell adhesion and endocytosis of nano-COM crystals were detected.

RESULTS

After repair by PYPs, the cell viability increased, the number of reactive oxygen species decreased, and the reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and the release of intracellular Ca2+ were suppressed. The cells repaired by PYPs inhibited the adhesion of nano-COM crystals while promoting the endocytosis of the adhered crystals. The endocytosed crystals mainly accumulated in the lysosome. The ability of PYPs to repair cell damage, inhibit crystal adhesion, and promote crystal endocytosis was enhanced when the -OSO3 - content increased. Among them, SPYP2 with the highest -OSO3 - content showed the best biological activity.

CONCLUSION

SPYP2 showed the best ability to repair damaged cells, followed by SPYP1 and PYP. SPYP2 may become a potential green drug that inhibits the formation and recurrence of calcium oxalate stones.

Fucoidan Modulated Oxidative Stress and Caspase-3 mRNA Expression Induced by Sulfoxaflor in the Brain of Mice

The current study aimed to investigate the role of fucoidan in the oxidative and apoptotic effects of sulfoxaflor, a neonicotinoid sulfoximine insecticide, in the brain of Swiss albino mice (Mus musculus). Sulfoxaflor and fucoidan were administered to mice at doses of 15 mg/kg/day (1/50 oral LD50) and 50 mg/kg/day, respectively, by oral gavage for 24 h or 7 days. The tGSH, TBARS and protein levels, and GPx, GR, and GST enzyme activities were determined by spectrophotometric methods. Caspase-3 gene expression level was determined by RT-PCR. Data analysis showed that brains of sulfoxaflor-treated mice exhibited higher TBARS levels; GPx, GR, and GST enzyme activities; and caspase-3 expression levels, as well as lower levels of tGSH. Co-administration of fucoidan and sulfoxaflor reduced the TBARS levels, increased tGSH levels, and increased GPx, GR, and GST enzyme activities. Fucoidan also decreased the sulfoxaflor-induced up-regulation of caspase-3 mRNA expression. Results of the present study showed that sulfoxaflor caused oxidative stress by inducing lipid peroxidation and altering GSH-dependent antioxidants in the brain of mice. In addition, sulfoxaflor may trigger apoptotic cell death shown by the up-regulation of caspase-3. Fucoidan treatment modulated all the aforementioned alterations in the brain of mice. It was concluded that fucoidan might have antioxidant effects that support the GSH-dependent antioxidant system and can play a modulator role in oxidative stress and caspase-3 expression in the brain of sulfoxaflor treated-mice.

Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms of Fucoidans to Treat Inflammatory Diseases: A Review

Fucoidans are sulfated heteropolysaccharides found in the cell walls of brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae) and in some marine invertebrates. Generally, fucoidans are composed of significant amounts of L-fucose and sulfate groups, and lesser amounts of arabinose, galactose, glucose, glucuronic acid, mannose, rhamnose, and xylose. In recent years, fucoidans isolated from brown seaweeds have gained considerable attention owing to their promising bioactive properties such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antiobesity, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties. Inflammation is a complex immune response that protects the organs from infection and tissue injury. While controlled inflammatory responses are beneficial to the host, leading to the removal of immunostimulants from the host tissues and restoration of structural and physiological functions in the host tissues, chronic inflammatory responses are often associated with the pathogenesis of tumor development, arthritis, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, the authors mainly discuss the studies since 2016 that have reported anti-inflammatory properties of fucoidans isolated from various brown seaweeds, and their potential as a novel functional material for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Paternal exposure to microcystin-LR induces fetal growth restriction partially through inhibiting cell proliferation and vascular development in placental labyrinth

Microcystin-leucine arginine (MC-LR) has reproductive and developmental toxicities. Previous studies indicated that gestational exposure to MC-LR induced fetal growth restriction in mice. The aim of this study was to further evaluate the effect of paternal MC-LR exposure before mating on fetal development. Male mice were intraperitoneally injected with either normal saline or MC-LR (10 μg/kg) daily for 35 days. Male mouse was then mated with female mice with 1:1 ratio. There was no significant difference on the rates of mating and pregnancy between MC-LR-exposed male mice and controls. Body weight and crown-rump length were reduced in fetuses whose fathers were exposed to MC-LR. Despite no difference on relative thickness of labyrinthine layer, cell proliferation, as measured by Ki67 immunostaining, was reduced in labyrinth layer of MC-LR-exposed mice. Moreover, blood sinusoid area in labyrinth layer was decreased in the fetus whose father was exposed to MC-LR before mating. Correspondingly, cross-sectional area of CD34-positive blood vessel in labyrinth layer was lower in fetuses whose fathers were exposed to MC-LR than in controls. These results provide evidence that paternal MC-LR exposure before mating induces fetal growth restriction partially through inhibiting cell proliferation and vascular development in labyrinth layer.

Advances in the toxicology research of microcystins based on Omics approaches

Microcystins (MCs) are the most widely distributed cyanotoxins, which can be ingested by animals and human body in multiple ways, resulting in a threat to human health and the biodiversity of wildlife. Therefore, the study on toxic effects and mechanisms of MCs is one of the focuses of attention. Recently, the Omics techniques, i.e. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics, have significantly contributed to the comprehensive understanding and revealing of the molecular mechanisms about the toxicity of MCs. This paper mainly reviews current literature using the Omics approaches to explore the toxicity mechanism of MCs in liver, gonad, spleen, brain, intestine and lung of multiple species. It was found that MCs can exert strong toxic effects on various metabolic activities and cell signal transduction in cell cycle, apoptosis, destruction of cell cytoskeleton and redox disorder, at protein, transcription and metabolism level. Meanwhile, it was also revealed that the alteration of non-coding RNAs (miRNA, circRNA and lncRNA, etc.) and gut microbiota plays an essential regulatory role in the toxic effects of MCs, especially in hepatotoxicity and reproductive toxicity. In addition, we summarized current research gaps and pointed out the future directions for research. The detailed information in this paper shows that the application and development of Omics techniques have significantly promoted the research on MCs toxicity, and it is also a valuable resource for exploring the toxic mechanism of MCs.

Effects of acute exposure to microcystins on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), -gonad (HPG) and -thyroid (HPT) axes of female rats

Microcystins (MCs) are common, well-known cyanobacterial toxins that can affect health of humans. Recently, it has been reported that MCs affect endocrine functions. In the present study, for the first time, histopathology, concentrations of hormones and transcription of genes along the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad (HPG) and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axes were examined in rats exposed to microcystin-LR (MC-LR). Female, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed acutely to MC-LR by a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection at doses of 0.5, 0.75, or 1 median lethal dose (LD₅₀), i.e. 36.5, 54.75, or 73 μg MC-LR/kg body mass (bm) then euthanized 24 hours after exposure. Acute exposure to MC-LR significantly increased relative mass of adrenal in a dose-dependent manner, but relative mass of hypothalamus, pituitary, ovary and thyroid were not significantly different from respective mass in controls. However, damage to all these tissues was observed by histology. Along the HPA axis, lesser concentrations of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone (CORT) were observed in blood serum of exposed individuals, relative to controls. For the HPG axis, concentrations of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and estradiol (E2) were significantly less in rats treated with MC-LR, but greater concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone (T) were observed. Along the HPT axis, MC-LR caused greater concentrations of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), but lesser concentrations of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), free tetra-iodothyronine (fT4) and tri-iodothyronine (fT3). Significant positive/negative correlations of concentrations of hormones were observed among the HPA, HPG and HPT axes. In addition, profiles of transcription of genes for synthesis of hormones along the endocrine axes and nuclear hormone receptors in adrenal, ovary and thyroid were significantly altered. Therefore, these results suggested that MC-LR affected HPA, HPG and HPT axes and exerted endocrine-disrupting effects. Effects of MC-LR on crosstalk among these three axes need further studies.

Allium sativum mitigates oxidative damages induced by Microcystin-LR in heart and liver tissues of mice

Microcystins (MCs) are hepatotoxic cyanotoxins implicated in several incidents of human and animal toxicity. Microcystin-(Lysine, Arginine) or MC-LR is the most toxic and encountered variant of MCs where oxidative stress plays a key role in its toxicity. This study investigated the oxidative damages induced in the liver and heart of Balb/C mice by an intraperitoneal injected acute dose of MC-LR. Thereafter, the potential protective effect of garlic (Allium sativum) extract supplementation against such damages was assessed through the evaluation of oxidative stress and cytotoxicity markers. Lipid peroxidation (LPO), carbonyl content (CC), glutathione content (GSH), alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH) activities were measured. Results showed important oxidative damages in hepatic and cardiac cells of mice injected with the toxin. However, these damages have been significantly reduced in mice supplemented with garlic extract. Thus, this study demonstrated for the first time the effective use of garlic as an antioxidant agent against oxidative damages induced by MC-LR. As well, this study supports the use of garlic as a potential remedy against pathologies related to toxic agents.

Fucoidan supplementation modulates hepato-renal oxidative stress and DNA damage induced by aflatoxin B1 intoxication in rats

Aflatoxins are a common food contaminant of global concern. Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) intoxication is associated with serious health hazards. Recently, fucoidan (FUC) has gained much attention from pharmaceutical industry due to its promising therapeutic effects. The impacts of FUC on AFB₁-induced liver and kidney injures have not been sufficiently addressed. This research was conducted to evaluate the ameliorative effect of FUC in AFB1-induced hepatorenal toxicity model in rats over 14 days. Five groups were assigned; control, FUC (200 mg/kg/day, orally), AFB₁ (50 μg/kg, i.p.), and AFB₁ plus a low or high dose of FUC. AFB₁ induced marked hepatorenal injury elucidated by substantial alterations in biochemical tests and histological pictures. The oxidative distress instigated by AFB₁ enhanced production of malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) along with reduction in the reduced-glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) activities. DNA damage in the liver and kidney tissues has been demonstrated by overexpression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). Unambiguously, FUC consumption alleviates the AFB₁-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative harm, and apoptosis. These ameliorated effects are proposed to be attributed to fucoidan's antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activities. Our results recommend FUC supplementation to food because it exerts both preventive and therapeutic effects against AFB₁-induced toxicity.

Microcystin-LR induces ovarian injury and apoptosis in mice via activating apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1-mediated P38/JNK pathway

As an emerging pollutant in the aquatic environment, microcystin-LR (MC-LR) can enter the body through multiple pathways, and then induce apoptosis and gonadal damage, affecting reproductive function. Previous studies focused on male reproductive toxicity induced by MC-LR neglecting its effects on females. The apoptotic signal-regulated kinase 1 (ASK1) is an upstream protein of P38/JNK pathway, closely associated with apoptosis and organ damage. However, the role of ASK1 in MC-LR-induced reproductive toxicity is unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the role of ASK1 in mouse ovarian injury and apoptosis induced by MC-LR. After MC-LR exposure, ASK1 expression in mouse ovarian granulosa cells was increased at the protein and mRNA levels, and decreased following pretreatment by antioxidant N-acetylcysteine, suggesting that MC-LR-induced oxidative stress has a regulatory role in ASK1 expression. Inhibition of ASK1 expression with siASK1 and NQDI-1 could effectively alleviate MC-LR-induced mitochondrial membrane potential damage and apoptosis in ovarian granulosa cells, as well as pathological damage, apoptosis and the decreased gonadal index in ovaries of C57BL/6 mice. Moreover, the P38/JNK pathway and downstream apoptosis-related proteins (P-P38, P-JNK, P-P53, Fas) and genes (MKK4, MKK3, Ddit3, Mef2c) were activated in vivo and vitro, but their activation was restrained after ASK1 inhibition. Data presented herein suggest that the ASK1-mediated P38/JNK pathway is involved in ovarian injury and apoptosis induced by MC-LR in mice. It is confirmed that ASK1 has an important role in MC-LR-induced ovarian injury, which provides new insights for preventing MCs-induced reproductive toxicity in females.

Sub-chronic microcystin-LR renal toxicity in rats fed a high fat/high cholesterol diet

Microcystin-LR (MCLR) is a liver and kidney toxin produced by cyanobacteria. Recently, it was demonstrated that MCLR exposure drives the progression of high fat/high cholesterol (HFHC) induced nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) to a more severe state. NAFLD is also a risk factor for chronic kidney disease (CKD), and the current study investigated MCLR renal toxicity in the context of an HFHC diet. Sprague Dawley rats were fed either a control diet or an HFHC diet for 10 weeks. After 6 weeks of diet, animals were administered either vehicle, 10 μg/kg, or 30 μg/kg MCLR via intraperitoneal injection every other day for 4 weeks. HFHC diet alone increased the renal glomerular change histopathology score, and 30 μg/kg MCLR exposure increased this score in both the control group and the HFHC group. In contrast, 30 μg/kg MCLR caused greater proteinuria and cast formation and decreased protein phosphatase 1 and 2A protein expression in the HFHC group. Urinary excretion of KIM-1 increased, but albumin and tamm-horsfall protein did not change after MCLR exposure. The general concordance between KIM-1, polyuria, proteinuria, and renal casts after MCLR exposure suggests that proximal tubule cell damage contributed to these connected pathologies. The control group adapted to repeated MCLR exposure by increasing the urinary elimination of MCLR and its metabolites, whereas this adaptation was blunted in the HFHC group. These data suggest an HFHC diet may increase the severity of certain MCLR-elicited renal toxicities.

The latest advances in the reproductive toxicity of microcystin-LR

Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is an emerging environmental pollutant produced by cyanobacteria that poses a threat to wild life and human health. In recent years, the reproductive toxicity of MC-LR has gained widespread attention, a large number of toxicological studies have filled the gaps in past research and more molecular mechanisms have been elucidated. Hence, this paper reviews the latest research advances on MC-LR-induced reproductive toxicity. MC-LR can damage the structure and function of the testis, ovary, prostate, placenta and other organs of animals and then reduce their fertility. Meanwhile, MC-LR can also be transmitted through the placenta to the offspring causing trans-generational and developmental toxicity including death, malformation, growth retardation, and organ dysfunction in embryos and juveniles. The mechanisms of MC-LR-induced reproductive toxicity mainly include the inhibition of protein phosphatase 1/2 A (PP1/2 A) activity and the induction of oxidative stress. On the one hand, MC-LR triggers the hyperphosphorylation of certain proteins by inhibiting intracellular PP1/2 A activity, thereby activating multiple signaling pathways that cause inflammation and blood-testis barrier destruction, etc. On the other hand, MC-LR-induced oxidative stress can result in cell programmed death via the mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum pathways. It is worth noting that epigenetic modifications are also involved in reproductive cell apoptosis, which may be an important direction for future research. Furthermore, this paper proposes for the first time that MC-LR can produce estrogenic effects in animals as an environmental estrogen. New findings and suggestions in this review could be areas of interest for future research.

Immunomodulatory and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Fucoidan: A Review

Inflammation is the initial response of the immune system to potentially harmful stimuli (e.g., injury, stress, and infections). The process involves activation of macrophages and neutrophils, which produce mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) are considered as biomarkers of inflammation. Even though it occurs as a physiological defense mechanism, its involvement in the pathogenesis of various diseases is reported. Rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, Alzheimer's disease, and cardiovascular diseases are only a part of the diseases, in which pathogenesis the chronic inflammation is involved. Fucoidans are complex polysaccharides from brown seaweeds and some marine invertebrates, composed mainly of L-fucose and sulfate ester groups and minor amounts of neutral monosaccharides and uronic acids. Algae-derived fucoidans are studied intensively during the last years regarding their multiple biological activities and possible therapeutic potential. However, the source, species, molecular weight, composition, and structure of the polysaccharides, as well as the route of administration of fucoidans, could be crucial for their effects. Fucoidan is reported to act on different stages of the inflammatory process: (i) blocking of lymphocyte adhesion and invasion, (ii) inhibition of multiple enzymes, and (iii) induction of apoptosis. In this review, we focused on the immunemodulating and anti-inflammatory effects of fucoidans derived from macroalgae and the models used for their evaluation. Additional insights on the molecular structure of the compound are included.

Potential Beneficial Actions of Fucoidan in Brain and Liver Injury, Disease, and Intoxication-Potential Implication of Sirtuins

Increased interest in natural antioxidants has brought to light the fucoidans (sulfated polysaccharides present in brown marine algae) as highly valued nutrients as well as effective and safe therapeutics against several diseases. Based on their satisfactory in vitro antioxidant potency, researchers have identified this molecule as an efficient remedy for neuropathological as well as metabolic disorders. Some of this therapeutic activity is accomplished by upregulation of cytoprotective molecular pathways capable of restoring the enzymatic antioxidant activity and normal mitochondrial functions. Sirtuin-3 has been discovered as a key player for achieving the neuroprotective role of fucoidan by managing these pathways, whose ultimate goal is retrieving the entirety of the antioxidant response and preventing apoptosis of neurons, thereby averting neurodegeneration and brain injuries. Another pathway whereby fucoidan exerts neuroprotective capabilities is by interactions with P-selectin on endothelial cells, thereby preventing macrophages from entering the brain proper. Furthermore, beneficial influences of fucoidan have been established in hepatocytes after xenobiotic induced liver injury by decreasing transaminase leakage and autophagy as well as obtaining optimal levels of intracellular fiber, which ultimately prevents fibrosis. The hepatoprotective role of this marine polysaccharide also includes a sirtuin, namely sirtuin-1 overexpression, which alleviates obesity and insulin resistance through suppression of hyperglycemia, reducing inflammation and stimulation of enzymatic antioxidant response. While fucoidan is very effective in animal models for brain injury and neuronal degeneration, in general, it is accepted that fucoidan shows somewhat limited potency in liver. Thus far, it has been used in large doses for treatment of acute liver injuries. Thus, it appears that further optimization of fucoidan derivatives may establish enhanced versatility for treatments of various disorders, in addition to brain injury and disease.

Fucoidan protects against subacute diazinon-induced oxidative damage in cardiac, hepatic, and renal tissues

Fucoidans (FUC) are organic sulfated polysaccharides from natural seaweeds with multiple biological actions. The current study was performed to assess the chemoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects of FUC from Laminaria japonicum against diazinon (DZN)-induced injuries to rat cardiac, hepatic, and renal tissues. Forty male Wistar rats were assigned into five groups, receiving saline, oral FUC 200 mg/kg/day, subcutaneous DZN 20 mg/kg/day, DZN plus FUC 100 mg/kg/day, or DZN plus FUC 200 mg/kg/day (each treatment was given daily for 4 weeks). Data analysis showed that DZN-intoxicated rats exhibited significantly higher (p < 0.05) serum levels of alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, urea, creatine, creatine kinase, creatine kinase-MB, lactate dehydrogenase, cholesterol, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α, as well as lower levels of acetylcholinesterase, compared to control rats. In addition, DZN intoxication was associated with significantly higher (p < 0.05) cardiac, hepatic, and renal tissue concentrations of malondialdehyde and nitric oxide, as well as lower glutathione concentrations, and activities of glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase enzymes in comparison to control rats. Treatment with FUC (at 100 or 200 mg/kg/day) ameliorated all the aforementioned alterations in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, FUC from Laminaria japonicum ameliorated DZN-induced oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory effects, and injuries to the cardiac, hepatic, and renal tissues. These effects may be related to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of FUC.

Fucoidan Ameliorates Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, DNA Damage, and Hepatorenal Injuries in Diabetic Rats Intoxicated with Aflatoxin B1

The current study was carried out to evaluate the ameliorative effect of fucoidan against aflatoxicosis-induced hepatorenal toxicity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Sixty-four Wister albino male rats were randomly assigned into eight groups (8 rats each) that received normal saline, fucoidan (FUC) at 100 mg/kg/day orally for 4 weeks, streptozotocin (STZ) at 50 mg/kg/i.p. single dose, STZ plus FUC, aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) at 50 μg/kg/i.p. after one month of the beginning of the experiment for 2 weeks, AFB₁ plus FUC, STZ plus AFB₁, or STZ plus AFB₁ and FUC. Injection of rats with STZ induced hyperglycemia. Rats with STZ-induced diabetes, with or without AFB₁ intoxication, had significantly elevated activities of serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase, and levels of serum urea, creatinine, cholesterol, 8-oxo-2′-deoxyguanosine, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α. In addition, these rats exhibited increased lipid peroxidation and reduced glutathione concentration and activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase enzymes in the hepatic and renal tissues. In contrast, administration of FUC to diabetic rats, with or without AFB₁ intoxication, ameliorated the altered serum parameters, reduced oxidative stress, DNA damage, and inflammatory biomarkers, and enhanced the antioxidant defense system in the hepatic and renal tissues. These results indicated that FUC ameliorated diabetes and AFB₁-induced hepatorenal injuries through alleviating oxidative stress, DNA damage, and inflammation.