Evaluation of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as an industrial crop: a review

Solar photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin using biochar supported zinc oxide- tungsten oxide photocatalyst

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is an antibiotic used to treat bacterial infections. It is not completely broken down during conventional wastewater treatment processes and can persist in the environment, leading to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This study focuses on the solar photocatalytic degradation CIP using biochar-supported photocatalysts. The photocatalysts developed by combining ZnO and WO3 in different ratios (1:2, 1:1, 2:1) were supported on hemp herd biochar. The photocatalyst made with a ratio of 2:1:1 of ZnO:WO3:biochar (Z2W1H) reported the highest CIP degradation efficiency of 87.3% and TOC removal efficiency of 43.1% at a catalyst dosage of 2 g/L, initial CIP concentration of 3 mg/L, and treatment time of 150 min. Subsequently, the effects of operating parameters on CIP degradation were investigated using central composite design (CCD). About 85.4% degradation efficiency of CIP was obtained at optimum conditions (pH ∼8.4, initial CIP concentration ∼4.4 mg/L, catalytic dosage ∼3.4 g/L) within 90 min. A quadradic model was developed to interpret the linear and interactive effect of operating parameters on the CIP degradation efficiency with 2.24-4.59% error. The adsorption-desorption study showed around 42.21% of adsorbed CIP was desorbed from Z2W1H. Scavenger studies demonstrated that the CIP breakdown was notably done by the superoxide radical (O2•-). The mechanism of CIP degradation was adsorption on biochar and subsequent degradation by photocatalyst. The prevalent degradation reactions such as C-N bond cleavage, decarboxylation, decarbonylation, defluorination, and ring opening lead to formation of various intermediates. The Z2W1H reusability test showed ~ 4.2% decrease in CIP removal efficiency after three cycles.

Comparison of the Effects of Essential Oils from Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica on Selected Bacteria, Rumen Fermentation, and Methane Production-In Vitro Study

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of essential oils (EOs) extracted from Cannabis sativa L. and Cannabis indica Lam. on in vitro ruminal fermentation characteristics, selected rumen microbial populations, and methane production. GC-MS analyses allowed us to identify 89 compounds in both EOs. It was found that E-β-caryophyllene predominated in C. sativa (18.4%) and C. indica (24.1%). An in vitro (Ankom) test was performed to analyse the control and monensin groups, as well as the 50 µL or 100 µL EOs. The samples for volatile fatty acids (VFAs), lactate, and microbiological analysis were taken before incubation and after 6 and 24 h. The application of EOs of C. indica resulted in an increase in the total VFAs of acetate and propionate after 6 h of incubation. The applied EOs had a greater impact on the reduction in methane production after 6 h, but no apparent effect was noted after 24 h. Lower concentrations of C. sativa and C. indica had a more pronounced effect on Lactobacillus spp. and Buryrivibrio spp. than monensin. The presented findings suggest that C. sativa and C. indica supplementation can modify ruminal fermentation, the concentrations of specific volatile fatty acids, and methane production.

Evaluating Propagation Techniques for Cannabis sativa L. Cultivation: A Comparative Analysis of Soilless Methods and Aeroponic Parameters

Given the rapid growth of the Cannabis industry, developing practices for producing young plants with limited genetic variation and efficient growth is crucial to achieving reliable and successful cultivation results. This study presents a multi-faceted experiment series analyzing propagation techniques for evaluating proficiency in the growth and development of Cannabis vegetative cuttings. This research encompasses various (1) soilless propagation methods including aeroponics, horticultural (phenolic) foam, and rockwool; (2) transplant timings; (3) aeroponic spray intervals; and (4) aeroponic reservoir nutrient concentrations, to elucidate their impact on rooting and growth parameters amongst two Cannabis cultivars. Aeroponics was as effective as, and in some cases more effective than, soilless propagation media for root development and plant growth. In aeroponic systems, continuous spray intervals, compared to intermittent, result in a better promotion of root initiation and plant growth. Moreover, raised nutrient concentrations in aeroponic propagation demonstrated greater rooting and growth. The effects of experimental treatment were dependent on the cultivar and sampling day. These findings offer valuable insights into how various propagation techniques and growth parameters can be tailored to enhance the production of vegetative cuttings. These results hold critical implications for cultivators intending to achieve premium harvests through efficient propagule methods and optimization strategies in the competitive Cannabis industry. Ultimately, our findings suggest that aeroponic propagation, compared to alternative soilless methods, is a rapid and efficient process for cultivating vegetative cuttings of Cannabis and offers sustainable advantages in resource conservation and preservation.

Evaluating the Metabolomic Profile and Anti-Pathogenic Properties of Cannabis Species

The Cannabis species is one of the potent ancient medicinal plants acclaimed for its medicinal properties and recreational purposes. The plant parts are used and exploited all over the world for several agricultural and industrial applications. For many years Cannabis spp. has proven to present a highly diverse metabolomic profile with a pool of bioactive metabolites used for numerous pharmacological purposes ranging from anti-inflammatory to antimicrobial. Cannabis sativa has since been an extensive subject of investigation, monopolizing the research. Hence, there are fewer studies with a comprehensive understanding of the composition of bioactive metabolites grown in different environmental conditions, especially C. indica and a few other Cannabis strains. These pharmacological properties are mostly attributed to a few phytocannabinoids and some phytochemicals such as terpenoids or essential oils which have been tested for antimicrobial properties. Many other discovered compounds are yet to be tested for antimicrobial properties. These phytochemicals have a series of useful properties including anti-insecticidal, anti-acaricidal, anti-nematicidal, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, and anti-viral properties. Research studies have reported excellent antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative multidrug-resistant bacteria as well as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Although there has been an extensive investigation on the antimicrobial properties of Cannabis, the antimicrobial properties of Cannabis on phytopathogens and aquatic animal pathogens, mostly those affecting fish, remain under-researched. Therefore, the current review intends to investigate the existing body of research on metabolomic profile and anti-microbial properties whilst trying to expand the scope of the properties of the Cannabis plant to benefit the health of other animal species and plant crops, particularly in agriculture.

Bacterial endophytic community composition varies by hemp cultivar in commercially sourced seed

The seed-endophytic bacterial community is a potentially beneficial and heritable fraction of the plant microbiome. Its utilization as a sustainable crop improvement strategy could be especially valuable for species such as hemp, where production is being scaled up and new challenges will be faced in managing crop productivity and health. However, little is known about the makeup and variation of the hemp seed microbiome. This study profiled the endophytic bacterial communities harboured by 16 hemp cultivars sourced from commercial suppliers in Europe. A 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing approach identified 917 amplicon sequence variants across samples. Taxonomic classification of sequences revealed 4 phyla and 87 genera to be represented in the dataset. Several genera were widespread while some were specific to one or a few cultivars. Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Pantoea were notable in their high overall abundance and prevalence, but community composition was variable and no one taxon was universally abundant, suggesting a high degree of flexibility in community assembly. Taxonomic composition and alpha diversity differed among cultivars, though further work is required to understand the relative influence of hemp genetic factors on community structure. The taxonomic profiles presented here can be used to inform further work investigating the functional characteristics and potential plant-growth-promoting traits of seed-borne bacteria in hemp.

Hemp cultivation opportunities for marginal lands development

Agricultural diversification and high-quality products deriving from sustainable crops such as hemp can represent a solution to revitalize marginal areas and reverse land abandonment. This study aimed at comparing four different hemp cultivars (Carmagnola Selezionata, "CS"; Futura 75, "FUT"; Felina 32, "FEL"; Secuieni Jubileu, "JUB") to provide information to select the best suited cultivar for cultivation in mountain marginal areas and for specific end-use applications. Hemp cultivars were cultivated in a single experimental field to compare their ecological and agronomic behavior (duration of life cycle phases, plant size and biomass allocation, and plant resource-use strategies). Through metabolomic analysis of both vegetative and reproductive parts of the plants we tested the presence of substances of nutraceutical interest and traced seed nutritional profile. The four cultivars had different ecological and agronomic behavior, and nutritional profile. We found several compounds with potential pharmaceutical and nutraceutical values in all parts of the plant (leaves, inflorescences, and stems). JUB resulted the most suitable for seed production while CS showed the highest content of bioactive compounds in flowers and leaves. FUT, showed the best suitability for multi-purpose cultivation, while FEL seemed to be not appropriate for the cultivation in mountain area. The multi-disciplinary approach we adopted was effective in distinguish across hemp cultivars and provided information to farmers for the selection of the best hemp cultivar to select. Hemp had a high potential for cultivation in marginal lands, demonstrating to be an economic resource due to its multi-purpose use and to the possibility to generate high-added values products. Our results could serve as a stimulus for the reintroduction of this culture in the study area and in other similar environments.

Review: Nutritional aspects of hemp-based products and their effects on health and performance of monogastric animals

Sustainable agriculture aims to produce food and feed that ensure food security and play a key role in environmental protection. For this, producers, supported by scientific research, are investigating new protein alternatives for animals that guarantee high performance and preserve their health. Among these, hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is gaining great success, both for its active role in environmental conservation and for the high nutritional profile of the seeds (20-30% carbohydrates, 25-30% proteins easy to digest and rich in essential amino acids, and 25-35% lipids with a balanced fatty acid composition), also ensured by the co-products, particularly seed cakes (30-34% proteins and 10-12% lipids). However, the last scientific report by the European Food Safety Authority for the use of hemp-based products in the feed sector now dates back to 2011. For this reason, the objective of this review, in addition to outlining the nutritional profile of hempseeds (HSs) and co-products, aims to investigate their use in the monogastric sector, particularly in the diets of pigs, broilers, and laying hens, by summarising the main works in the literature up to 2023, investigating the effects on animal health and performances. The reported results showed that the addition of 50 g/kg of HSs and HS oil improved the nutritional profile of milk and colostrum in lactating sows, particularly the lipid profile, positively affecting the health of piglets. For broilers, the inclusion of HSs (20 g/kg) resulted in better values on growth performance. This was not matched by the addition of HS oil (up to 60 g/kg). In particular, although a better polyunsaturated fatty acid profile was observed, the results on growth performance were contradictory. The same trend was observed for HSs cakes with 50, 150, and 200 g/kg inclusion. For laying hens, the inclusion of HSs (up to 250 g/kg), HS oil (up to 300 g/kg), and HSs cake (up to 150 g/kg) increased the nutritional and functional profile of the eggs, safeguarding performance and animal welfare. However, despite the promising results, the function of hemp-based products in the diet of monogastric animals needs to be further investigated to identify the optimal level of inclusion and timing of administration, necessary to ensure high performance and health of the animals.

The use of small diameter nozzles in temperature-controlled hemp oil extraction allows high oil yields and good quality residual hemp cake feed

The use of two nozzle diameters (6 and 8 mm) in a cold (50°C) hemp seed oil extraction process was evaluated in terms of extraction efficiency, and chemical composition and in vitro fermentation characteristics of the residual cake. Seeds of the varieties Futura 75 and Uso 31 were pressed using a mechanical press with a cooling device. Five pressings were carried out for each variety and nozzle size, the functional parameters of the extraction processes were recorded, and sample of the residual cakes (n = 20) were analyzed. The 6 mm nozzle determined a higher oil yield (+4%) with a limited increase in temperature in the pressing chamber and in the oil (on average + 3°C compared to the 8 mm nozzle). A lower oil yield and consequently a higher fat content in the corresponding cake was observed when using the 8 mm nozzle. Despite the similar fat content, the two varieties had different oil yields and different residual cake compositions. The gas production kinetic of cakes was influenced by variety but little by nozzle size. Overall, the use of a smaller nozzle in a temperature-controlled extraction process can be a useful option to increase hemp oil yield while maintaining good fermentation characteristics of the residual cakes as ruminant feed.

Ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-liquid microextraction with eutectic solvents for the determination of cannabinoids in different hemp products

The wide range of applications of hemp products, together with the environmental benefits that come from hemp cultivation are driving up the market demand for Cannabis sativa L. plant. One of the main restrictions for hemp cultivation and marketing concerns the content of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabidiol (Δ9-THC), which is known to have psychotomimetic effect. If the recent growing of hemp market is beneficial by an economic and environmental point of view, it is necessary to develop reliable analytical methods for the chemical characterization of hemp products, to guarantee the safety of use for the customers. This study aimed to develop a simple ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-liquid microextraction (UA-DSLME) method for the extraction of cannabinoids in hemp products, using eutectic solvents (ESs) as extraction material. Two types of ESs were compared: one prepared with a [Ch+][Br-]-modified salts as hydrogen bond acceptor and one based on natural terpenoids. The ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-liquid microextraction method was optimized to be applied for the analysis of aerial parts of hemp collected before flowering, hemp inflorescences and a commercial sample called CBD oil, and proved to be robust and versatile. Under optimal conditions, only 100 µL of ES and 2 mL of water as co-solvent were used in the US-assisted extraction, before the analysis in the UHPLC-PDA system. The developed approach allowed to obtain the same chemical profile of conventional methods, while improving the greenness of the method and the enrichment of the marker analytes. To overcome the strong matrix effect for cannabinoids, a matrix-matched calibration was used. Blank matrices of the samples under study were easily obtained by performing an exhaustive extraction of the marker analytes in the hemp samples. These matrices were successfully used for validation, achieving accuracy values between 82% and 118%.

From Hemp Waste to Bioactive Nanofiber Composites: Deep Eutectic Solvents and Electrospinning in Upcycling Endeavors

Natural fibers have attracted increasing interest as an alternative to produce environmentally friendly and sustainable materials. Particularly, hemp fibers have been widely used in various industrial applications due to their extremely unique properties. However, hemp can generate a large amount of agro-waste, and it results in an attractive source of biopolymers for the development of low-cost materials as an alternative to the raw materials and conventional petroleum-based plastics. In addition, deep eutectic solvents (DESs), a new type of truly green solvents, have been shown to remove gums, lignin, and other non-cellulosic components from hemp fibers. Reusing these components dissolved into the DESs to fabricate new materials directly by electrospinning is a very attractive but still unexplored endeavor. Thus, this innovative research to venture new upcycling pathways is focused on the fabrication of composite nanofibers by electrospinning of a gel-based blend of Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and hemp agro-waste (HW) dissolved into choline chloride (ChCl):Glycerol (1:2) and ChCl:Urea (1:2) DES mixtures. The results obtained revealed that the produced nanofibers displayed uniform appearance with diameters ranging from 257.7 ± 65.6 nm to 380.8 ± 134.0 nm. In addition, the mechanical properties of the electrospun composite nanofibers produced from the gel-based blends of HW dissolved in DESs and PVA (HW-DESs_PVA) were found to be superior, resulting in an enhanced tensile strength and Young's modulus. Furthermore, the incorporation of HW into the nanofibers was able to provide bioactive antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Overall, this study demonstrated a promising, more sustainable, and eco-friendly way to produce electrospun composite nanofibers using HW in a circular economy perspective.

Raman-based diagnostics of drought, heat and light-induced stresses in three different varieties of hemp

MAIN CONCLUSION

Hand-held Raman spectroscopy can be used for highly accurate differentiation between drought, heat and light-triggered stresses in hemp. The differentiation is based on the changes in the biochemistry of plants caused by such stresses. Hemp farming is a rapidly growing industry. This dioecious plant is primarily cultivated for its fibers, seeds, and cannabinoid-rich oils. The yield of these materials can be drastically lowered by many abiotic stresses, such as drought, heat and light. It becomes critically important to develop robust and reliable approaches that can be used to diagnose such abiotic stresses in hemp. In this study, we investigate the accuracy of Raman spectroscopy, an emerging tool within crop monitoring, in the confirmatory identification of drought, heat, and light-induced stresses in three varieties of hemp. Our results showed that mono, double and triple stresses uniquely alter plant biochemistry that results in small spectroscopic changes detected in the Raman spectra acquired from the hemp leaves. These changes could be used for the 80-100% accurate identification of individual abiotic stresses and their combinations in plants. These results demonstrate that a hand-held Raman spectrometer can be used for highly accurate, non-invasive, non-destructive, and label-free diagnostics of hemp stresses directly in the greenhouse or in the field.

Hemp seed (Cannabis sativa L.) cake as sustainable dietary additive in slow-growing broilers: effects on performance, meat quality, oxidative stability and gut health

Hemp seed cake (HSC) (Cannabis sativa L.) is a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, high-quality proteins and essential amino acids. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary inclusion of HSC on growth performance, meat quality traits, fatty acids profile and oxidative status, and intestinal morphology in slow-growing broilers. A total of 180 male slow-growing broilers were randomly assigned to one of three dietary treatments containing different levels of HSC: 0 (HSC0), 5 (HSC5) or 10% (HSC10). Birds were slaughtered at 49 days of age: breast and thigh muscles were analysed and duodenum mucosa histomorphological features were evaluated. Regardless the level of HSC inclusion, no differences among groups were found for performance and meat quality traits. The thigh and breast fatty acid profile were significantly improved in both HSC groups, with an increase of the long chain fatty acids of n-3 series and decrease of n-6/n-3 ratio. The HSC diets lowered the MDA concentration and lipid hydroperoxides in breast meat. Histomorphometrical analysis revealed a significant increase in villus height, surface area and villus/crypt ratio, with a decrease of crypt depth, suggesting that dietary supplementation with HSC may boost intestinal health status in poultry. In conclusion, dietary HSC did not affect performance, carcass traits and meat quality, while it positively influenced the lipid profile of meat, and improved the oxidative status and gut health, thus representing a valuable and sustainable alternative ingredient in broiler diet.

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.)-a valuable alternative crop for growing in agricultural soils contaminated with heavy metals

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a multiuse plant, which has been abundantly studied for phytoremediation purposes in recent years. The majority of experiments were performed in greenhouses with potted plants where hemp showed promising results. Only few studies tested hemp on site in heavy metal-polluted agricultural soil in real environmental conditions and practical assessments of hemp phytoremediation feasibility are lacking. We conducted a comprehensive study using 2 legal industrial hemp varieties (Futura 75 and Tisza) at three differently polluted locations (heavily polluted location, HP; moderately polluted location, MP; and slightly polluted location, SP) in the heavy metal contaminated Celje valley in Slovenia and determined the content of Pb, Zn, and Cd in 5 plant organs/tissues. The yield of each organ/tissue was determined as well to enable us to calculate the phytoremediation potential (PP). On average, plants grown in the HP location accumulated the highest values of all examined elements, followed by plants from the MP location and plants from the SP location, showing that the content of heavy metals in soil influences the accumulation in plants. Accumulation of Pb/Zn/Cd by plant organs/tissues was distributed in the following order: inflorescences (Pb-4.10/Zn-92.8/Cd-0.50 mg/kg) > seeds (Pb-1.79/Zn-92.6/Cd-0.27 mg/kg) > roots (Pb-1.15/Zn-15.0/Cd-0.44 mg/kg) > stem bark (Pb-0.42/Zn-12.4/Cd-0.23 mg/kg) > stem woody core (Pb-0.34/Zn-4.6/Cd-0.15 mg/kg). The only exception was for Cd, where roots accumulated a higher value than seed, yet lower than inflorescences. PP was calculated by multiplying hemp tissue/organ yield by the relative concentrations of heavy metal. The highest PP for Pb and Cd were achieved at the HP location (3.80 and 0.23 g/ha/vegetation period). On the other hand, tissue/organ yield was more important for high PP of Zn, where the SP location reached the highest PP for Zn (148.5 g/ha/vegetation period) due to the highest yields. Only seeds from HP and MP locations accumulated a too high content of Pb; otherwise, all other fibers and seeds can be safely used in the textile and food industry. Results of this study showed that hemp cannot be considered an efficient plant for the phytomanagement of contaminated areas. Nevertheless, hemp cultivation in heavy metal-polluted agricultural soils seems feasible since the majority of tissues/organs were not contaminated and different products can be obtained from various parts of the hemp plant.

Untargeted cannabinomics reveals the chemical differentiation of industrial hemp based on the cultivar and the geographical field location

Cannabis sativa has long been harvested for industrial applications related to its fibers. Industrial hemp cultivars, a botanical class of Cannabis sativa with a low expression of intoxicating Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) have been selected for these purposes and scarcely investigated in terms of their content in bioactive compounds. Following the global relaxation in the market of industrial hemp-derived products, research in industrial hemp for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical purposes has surged. In this context, metabolomics-based approaches have proven to fulfill the aim of obtaining comprehensive information on the phytocompound profile of cannabis samples, going beyond the targeted evaluation of the major phytocannabinoids. In the present paper, an HRMS-based metabolomics study was addressed to seven distinct industrial hemp cultivars grown in four experimental fields in Northern, Southern, and Insular Italy. Since the role of minor phytocannabinoids as well as other phytocompounds was found to be critical in discriminating cannabis chemovars and in determining its biological activities, a comprehensive characterization of phytocannabinoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids was carried out by LC-HRMS and a dedicated data processing workflow following the guidelines of the metabolomics Quality Assurance and Quality Control Consortium. A total of 54 phytocannabinoids, 134 flavonoids, and 77 phenolic acids were annotated, and their role in distinguishing hemp samples based on the geographical field location and cultivar was evaluated by ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis. Finally, a low-level fused model demonstrated the key role of untargeted cannabinomics extended to lesser-studied phytocompound classes for the discrimination of hemp samples.

Non-invasive assessment of cultivar and sex of Cannabis sativa L. by means of hyperspectral measurement

Cannabis sativa L. is a versatile crop attracting increasing attention for food, fiber, and medical uses. As a dioecious species, males and females are visually indistinguishable during early growth. For seed or cannabinoid production, a higher number of female plants is economically advantageous. Currently, sex determination is labor-intensive and costly. Instead, we used rapid and non-destructive hyperspectral measurement, an emerging means of assessing plant physiological status, to reliably differentiate males and females. One industrial hemp (low tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) cultivar was pre-grown in trays before transfer to the field in control soil. Reflectance spectra were acquired from leaves during flowering and machine learning algorithms applied allowed sex classification, which was best using a radial basis function (RBF) network. Eight industrial hemp (low THC) cultivars were field grown on fertilized and control soil. Reflectance spectra were acquired from leaves at early development when the plants of all cultivars had developed between four and six leaf pairs and in three cases only flower buds were visible (start of flowering). Machine learning algorithms were applied, allowing sex classification, differentiation of cultivars and fertilizer regime, again with best results for RBF networks. Differentiating nutrient status and varietal identity is feasible with high prediction accuracy. Sex classification was error-free at flowering but less accurate (between 60% and 87%) when using spectra from leaves at early growth stages. This was influenced by both cultivar and soil conditions, reflecting developmental differences between cultivars related to nutritional status. Hyperspectral measurement combined with machine learning algorithms is valuable for non-invasive assessment of C. sativa cultivar and sex. This approach can potentially improve regulatory security and productivity of cannabis farming.

Cannabidiol plasma determination and pharmacokinetics conducted at beginning, middle and end of long-term supplementation of a broad-spectrum hemp oil to healthy adult dogs

Introduction

Veterinary hemp products containing cannabidiol (CBD) and negligible psychoactive (THC) have increased popularity since hemp (with <0.3% THC) was removed from schedule 1 substances under the Controlled Substances Act in 2018. This was accompanied by increased CBD research, mostly on the short-term safety and efficacy for inflammatory and neurological conditions. It is imperative to understand how CBD is metabolized or accumulated in the body long-term, thus the goal of the present work was to determine monthly plasma CBD concentrations, as well as changes in pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters in chronically dosed dogs.

Methods

The study was a masked, placebo-controlled, randomized design. Six adult beagles were assigned to placebo, 5 and 10 mg/kg/day CBD treatment groups. Dogs received oral oil treatment once daily for 36 weeks. Blood was collected once every 4 weeks pre- and postprandially for CBD plasma determination (at 0 and 2 h). Pharmacokinetics were conducted at 0, 18 and 36 weeks. Pharmacokinetics and monthly CBD plasma data of dogs who received CBD were analyzed as repeated measures over time using a mixed model, with significance at α = 0.05.

Results

Average plasma CBD at 5 and 10 mg/kg were 97.3 ng/mL and 236.8 ng/mL pre-prandial, 341 ng/mL and 1,068 ng/mL postprandial, respectively. PK parameters suggested CBD accumulation over time, with significant increases in Cmax and AUC at both the 18 and 36-week timepoints. Cmax and AUC were dose proportional. Half-life demonstrated large inter-individual variations and increased (p < 0.05) at weeks 18 and 36 compared to baseline. Volume of distribution was not affected by time or treatment, while MRT increased, and clearance decreased over time (p < 0.05).

Conclusions and clinical importance

Chronic administration of CBD to healthy adult dogs led to a dose-proportional accumulation in the body for 36 weeks, which was confirmed by an increased half-life, total exposure, mean residence time and plasma peak. Our data also suggests that CBD plasma levels may have less daily variation if administered twice daily.

The Role of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as a Functional Food in Vegetarian Nutrition

Recently, there has been a renewed interest in Cannabis sativa and its uses. The recreational use of inflorescences as a source of THC has led to the legal restriction of C. sativa cultivation to limit the detrimental effects of psychotropic substance abuse on health. However, this has also limited the cultivation of textile/industrial varieties with a low content of THC used for textile and nutritional purposes. While previously the bans had significantly penalized the cultivation of C. sativa, today many countries discriminate between recreational use (marijuana) and industrial and food use (hemp). The stalks of industrial hemp (low in psychotropic substances) have been used extensively for textile purposes while the seeds are nutritionally versatile. From hemp seeds, it is possible to obtain flours applicable in the bakery sector, oils rich in essential fatty acids, proteins with a high biological value and derivatives for fortification, supplementation and nutraceutical purposes. Hemp seed properties seem relevant for vegetarian diets, due to their high nutritional value and underestimated employment in the food sector. Hemp seed and their derivatives are a valuable source of protein, essential fatty acids and minerals that could provide additional benefit to vegetarian nutrition. This document aims to explore the information available in the literature about hemp seeds from a nutritional point of view, highlighting possible beneficial effects for humans with particular attention to vegetarian nutrition as a supplemental option for a well-planned diet.

Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Various Extracts of Fibre Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Cultivated in Lithuania

The phytochemistry of fibre hemp (Cannabis sativa L., cv. Futura 75 and Felina 32) cultivated in Lithuania was investigated. The soil characteristics (conductivity, pH and major elements) of the cultivation field were determined. The chemical composition of hemp extracts and essential oils (EOs) from different plant parts was determined by the HPLC/DAD/TOF and GC/MS techniques. Among the major constituents, β-caryophyllene (≤46.64%) and its oxide (≤14.53%), α-pinene (≤20.25%) or α-humulene (≤11.48) were determined in EOs. Cannabidiol (CBD) was a predominant compound (≤64.56%) among the volatile constituents of the methanolic extracts of hemp leaves and inflorescences. Appreciable quantities of 2-monolinolein (11.31%), methyl eicosatetraenoate (9.70%) and γ-sitosterol (8.99%) were detected in hemp seed extracts. The octadecenyl ester of hexadecenoic acid (≤31.27%), friedelan-3-one (≤21.49%), dihydrobenzofuran (≤17.07%) and γ-sitosterol (14.03%) were major constituents of the methanolic extracts of hemp roots, collected during various growth stages. The CBD quantity was the highest in hemp flower extracts in pentane (32.73%). The amounts of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) were up to 24.21% in hemp leaf extracts. The total content of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) isomers was the highest in hemp flower pentane extracts (≤22.43%). The total phenolic content (TPC) varied from 187.9 to 924.7 (average means, mg/L of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)) in aqueous unshelled hemp seed and flower extracts, respectively. The TPC was determined to be up to 321.0 (mg/L GAE) in root extracts. The antioxidant activity (AA) of hemp extracts and Eos was tested by the spectrophotometric DPPH^● scavenging activity method. The highest AA was recorded for hemp leaf EOs (from 15.034 to 35.036 mmol/L, TROLOX equivalent). In the case of roots, the highest AA (1.556 mmol/L, TROLOX) was found in the extracts of roots collected at the seed maturation stage. The electrochemical (cyclic and square wave voltammetry) assays correlated with the TPC. The hydrogen-peroxide-scavenging activity of extracts was independent of the TPC.

Cadmium tolerance and hyperaccumulation in plants - A proteomic perspective of phytoremediation

Cadmium (Cd) is a major environmental pollutant and poses a risk of transfer into the food chain through contaminated plants. Mechanisms underlying Cd tolerance and hyperaccumulation in plants are not fully understood. Proteomics-based approaches facilitate an in-depth understanding of plant responses to Cd stress at the systemic level by identifying Cd-inducible differentially abundant proteins (DAPs). In this review, we summarize studies related to proteomic changes associated with Cd-tolerance mechanisms in Cd-tolerant crops and Cd-hyperaccumulating plants, especially the similarities and differences across plant species. The enhanced DAPs identified through proteomic studies can be potential targets for developing Cd-hyperaccumulators to remediate Cd-contaminated environments and Cd-tolerant crops with low Cd content in the edible organs. This is of great significance for ensuring the food security of an exponentially growing global population. Finally, we discuss the methodological drawbacks in current proteomic studies and propose that better protocols and advanced techniques should be utilized to further strengthen the reliability and applicability of future Cd-stress-related studies in plants. This review provides insights into the improvement of phytoremediation efficiency and an in-depth study of the molecular mechanisms of Cd enrichment in plants.

Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity of In Vitro Digested Hemp-Based Products

The growth of the world population has prompted research to investigate new food/feed alternatives. Hemp-based products can be considered excellent candidates. Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an environmentally sustainable plant widespread worldwide. Following the reintroduction of its cultivation, hemp is attracting interest, especially in the food/feed industry. To date, scientific research has mainly focused on its nutritional aspect. Therefore, the aim of the work was also to investigate the functional profile (total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (Ferric- reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS)) of hemp-based products (hempseeds (HSs), flowers, and HS protein extract), following methanol extraction and in vitro digestion, to study the behaviour of the molecules involved. The results show an interesting nutritional value, even when compared to matrices used in the food/feed industry, such as soy and flaxseeds. The functional profile revealed a very interesting TPC following methanol extraction for HSs, flowers, and HS protein extract, respectively, (550.3 ± 28.27; 2982.8 ± 167.78; and 568.9 ± 34.18 mg Tannic Acid Equivalent (TAE)/100 g). This trend was also confirmed for FRAP (50.9 ± 4.30; 123.6 ± 8.08; and 29.73 ± 1.32 mg Ascorbic Acid Equivalent (AAE)/100 g), recording values similar/higher than soy protein extract and flaxseeds (17.4 ± 1.55; and 10.4 ± 0.44 mg AAE/100 g). The results were also maintained following physiological digestion. These results, although promising, need further investigation, confirming what has been observed with different antioxidant activity assays and identifying individual molecules involved in functional pathways. This information will be necessary to gain a better understanding of the functional characteristics of these matrices for use in food/feed formulations.

Cannabis sativa CBD Extract Exhibits Synergy with Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics against Salmonella enterica subsp. Enterica serovar typhimurium

New generation antibiotics are needed to combat the development of resistance to antimicrobials. One of the most promising new classes of antibiotics is cannabidiol (CBD). It is a non-toxic and low-resistance chemical that can be used to treat bacterial infections. The antibacterial activity of Cannabis sativa L. byproducts, specifically CBD, has been of growing interest in the field of novel therapeutics. As research continues to define and characterize the antibacterial activity that CBD possesses against a wide variety of bacterial species, it is important to examine potential interactions between CBD and common therapeutics such as broad-spectrum antibiotics. In this study it is demonstrated that CBD-antibiotic (combination of CBD and antibiotic) co-therapy can effectively fight Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) via membrane integrity disruption. This research serves to examine the potential synergy between CBD and three broad-spectrum antibiotics (ampicillin, kanamycin, and polymyxin B) for potential CBD-antibiotic co-therapy. In this study, it is revealed that S. typhimurium growth is inhibited at very low dosages of CBD-antibiotic. This interesting finding demonstrates that CBD and CBD-antibiotic co-therapies are viable novel alternatives to combating S. typhimurium.

Uncovering the secrets of industrial hemp in food and nutrition: The trends, challenges, and new-age perspectives

Hemp is a valuable crop with a wide range of use, from applications in foods and textiles to pharmaceuticals. Over recent years, the use of hemp as food and food ingredients has drastically increased. The growth is driven by numerous health benefits hemp possesses and its wide range of applications in the food industry. This review provides the scientific literature concerning the benefits of industrial hemp in the food industry. The relevant historical context of use, recent applications in the food industry, health benefits, various development challenges, and the global market outlook for hemp-based food products have been analyzed. Evidence suggests that today hemp is widely consumed as food or an ingredient in the food. Hemp-based foods are marketed as having various health benefits, although their reception by target consumers and success varies. Besides, scientific research on hemp-derived foods has dramatically increased over recent years. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have investigated the health benefits of hemp-based foods. Therefore, there is a promising growth trend in producing novel foods from industrial hemp. Nevertheless, due to health concerns related to THC, there is a general need for regulatory compliance when integrating hemp into foods to ensure product safety before use.

Hemp in Animal Diets—Cannabidiol

In recent years, interest in hemp use has grown owing to its chemical and medicinal properties. Several parts of this plant, such as seeds, leaves, flowers, and stems are used in medicine, industry, and environmental preservation. Although there were legal restrictions on hemp exploitation in some countries due to the trace presence of THC as a psychoactive element, many countries have legalized it in recent years. Cannabidiol or CBD is a non-psychoactive phytocannabinoid that can activate the endocannabinoid system and its receptors in the central and peripheral nervous system in bodies of different species. Cannabidiol has anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, analgesic, and anti-depressant effects. This review investigates various aspects of cannabidiol use and its potential in animals and humans.

Improving Drought Stress Tolerance in Ramie (Boehmeria nivea L.) Using Molecular Techniques

Ramie is one of the most significant fiber crops and contributes to good quality fiber. Drought stress (DS) is one of the most devastating abiotic factors which is accountable for a substantial loss in crop growth and production and disturbing sustainable crop production. DS impairs growth, plant water relation, and nutrient uptake. Ramie has evolved a series of defense responses to cope with DS. There are numerous genes regulating the drought tolerance (DT) mechanism in ramie. The morphological and physiological mechanism of DT is well-studied; however, modified methods would be more effective. The use of novel genome editing tools like clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) is being used to edit the recessive genes in crops to modify their function. The transgenic approaches are used to develop several drought-tolerant varieties in ramie, and further identification of tolerant genes is needed for an effective breeding plan. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) mapping, transcription factors (TFs) and speed breeding are highly studied techniques, and these would lead to the development of drought-resilient ramie cultivars. The use of hormones in enhancing crop growth and development under water scarcity circumstances is critical; however, using different concentrations and testing genotypes in changing environments would be helpful to sort the tolerant genotypes. Since plants use various ways to counter DS, investigating mechanisms of DT in plants will lead to improved DT in ramie. This critical review summarized the recent advancements on DT in ramie using novel molecular techniques. This information would help ramie breeders to conduct research studies and develop drought tolerant ramie cultivars.

Effects of Light Spectra on Morphology, Gaseous Exchange, and Antioxidant Capacity of Industrial Hemp

One of the most important growth factors in cannabis cultivation is light which plays a big role in its successful growth. However, understanding that how light controls the industrial hemp growth and development is poor and needs advanced research. Therefore, a pot study was conducted to investigate the effects of different colors of light, that is, white light (WL), blue light (BL), red light (RL), and 50% red with 50% blue mix light (RBL) on morphology, gaseous exchange and antioxidant capacity of industrial hemp. Compared with WL, BL significantly increase hemp growth in terms of shoot fresh biomass (15.1%), shoot dry biomass (27.0%), number of leaves per plant (13.7%), stem diameter (10.2%), root length (6.8%) and chlorophyll content (7.4%). In addition, BL promoted net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration, while reduces the lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activities. However, RL and RBL significantly reduced the plant biomass, gas exchange parameters with enhanced antioxidant enzymes activities. Thus, blue light is useful for large-scale sustainable production of industrial hemp.

Cannabis sativa CBD Extract Shows Promising Antibacterial Activity against Salmonella typhimurium and S. newington

Products derived from Cannabis sativa L. have gained increased interest and popularity. As these products become common amongst the public, the health and potential therapeutic values associated with hemp have become a premier focus of research. While the psychoactive and medicinal properties of Cannabis products have been extensively highlighted in the literature, the antibacterial properties of cannabidiol (CBD) have not been explored in depth. This research serves to examine the antibacterial potential of CBD against Salmonella newington and S. typhimurium. In this study, we observed bacterial response to CBD exposure through biological assays, bacterial kinetics, and fluorescence microscopy. Additionally, comparative studies between CBD and ampicillin were conducted against S. typhimurium and S. newington to determine comparative efficacy. Furthermore, we observed potential resistance development of our Salmonella spp. against CBD treatment.

A Systems Thinking Approach Investigating the Estimated Environmental and Economic Benefits and Limitations of Industrial Hemp Cultivation in Ireland from 2017–2021

There may be unrecognised environmental and economic benefits in cultivating industrial hemp for CO2 sequestration in Ireland. By using a Systems Thinking approach, this study aims to answer how industrial hemp, which can sequester between 10 to 22 million Mt CO2 per hectare, has been helpful towards carbon sequestration efforts. A mixed-methods design combining qualitative and quantitative secondary material is used to inform Behaviour over Time Graphs (BoTGs) to illustrate the data from 2017 to 2021. In 2019 the total CO2 emissions from agriculture was 21,151.24 million Mt, and the total land cultivated with hemp was 547 hectares which represented 0.0079% of total land use and 0.0123% of agricultural land use. Based on a sequestration rate of between 10 and 22 million Mt of CO2, industrial hemp had the potential to sequester between 5470 Mt and 24,068 million Mt of CO2, this represents nearly quarter to potentially all the CO2 from agriculture and equates to a carbon tax equivalent of between €109,400 and €481,360 for that year. The total amount of CO2 sequestrated between 2017 and 2021 was between 14,660 million Mt and 64,504 million Mt of CO2. This represents an estimated contribution in carbon tax equivalent of between €348,805 and €1,534,742, respectively.