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Nicola MA, Attaai AH, Abdel-Raheem MH, Mohammed AF, Abu-Elhassan YF. Neuroprotective effects of rutin against cuprizone-induced multiple sclerosis in mice. Inflammopharmacology 2024; 32:1295-1315. [PMID: 38512652 PMCID: PMC11006763 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-024-01442-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system that injures the myelin sheath, provoking progressive axonal degeneration and functional impairments. No efficient therapy is available at present to combat such insults, and hence, novel safe and effective alternatives for MS therapy are extremely required. Rutin (RUT) is a flavonoid that exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects in several brain injuries. The present study evaluated the potential beneficial effects of two doses of RUT in a model of pattern-III lesion of MS, in comparison to the conventional standard drug; dimethyl fumarate (DMF). Demyelination was induced in in male adult C57BL/6 mice by dietary 0.2% (w/w) cuprizone (CPZ) feeding for 6 consecutive weeks. Treated groups received either oral RUT (50 or 100 mg/kg) or DMF (15 mg/kg), along with CPZ feeding, for 6 consecutive weeks. Mice were then tested for behavioral changes, followed by biochemical analyses and histological examinations of the corpus callosum (CC). Results revealed that CPZ caused motor dysfunction, demyelination, and glial activation in demyelinated lesions, as well as significant oxidative stress, and proinflammatory cytokine elevation. Six weeks of RUT treatment significantly improved locomotor activity and motor coordination. Moreover, RUT considerably improved remyelination in the CC of CPZ + RUT-treated mice, as revealed by luxol fast blue staining and transmission electron microscopy. Rutin also significantly attenuated CPZ-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in the CC of tested animals. The effect of RUT100 was obviously more marked than either that of DMF, regarding most of the tested parameters, or even its smaller tested dose. In silico docking revealed that RUT binds tightly within NF-κB at the binding site of the protein-DNA complex, with a good negative score of -6.79 kcal/mol. Also, RUT-Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) model clarifies the possible inhibition of Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction. Findings of the current study provide evidence for the protective effect of RUT in CPZ-induced demyelination and behavioral dysfunction in mice, possibly by modulating NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways. The present study may be one of the first to indicate a pro-remyelinating effect for RUT, which might represent a potential additive benefit in treating MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam A Nicola
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Asyût, 71526, Egypt.
| | - Abdelraheim H Attaai
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Badr University in Assiut, New Nasser City, West of Assiut, Asyût, Egypt
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Asyût, 71526, Egypt
| | | | - Anber F Mohammed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Asyût, 71526, Egypt
| | - Yasmin F Abu-Elhassan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Asyût, 71526, Egypt
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2
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Kipp M. How to Use the Cuprizone Model to Study De- and Remyelination. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1445. [PMID: 38338724 PMCID: PMC10855335 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune and inflammatory disorder affecting the central nervous system whose cause is still largely unknown. Oligodendrocyte degeneration results in demyelination of axons, which can eventually be repaired by a mechanism called remyelination. Prevention of demyelination and the pharmacological support of remyelination are two promising strategies to ameliorate disease progression in MS patients. The cuprizone model is commonly employed to investigate oligodendrocyte degeneration mechanisms or to explore remyelination pathways. During the last decades, several different protocols have been applied, and all have their pros and cons. This article intends to offer guidance for conducting pre-clinical trials using the cuprizone model in mice, focusing on discovering new treatment approaches to prevent oligodendrocyte degeneration or enhance remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Kipp
- Rostock University Medical Center, Institute of Anatomy, 18057 Rostock, Germany
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3
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Gakare SG, Bhatt JM, Narasimhan KKS, Dravid SM. Glutamate delta-1 receptor regulates oligodendrocyte progenitor cell differentiation and myelination in normal and demyelinating conditions. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0294583. [PMID: 37983226 PMCID: PMC10659214 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0294583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the role of glutamate delta 1 receptor (GluD1) in oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC)-mediated myelination during basal (development) and pathophysiological (cuprizone-induced demyelination) conditions. Initially, we sought to determine the expression pattern of GluD1 in OPCs and found a significant colocalization of GluD1 puncta with neuron-glial antigen 2 (NG2, OPC marker) in the motor cortex and dorsal striatum. Importantly, we found that the ablation of GluD1 led to an increase in the number of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG+) cells in the corpus callosum and motor cortex at P40 without affecting the number of NG2+ OPCs, suggesting that GluD1 loss selectively facilitates OPC differentiation rather than proliferation. Further, deletion of GluD1 enhanced myelination in the corpus callosum and motor cortex, as indicated by increased myelin basic protein (MBP) staining at P40, suggesting that GluD1 may play an essential role in the developmental regulation of myelination during the critical window period. In contrast, in cuprizone-induced demyelination, we observed reduced MBP staining in the corpus callosum of GluD1 KO mice. Furthermore, cuprizone-fed GluD1 KO mice showed more robust motor deficits. Collectively, our results demonstrate that GluD1 plays a critical role in OPC regulation and myelination in normal and demyelinating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukanya G. Gakare
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE, United States of America
| | - Jay M. Bhatt
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE, United States of America
| | - Kishore Kumar S. Narasimhan
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE, United States of America
| | - Shashank M. Dravid
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE, United States of America
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4
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Obrecht M, Zurbruegg S, Accart N, Lambert C, Doelemeyer A, Ledermann B, Beckmann N. Magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound elastography in the context of preclinical pharmacological research: significance for the 3R principles. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1177421. [PMID: 37448960 PMCID: PMC10337591 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1177421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The 3Rs principles-reduction, refinement, replacement-are at the core of preclinical research within drug discovery, which still relies to a great extent on the availability of models of disease in animals. Minimizing their distress, reducing their number as well as searching for means to replace them in experimental studies are constant objectives in this area. Due to its non-invasive character in vivo imaging supports these efforts by enabling repeated longitudinal assessments in each animal which serves as its own control, thereby enabling to reduce considerably the animal utilization in the experiments. The repetitive monitoring of pathology progression and the effects of therapy becomes feasible by assessment of quantitative biomarkers. Moreover, imaging has translational prospects by facilitating the comparison of studies performed in small rodents and humans. Also, learnings from the clinic may be potentially back-translated to preclinical settings and therefore contribute to refining animal investigations. By concentrating on activities around the application of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound elastography to small rodent models of disease, we aim to illustrate how in vivo imaging contributes primarily to reduction and refinement in the context of pharmacological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Obrecht
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Zurbruegg
- Neurosciences Department, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Accart
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Lambert
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Arno Doelemeyer
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Birgit Ledermann
- 3Rs Leader, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolau Beckmann
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
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5
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Packer D, Fresenko EE, Harrington EP. Remyelination in animal models of multiple sclerosis: finding the elusive grail of regeneration. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1207007. [PMID: 37448959 PMCID: PMC10338073 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1207007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Remyelination biology and the therapeutic potential of restoring myelin sheaths to prevent neurodegeneration and disability in multiple sclerosis (MS) has made considerable gains over the past decade with many regeneration strategies undergoing tested in MS clinical trials. Animal models used to investigate oligodendroglial responses and regeneration of myelin vary considerably in the mechanism of demyelination, involvement of inflammatory cells, neurodegeneration and capacity for remyelination. The investigation of remyelination in the context of aging and an inflammatory environment are of considerable interest for the potential translation to progressive multiple sclerosis. Here we review how remyelination is assessed in mouse models of demyelination, differences and advantages of these models, therapeutic strategies that have emerged and current pro-remyelination clinical trials.
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Beecken M, Baumann L, Vankriekelsvenne E, Manzhula K, Greiner T, Heinig L, Schauerte S, Kipp M, Joost S. The Cuprizone Mouse Model: A Comparative Study of Cuprizone Formulations from Different Manufacturers. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10564. [PMID: 37445742 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The Cuprizone mouse model is widely used in studies on de- and remyelination. In the hands of different experimenters, the Cuprizone concentrations that lead to comparable levels of demyelination differ considerably. The reasons for this variability are unknown. In this study, we tested whether different Cuprizone formulations from different vendors and manufacturers influenced Cuprizone-induced histopathological hallmarks. We intoxicated male C57BL/6 mice with six Cuprizone powders that differed in their manufacturer, vendor, and purity. After five weeks, we analyzed the body weight changes over the course of the experiment, as well as the demyelination, astrogliosis, microgliosis and axonal damage by histological LFB-PAS staining and immunohistochemical labelling of PLP, IBA1, GFAP and APP. All Cuprizone formulations induced demyelination, astrogliosis, microgliosis, axonal damage and a moderate drop in body weight at the beginning of the intoxication period. In a cumulative evaluation of all analyses, two Cuprizone formulations performed weaker than the other formulations. In conclusion, all tested formulations did work, but the choice of Cuprizone formulation may have been responsible for the considerable variability in the experimental outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malena Beecken
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Louise Baumann
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | | | - Katerina Manzhula
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Theresa Greiner
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Leo Heinig
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Steffen Schauerte
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Markus Kipp
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Sarah Joost
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
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Clawson ED, Radecki DZ, Samanta J. Immunofluorescence assay for demyelination, remyelination, and proliferation in an acute cuprizone mouse model. STAR Protoc 2023; 4:102072. [PMID: 36853716 PMCID: PMC9918794 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2023.102072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Here, we present a protocol to assess demyelination in the corpus callosum of an acute cuprizone mouse model, which is routinely used to induce demyelination for studying myelin regeneration in the rodent brain. We describe the tracing of neural stem cells via intraperitoneal injection of tamoxifen into adult Gli1CreERT2;Ai9 mice and the induction of demyelination with cuprizone diet. We also detail EdU administration, cryosectioning of the mouse brain, EdU labeling, and immunofluorescence staining to examine proliferation and myelination. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Radecki et al. (2020).1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth D Clawson
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| | - Daniel Z Radecki
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jayshree Samanta
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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8
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Leo H, Kipp M. Remyelination in Multiple Sclerosis: Findings in the Cuprizone Model. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232416093. [PMID: 36555733 PMCID: PMC9783537 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Remyelination therapies, which are currently under development, have a great potential to delay, prevent or even reverse disability in multiple sclerosis patients. Several models are available to study the effectiveness of novel compounds in vivo, among which is the cuprizone model. This model is characterized by toxin-induced demyelination, followed by endogenous remyelination after cessation of the intoxication. Due to its high reproducibility and ease of use, this model enjoys high popularity among various research and industrial groups. In this review article, we will summarize recent findings using this model and discuss the potential of some of the identified compounds to promote remyelination in multiple sclerosis patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Markus Kipp
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-(0)-381-494-8400
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9
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Gharagozloo M, Mace JW, Calabresi PA. Animal models to investigate the effects of inflammation on remyelination in multiple sclerosis. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:995477. [PMID: 36407761 PMCID: PMC9669474 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.995477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory, demyelinating, and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS). In people with MS, impaired remyelination and axonal loss lead to debilitating long-term neurologic deficits. Current MS disease-modifying drugs mainly target peripheral immune cells and have demonstrated little efficacy for neuroprotection or promoting repair. To elucidate the pathological mechanisms and test therapeutic interventions, multiple animal models have been developed to recapitulate specific aspects of MS pathology, particularly the acute inflammatory stage. However, there are few animal models that facilitate the study of remyelination in the presence of inflammation, and none fully replicate the biology of chronic demyelination in MS. In this review, we describe the animal models that have provided insight into the mechanisms underlying demyelination, myelin repair, and potential therapeutic targets for remyelination. We highlight the limitations of studying remyelination in toxin-based demyelination models and discuss the combinatorial models that recapitulate the inflammatory microenvironment, which is now recognized to be a major inhibitor of remyelination mechanisms. These models may be useful in identifying novel therapeutics that promote CNS remyelination in inflammatory diseases such as MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjan Gharagozloo
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jackson W. Mace
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Peter A. Calabresi
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
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10
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Motor Behavioral Deficits in the Cuprizone Model: Validity of the Rotarod Test Paradigm. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911342. [PMID: 36232643 PMCID: PMC9570024 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a neuroinflammatory disorder, which is histopathologically characterized by multifocal inflammatory demyelinating lesions affecting both the central nervous system’s white and grey matter. Especially during the progressive phases of the disease, immunomodulatory treatment strategies lose their effectiveness. To develop novel progressive MS treatment options, pre-clinical animal models are indispensable. Among the various different models, the cuprizone de- and remyelination model is frequently used. While most studies determine tissue damage and repair at the histological and ultrastructural level, functional readouts are less commonly applied. Among the various overt functional deficits, gait and coordination abnormalities are commonly observed in MS patients. Motor behavior is mediated by a complex neural network that originates in the cortex and terminates in the skeletal muscles. Several methods exist to determine gait abnormalities in small rodents, including the rotarod testing paradigm. In this review article, we provide an overview of the validity and characteristics of the rotarod test in cuprizone-intoxicated mice.
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Naeem AG, El-Naga RN, Michel HE. Nebivolol elicits a neuroprotective effect in the cuprizone model of multiple sclerosis in mice: emphasis on M1/M2 polarization and inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Inflammopharmacology 2022; 30:2197-2209. [PMID: 35948811 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-022-01045-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating neurodegenerative inflammatory disease affecting mainly young adults. Microgliosis-derived neuroinflammation represents a key hallmark in MS pathology and progression. Nebivolol (Neb) demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties in several brain pathologies. This study was conducted to investigate the potential neuroprotective effect of Neb in the cuprizone (Cup) model of MS. METHODS C57Bl/6 mice were fed 0.2% Cup mixed into rodent chow for 5 weeks. Neb (5 and 10 mg/kg/day) was administered by oral gavage during the last 2 weeks. RESULTS Neb prevented Cup-induced weight loss and motor deficits as evidenced by increased latency to fall in the rotarod test and enhanced locomotor activity as compared to Cup-intoxicated mice. Neb reversed Cup-induced demyelination as confirmed by Luxol fast blue staining and myelin basic protein western blotting. Administration of Neb modulated microglial activation status by suppressing M1 markers (Iba-1, CD86, iNOS, NO and TNF-α) and increasing M2 markers (Arg-1 and IL-10) as compared to Cup-fed mice. Furthermore, Neb hindered NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-18 inflammatory cascade and alleviated oxidative stress by reducing lipid peroxidation, as well as increasing catalase and superoxide dismutase activities. CONCLUSION These findings suggest the potential neuroprotective effect of Neb in the Cup-induced model of MS in mice, at least partially by virtue of shifting microglia towards M2 phenotype, mitigation of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and alleviation of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoinette G Naeem
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Reem N El-Naga
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Haidy E Michel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
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12
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Namazi F, Bordbar E, Bakhshaei F, Nazifi S. The effect of Urtica dioica extract on oxidative stress, heat shock proteins, and brain histopathology in multiple sclerosis model. Physiol Rep 2022; 10:e15404. [PMID: 35924324 PMCID: PMC9350467 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) results from the destruction of myelin and focal inflammation. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of hydroalcoholic extract of Urtica dioica on oxidative stress, heat shock proteins, and brain histopathology in multiple sclerosis model. Sixty male C57BL/6 mice were divided into six groups of 10. Groups included positive control, negative control, and treatment groups with U. dioica extract at a dose of 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg for 21 days (three times a week). The MS model was developed by a diet containing 0.2% cuprizone for 6 weeks. A section of brains was evaluated with Luxol Fast Blue staining and the other part evaluated with heat shock protein (HSP) kits 60 and 70, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and malondialdehyde (MDA). In sections of corpus callosum, the highest amount of myelin was observed in the negative controls, while the use of cuprizone in the positive controls caused the destruction and reduction of myelin. The use of U. dioica extract in therapeutic groups except at a dose of 50 mg/kg could reduce myelin degradation to some extent and lead to remyelination. However, myelin levels in treatment groups were not significantly different from any of the negative and positive controls. Although HSP60 decreased in the treatment groups, there was no significant difference between the positive and negative controls. Treatment with this extract significantly reduced the amount of HSP70 compared with the positive controls. The decreased TAC and increased MDA in positive controls indicated oxidative stress, respectively. Furthermore, the extract led to an increase and decrease of TAC and MDA in the treatment groups, respectively. However, only the MDA level was significantly different from that of the positive controls. Therefore, the antioxidant effects of U. dioica extract could decrease cuprizone-induced oxidative stress and be effective in improving demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Namazi
- Pathology Division, Department of PathobiologySchool of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz UniversityShirazIran
| | - Elnaz Bordbar
- School of Veterinary MedicineShiraz UniversityShirazIran
| | - Farnoosh Bakhshaei
- Clinical Pathology Division, Department of Clinical SciencesSchool of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz UniversityShirazIran
| | - Saeed Nazifi
- Clinical Pathology Division, Department of Clinical SciencesSchool of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz UniversityShirazIran
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13
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Gasterich N, Bohn A, Sesterhenn A, Nebelo F, Fein L, Kaddatz H, Nyamoya S, Kant S, Kipp M, Weiskirchen R, Zendedel A, Beyer C, Clarner T. Lipocalin 2 attenuates oligodendrocyte loss and immune cell infiltration in mouse models for multiple sclerosis. Glia 2022; 70:2188-2206. [PMID: 35856297 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a central nervous system disease characterized by both degenerative and inflammatory processes. Various mediators are involved in the interplay of degeneration and innate immunity on one hand and peripheral adaptive immunity on the other hand. The secreted protein lipocalin 2 (LCN2) is an inflammatory modulator in a variety of pathologies. Although elevated intrathecal levels of LCN2 have been reported in MS patients, it's functional role is widely unknown. Here, we identified a subpopulation of astrocytes as a source of LCN2 in MS lesions and respective animal models. We investigated the functional role of LCN2 for both autoimmune and degenerative aspects in three MS mouse models including both wild type (WT) and Lcn2-/- mouse strains. While the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model reflects primary autoimmunity, the cuprizone model reflects selective oligodendrocyte loss and demyelination. In addition, we included a combinatory Cup/EAE model in which primary cytodegeneration is followed by inflammatory lesions within the forebrain. While in the EAE model, the disease outcome was comparable in between the two mouse strains, cuprizone intoxicated Lcn2-/- animals showed an increased loss of oligodendrocytes. In the Cup/EAE model, Lcn2-/- animals showed increased inflammation when compared to WT mice. Together, our results highlight LCN2 as a potentially protective molecule in MS lesion formation, which might be able to limit loss of oligodendrocytes immune-cell invasion. Despite these findings, it is not yet clear which glial cell phenotype (and to which extent) contributes to the observed neuroprotective effects, that is, microglia and/or astroglia or even endothelial cells in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Gasterich
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Amelie Bohn
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Anika Sesterhenn
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Frederik Nebelo
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Lena Fein
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Hannes Kaddatz
- Rostock University Medical Center, Institute of Anatomy, Rostock, Germany
| | - Stella Nyamoya
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kant
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Anatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Markus Kipp
- Rostock University Medical Center, Institute of Anatomy, Rostock, Germany
| | - Ralf Weiskirchen
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Experimental Gene Therapy and Clinical Chemistry (IFMPEGKC), Aachen, Germany
| | - Adib Zendedel
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Cordian Beyer
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tim Clarner
- RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Institute of Neuroanatomy, Aachen, Germany
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Almuslehi MSM, Sen MK, Shortland PJ, Mahns DA, Coorssen JR. Histological and Top-Down Proteomic Analyses of the Visual Pathway in the Cuprizone Demyelination Model. J Mol Neurosci 2022; 72:1374-1401. [PMID: 35644788 PMCID: PMC9170674 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-022-01997-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A change in visual perception is a frequent early symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS), the pathoaetiology of which remains unclear. Following a slow demyelination process caused by 12 weeks of low-dose (0.1%) cuprizone (CPZ) consumption, histology and proteomics were used to investigate components of the visual pathway in young adult mice. Histological investigation did not identify demyelination or gliosis in the optic tracts, pretectal nuclei, superior colliculi, lateral geniculate nuclei or visual cortices. However, top-down proteomic assessment of the optic nerve/tract revealed a significant change in the abundance of 34 spots in high-resolution two-dimensional (2D) gels. Subsequent liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-TMS) analysis identified alterations in 75 proteoforms. Literature mining revealed the relevance of these proteoforms in terms of proteins previously implicated in animal models, eye diseases and human MS. Importantly, 24 proteoforms were not previously described in any animal models of MS, eye diseases or MS itself. Bioinformatic analysis indicated involvement of these proteoforms in cytoskeleton organization, metabolic dysregulation, protein aggregation and axonal support. Collectively, these results indicate that continuous CPZ-feeding, which evokes a slow demyelination, results in proteomic changes that precede any clear histological changes in the visual pathway and that these proteoforms may be potential early markers of degenerative demyelinating conditions.
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15
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Wittekindt M, Kaddatz H, Joost S, Staffeld A, Bitar Y, Kipp M, Frintrop L. Different Methods for Evaluating Microglial Activation Using Anti-Ionized Calcium-Binding Adaptor Protein-1 Immunohistochemistry in the Cuprizone Model. Cells 2022; 11:cells11111723. [PMID: 35681418 PMCID: PMC9179561 DOI: 10.3390/cells11111723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play an important role in the pathology of various central nervous system disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS). While different methods exist to evaluate the extent of microglia activation, comparative studies investigating the sensitivity of these methods are missing for most models. In this study, we systematically evaluated which of the three commonly used histological methods (id est, quantification of microglia density, densitometrically evaluated staining intensity, or cellular morphology based on the determination of a ramification index, all measured in anti-ionized calcium-binding adaptor protein-1 (IBA1) immunohistochemical stains) is the most sensitive method to detect subtle changes in the microglia activation status in the context of MS. To this end, we used the toxin-induced cuprizone model which allows the experimental induction of a highly reproducible demyelination in several central nervous system regions, paralleled by early microglia activation. In this study, we showed that after 3 weeks of cuprizone intoxication, all methods reveal a significant microglia activation in the white matter corpus callosum. In contrast, in the affected neocortical grey matter, the evaluation of anti-IBA1 cell morphologies was the most sensitive method to detect subtle changes of microglial activation. The results of this study provide a useful guide for future immunohistochemical evaluations in the cuprizone and other neurodegenerative models.
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16
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Astroglial and oligodendroglial markers in the cuprizone animal model for de- and remyelination. Histochem Cell Biol 2022; 158:15-38. [PMID: 35380252 PMCID: PMC9246805 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-022-02096-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Myelin loss with consecutive axon degeneration and impaired remyelination are the underlying causes of progressive disease in patients with multiple sclerosis. Astrocytes are suggested to play a major role in these processes. The unmasking of distinct astrocyte identities in health and disease would help to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms in which astrocytes are involved. However, the number of specific astrocyte markers is limited. Therefore, we performed immunohistochemical studies and analyzed various markers including GFAP, vimentin, S100B, ALDH1L1, and LCN2 during de- and remyelination using the toxic murine cuprizone animal model. Applying this animal model, we were able to confirm overlapping expression of vimentin and GFAP and highlighted the potential of ALDH1L1 as a pan-astrocytic marker, in agreement with previous data. Only a small population of GFAP-positive astrocytes in the corpus callosum highly up-regulated LCN2 at the peak of demyelination and S100B expression was found in a subset of oligodendroglia as well, thus S100B turned out to have a limited use as a particular astroglial marker. Additionally, numerous GFAP-positive astrocytes in the lateral corpus callosum did not express S100B, further strengthening findings of heterogeneity in the astrocytic population. In conclusion, our results acknowledged that GFAP, vimentin, LCN2, and ALDH1L1 serve as reliable marker to identify activated astrocytes during cuprizone-induced de- and remyelination. Moreover, there were clear regional and temporal differences in protein and mRNA expression levels and patterns of the studied markers, generally between gray and white matter structures.
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17
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Sen MK, Mahns DA, Coorssen JR, Shortland PJ. The roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosis and myelination: Insights from the cuprizone model of multiple sclerosis. Glia 2022; 70:1215-1250. [PMID: 35107839 PMCID: PMC9302634 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In human demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), an imbalance between demyelination and remyelination can trigger progressive degenerative processes. The clearance of myelin debris (phagocytosis) from the site of demyelination by microglia is critically important to achieve adequate remyelination and to slow the progression of the disease. However, how microglia phagocytose the myelin debris, and why clearance is impaired in MS, is not fully known; likewise, the role of the microglia in remyelination remains unclear. Recent studies using cuprizone (CPZ) as an animal model of central nervous system demyelination revealed that the up‐regulation of signaling proteins in microglia facilitates effective phagocytosis of myelin debris. Moreover, during demyelination, protective mediators are released from activated microglia, resulting in the acceleration of remyelination in the CPZ model. In contrast, inadequate microglial activation or recruitment to the site of demyelination, and the production of toxic mediators, impairs remyelination resulting in progressive demyelination. In addition to the microglia‐mediated phagocytosis, astrocytes play an important role in the phagocytic process by recruiting microglia to the site of demyelination and producing regenerative mediators. The current review is an update of these emerging findings from the CPZ animal model, discussing the roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosis and myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Faculty of Applied Health Sciences and Faculty of Mathematics & Science, Brock University, St. Cathari, Canada
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18
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An J, He Y, Yin JJ, Ding ZB, Han QX, Chen YY, Wang Q, Chai Z, Yu JZ, Song LJ, Xiao BG, Ma CG. Temporal and spatial evolution of various functional neurons during demyelination induced by cuprizone. J Neurophysiol 2021; 126:1756-1771. [PMID: 34669500 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00224.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory, demyelinating, and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Here we report the temporal and spatial evolution of various functional neurons during demyelination in a cuprizone (CPZ)-induced mouse model. CPZ did not significantly induce the damage of axons and neurons after 2 wk of feeding. However, after 4-6 wk of CPZ feeding, axons and neurons were markedly reduced in the cortex, posterior thalamic nuclear group, and hippocampus. Simultaneously, the expression of TPH+ tryptophan neurons and VGLUT1+ glutamate neurons was obviously decreased, and the expression of TH+ dopaminergic neurons was slightly decreased in the tail part of the substantia nigra striatum, whereas the number of ChAT+ cholinergic neurons was not significantly different in the brain. In the second week of feeding, CPZ caused a higher level of glutamate secretion and upregulated the expression of EAAT2 on astrocytes, which should contribute to rapid and sufficient glutamate uptake and removal. This finding reveals that astrocyte-driven glutamate reuptake protected the CNS from excitotoxicity by rapid reuptake of glutamate in 4-6 wk of CPZ feeding. At this stage, although NG2+ oligodendroglia progenitor cells (OPCs) were enhanced in the demyelination foci, the myelin sheath was still absent. In conclusion, we comprehensively observed the temporal and spatial evolution of various functional neurons. Our results will assist with understanding how demyelination affects neurons during CPZ-induced demyelination and provide novel information for neuroprotection in myelin regeneration and demyelinating diseases.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our results further indicate temporal and spatial evolution of various functional neurons during the demyelination in a cuprizone (CPZ)-induced mouse model, which mainly occur 4-6 wk after CPZ feeding. At the same time, the axonal compartment is damaged and, consequently, neuronal death occurs, while glutamate neurons are lost obviously. The astrocyte-mediated glutamate reuptake could protect the neurons from the excitatory effects of glutamate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun An
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yan He
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jun-Jun Yin
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Zhi-Bin Ding
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China.,Department of Physiology and Neurology, Affiliated Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qing-Xian Han
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yang-Yang Chen
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qing Wang
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Zhi Chai
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jie-Zhong Yu
- Institute of Brain Science, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, China
| | - Li-Juan Song
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China.,Department of Physiology and Neurology, Affiliated Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Bao-Guo Xiao
- Institute of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cun-Gen Ma
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China.,Institute of Brain Science, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, China
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19
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Abdi M, Pasbakhsh P, Shabani M, Nekoonam S, Sadeghi A, Fathi F, Abouzaripour M, Mohamed W, Zibara K, Kashani IR, Zendedel A. Metformin Therapy Attenuates Pro-inflammatory Microglia by Inhibiting NF-κB in Cuprizone Demyelinating Mouse Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Neurotox Res 2021; 39:1732-1746. [PMID: 34570348 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-021-00417-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disorder characterized by reactive gliosis, inflammation, and demyelination. Microglia plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of MS and has the dynamic plasticity to polarize between pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes. Metformin, a glucose-lowering drug, attenuates inflammatory responses by activating adenosine monophosphate protein kinase (AMPK) which suppresses nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). In this study, we indirectly investigated whether metformin therapy would regulate microglia activity in the cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination mouse model of MS via measuring the markers associated with pro- and anti-inflammatory microglia. Evaluation of myelin by luxol fast blue staining revealed that metformin treatment (CPZ + Met) diminished demyelination, in comparison to CPZ mice. In addition, metformin therapy significantly alleviated reactive microgliosis and astrogliosis in the corpus callosum, as measured by Iba-1 and GFAP staining. Moreover, metformin treatment significantly downregulated the expression of pro-inflammatory associated genes (iNOS, H2-Aa, and TNF-α) in the corpus callosum, whereas expression of anti-inflammatory markers (Arg1, Mrc1, and IL10) was not promoted, compared to CPZ mice. Furthermore, protein levels of iNOS (pro-inflammatory marker) were significantly decreased in the metformin group, while those of Trem2 (anti-inflammatory marker) were increased. In addition, metformin significantly increased AMPK activation in CPZ mice. Finally, metformin administration significantly reduced the activation level of NF-κB in CPZ mice. In summary, our data revealed that metformin attenuated pro-inflammatory microglia markers through suppressing NF-κB activity. The positive effects of metformin on microglia and remyelination suggest that it could be used as a promising candidate to lessen the incidence of inflammatory neurodegenerative diseases such as MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdad Abdi
- Department of Anatomy, school of medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parichehr Pasbakhsh
- Department of Anatomy, school of medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Maryam Shabani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saied Nekoonam
- Department of Anatomy, school of medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Asie Sadeghi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Fardin Fathi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | | | - Wael Mohamed
- Basic Medical Science Department, International Islamic University Malaysia, Pahang, Malaysia.,Clinical Pharmacology Department, Menoufia Medical School, Menoufia University, Shebin El Kom, Egypt
| | - Kazem Zibara
- PRASE and Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences-I, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon.
| | - Iraj Ragerdi Kashani
- Department of Anatomy, school of medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Adib Zendedel
- Institute of Neuroanatomy, RWTH University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
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20
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Saitta KS, Lercher LD, Sainato DM, Patel A, Huang Y, McAuliffe WG, Dreyfus CF. CHPG enhances BDNF and myelination in cuprizone-treated mice through astrocytic metabotropic glutamate receptor 5. Glia 2021; 69:1950-1965. [PMID: 33811383 PMCID: PMC9847144 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
It is well recognized that astrocytes can produce factors known to affect the myelination process. One such factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), can enhance the differentiation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells following a demyelinating lesion. Our previous work indicated that enhancing astrocyte-derived BDNF via injection of a general agonist of Group I/II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) into the lesion increased myelin proteins in the cuprizone model of demyelination after 4 hr. To determine if this observation has potential therapeutic significance, we now use a more specific mGluR agonist, 2-chloro-5-hydroxyphenylglycine (CHPG), which binds to mGluR5, to examine effects on myelination through the clinically relevant approach of a peripheral injection. In initial studies, intraperitoneal injection of CHPG resulted in an increase in myelin proteins within the lesioned corpus callosum. These effects were blocked when either BDNF or the CHPG receptor, mGluR5, was deleted from glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ astrocytes or when the BDNF receptor, tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), was deleted from proteolipid protein (PLP)+ oligodendrocytes. Moreover, injection of CHPG over 2 weeks not only elevated BDNF and myelin proteins, but also enhanced myelination and reversed behavioral deficits. Interestingly, effects on myelin and myelin proteins were not seen in the control animals, indicating that a lesion is critical in eliciting effects. Taken together, the data suggest that the mGluR agonist CHPG may be a potential therapeutic strategy for treating demyelinating diseases and that it works by enhancing the release of BDNF from astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle S. Saitta
- Joint Graduate Program in Toxicology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854,Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Lauren D. Lercher
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Danielle M. Sainato
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Ashish Patel
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Yangyang Huang
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - W. Geoffrey McAuliffe
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Cheryl F. Dreyfus
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
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21
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Roufagalas I, Avloniti M, Fortosi A, Xingi E, Thomaidou D, Probert L, Kyrargyri V. Novel cell-based analysis reveals region-dependent changes in microglial dynamics in grey matter in a cuprizone model of demyelination. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 157:105449. [PMID: 34274460 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are key players in Multiple Sclerosis (MS), expressing many susceptibility genes for this disease. They constantly survey the brain microenvironment, but the precise functional relationships between microglia and pathological processes remain unknown. We performed a detailed assessment of microglial dynamics in three distinct grey matter regions in a cuprizone-induced demyelination model. We found that microglial activation preceded detectable demyelination and showed regional specificities, such as prominent phagocytic activity in cortical layer 5 and early hypertrophic morphology in hippocampal CA1. Demyelination happened earliest in cortical layer 5, although was more complete in CA1. In cortical layer 2/3, microglial activation and demyelination were less pronounced but microglia became hyper-ramified with slower process movement during remyelination, thereby maintaining local brain surveillance. Profiling of microglia using specific morphological and motility parameters revealed region-specific heterogeneity of microglial responses in the grey matter that might serve as sensitive indicators of progression in CNS demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilias Roufagalas
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Avloniti
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Alexandra Fortosi
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Evangelia Xingi
- Light Microscopy Unit, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Dimitra Thomaidou
- Light Microscopy Unit, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece; Department of Neurobiology, Neural Stem Cells & Neuroimaging Group, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Lesley Probert
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Kyrargyri
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece.
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22
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Cong H, Liang M, Wang Y, Chang H, Du L, Zhang X, Yin L. Icariin ameliorates the cuprizone-induced acute brain demyelination and modulates the number of oligodendrocytes, microglia and astrocytes in the brain of C57BL/6J mice. Brain Res Bull 2021; 175:37-47. [PMID: 34274431 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed at testing the hypothesis that treatment with icariin (ICA, a type of flavonoid) could mitigate the cuprizone (CPZ)-induced acute demyelination in the brain of mice and the potential mechanisms. Female C57BL/6J mice were fed continually with regular rodent chow or the chow supplemented with CPZ (0.2 % w/w) for six weeks to induce acute demyelination. The CPZ-fed mice were treated with vehicle or ICA at 12.5 or 25 mg/kg beginning at three weeks post CPZ feeding daily for three weeks. Their brain tissue sections were stained with oil red O, luxol-fast blue (LFB) and immunohistochemistry to characterize the levels of brain demyelination, myelin basic protein (MBP) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the numbers of oligodendrocytes (Ols), oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), microglia and astrocytes in mice. Compared with the healthy controls, CPZ feeding caused the brain demyelination by increasing NG2+ OPCs, but decreased oil red O and LFB staining, MBP level and GST-pi+ Ols in the brain corpus callosum region of mice. Furthermore, CPZ feeding decreased the number of BDNF+ cells in the brain cortex and hippocampus regions, but increased microglia in the brain corpus callosum, cortex and caudate putamen, and astrocytes in the corpus callosum regions of mice. Treatment with ICA significantly mitigated or abrogated the toxic demyelination of CPZ by preserving MBP and BDNF proteins and modulating the numbers of Ols, OPCs, microglia and astrocytes in the brain of mice. ICA treatment significantly ameliorated the CPZ-mediated demyelination and modulated the number of Ols, microglia and astrocytes in the brain of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengri Cong
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4(th) Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100160, China
| | - Mengru Liang
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, No.45 Changchun Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Yupeng Wang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4(th) Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100160, China
| | - Haoxiao Chang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4(th) Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100160, China; Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, No.45 Changchun Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Li Du
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4(th) Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100160, China
| | - Xinghu Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4(th) Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100160, China
| | - Linlin Yin
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, No.119 South 4(th) Ring West Road, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100160, China; Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, No.45 Changchun Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China.
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23
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Zhan J, Fegg FN, Kaddatz H, Rühling S, Frenz J, Denecke B, Amor S, Ponsaerts P, Hochstrasser T, Kipp M. Focal white matter lesions induce long-lasting axonal degeneration, neuroinflammation and behavioral deficits. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 155:105371. [PMID: 33932559 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) with episodes of inflammatory demyelination and remyelination. While remyelination has been linked with functional recovery in MS patients, there is evidence of ongoing tissue damage despite complete myelin repair. In this study, we investigated the long-term consequences of an acute demyelinating white matter CNS lesion. For this purpose, acute demyelination was induced by 5-week-cuprizone intoxication in male C57BL/6 J mice, and the tissues were examined after a 7-month recovery period. While myelination and oligodendrocyte densities appeared normal, ongoing axonal degeneration and glia cell activation were found in the remyelinated corpus callosum. Neuropathologies were paralleled by subtle gait abnormalities evaluated using DigiGait™ high speed ventral plane videography. Gene array analyses revealed increased expression levels of various inflammation related genes, among protein kinase c delta (PRKCD). Immunofluorescence stains revealed predominant microglia/macrophages PRKCD expression in both, cuprizone tissues and post-mortem MS lesions. These results support the hypothesis that chronic microglia/macrophages driven tissue injury represents a key aspect of progressive neurodegeneration and functional decline in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangshan Zhan
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany; Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Nepomuk Fegg
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany; Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Hannes Kaddatz
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany; Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sebastian Rühling
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany; Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Julia Frenz
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany; Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bernd Denecke
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research Aachen (IZKF Aachen), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sandra Amor
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam UMC, VUMC site, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Peter Ponsaerts
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp 2610, Belgium
| | - Tanja Hochstrasser
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Markus Kipp
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany; Center for Transdisciplinary Neurosciences Rostock (CTNR), Rostock University Medical Center, Gelsheimer Strasse 20, 18147 Rostock, Germany.
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24
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Genovese G, Palombo M, Santin MD, Valette J, Ligneul C, Aigrot MS, Abdoulkader N, Langui D, Millecamps A, Baron-Van Evercooren A, Stankoff B, Lehericy S, Petiet A, Branzoli F. Inflammation-driven glial alterations in the cuprizone mouse model probed with diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 11.7 T. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2021; 34:e4480. [PMID: 33480101 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.4480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation of brain tissue is a complex response of the immune system to the presence of toxic compounds or to cell injury, leading to a cascade of pathological processes that include glial cell activation. Noninvasive MRI markers of glial reactivity would be very useful for in vivo detection and monitoring of inflammation processes in the brain, as well as for evaluating the efficacy of personalized treatments. Due to their specific location in glial cells, myo-inositol (mIns) and choline compounds (tCho) seem to be the best candidates for probing glial-specific intra-cellular compartments. However, their concentrations quantified using conventional proton MRS are not specific for inflammation. In contrast, it has been recently suggested that mIns intra-cellular diffusion, measured using diffusion-weighted MRS (DW-MRS) in a mouse model of reactive astrocytes, could be a specific marker of astrocytic hypertrophy. In order to evaluate the specificity of both mIns and tCho diffusion to inflammation-driven glial alterations, we performed DW-MRS in a volume of interest containing the corpus callosum and surrounding tissue of cuprizone-fed mice after 6 weeks of intoxication, and evaluated the extent of astrocytic and microglial alterations using immunohistochemistry. Both mIns and tCho apparent diffusion coefficients were significantly elevated in cuprizone-fed mice compared with control mice, and histologic evaluation confirmed the presence of severe inflammation. Additionally, mIns and tCho diffusion showed, respectively, strong and moderate correlations with histological measures of astrocytic and microglial area fractions, confirming DW-MRS as a promising tool for specific detection of glial changes under pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guglielmo Genovese
- Center for Neuroimaging Research-CENIR, Paris Brain Institute (Institut du Cerveau-ICM), Paris, France
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
| | - Marco Palombo
- Centre for Medical Image Computing and Department of Computer Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Mathieu D Santin
- Center for Neuroimaging Research-CENIR, Paris Brain Institute (Institut du Cerveau-ICM), Paris, France
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
| | - Julien Valette
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), MIRCen, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, UMR9199, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Clémence Ligneul
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, FMRIB, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Marie-Stéphane Aigrot
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
- Core Facility ICM Quant, Institut du Cerveau-ICM, Paris, France
| | - Nasteho Abdoulkader
- Center for Neuroimaging Research-CENIR, Paris Brain Institute (Institut du Cerveau-ICM), Paris, France
| | - Dominique Langui
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
- Core Facility ICM Quant, Institut du Cerveau-ICM, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Bruno Stankoff
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Lehericy
- Center for Neuroimaging Research-CENIR, Paris Brain Institute (Institut du Cerveau-ICM), Paris, France
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
| | - Alexandra Petiet
- Center for Neuroimaging Research-CENIR, Paris Brain Institute (Institut du Cerveau-ICM), Paris, France
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
| | - Francesca Branzoli
- Center for Neuroimaging Research-CENIR, Paris Brain Institute (Institut du Cerveau-ICM), Paris, France
- Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, ICM, Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris, France
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25
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Moles L, Egimendia A, Osorio-Querejeta I, Iparraguirre L, Alberro A, Suárez J, Sepúlveda L, Castillo-Triviño T, Muñoz-Culla M, Ramos-Cabrer P, Otaegui D. Gut Microbiota Changes in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis and Cuprizone Mice Models. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:893-905. [PMID: 33566588 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by the immune mediated attack on axons and the subsequent demyelination. There is growing evidence that the gut microbiota of MS patients is altered; however, the connection between demyelination events and changes in the gut microbiota has not been determined. The objective of the current work was to characterize the microbial dysbiosis in two murine demyelinating models and to study the correlation between them. Concurrently, their suitability as predictors of microbial changes in MS patients was assessed. To this purpose, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and cuprizone (CPZ) models were induced in C57BL/6 mice that were monitored for 4 and 9 weeks, respectively. Fecal samples were collected during disease progression. Motor skill performance was evaluated by EAE scale measurement in EAE mice and demyelination by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in CPZ ones. EAE and CPZ mice revealed drastic microbial changes according to disease progression, adding a new layer of complexity to the understanding of demyelination and remyelination processes. Besides, the reported microbial changes replicate most of the characteristics that define the potential dysbiosis in MS patients. The controlled environment and stable diet that animals have in research centers offer an exceptional scenario to modify animal's microbiota and provide opportunities to study host microbiota interplay with restrained conditions not achievable in human studies. Nevertheless the slight differences from murine model's and patient's microbiota should be considered in the design of studies aiming to modulate the microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Moles
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
| | - Ander Egimendia
- Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón 182, Donostia, San Sebastián 20014, Spain
| | - Iñaki Osorio-Querejeta
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
| | - Leire Iparraguirre
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
| | - Ainhoa Alberro
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
| | - Jose Suárez
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
| | - Lucía Sepúlveda
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
- Spanish Network of Multiple Sclerosis (REEM),, Barcelona 08028Spain
| | - Tamara Castillo-Triviño
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
- Spanish Network of Multiple Sclerosis (REEM),, Barcelona 08028Spain
- Neurology Department, Donostia University Hospital, Osakidetza, San Sebastián 20014, Spain
| | - Maider Muñoz-Culla
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
- Spanish Network of Multiple Sclerosis (REEM),, Barcelona 08028Spain
| | - Pedro Ramos-Cabrer
- Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón 182, Donostia, San Sebastián 20014, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao 48009, Spain
| | - David Otaegui
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian 20014, Spain
- Spanish Network of Multiple Sclerosis (REEM),, Barcelona 08028Spain
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26
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Cisbani G, Poggini S, Laflamme N, Pons V, Tremblay MÈ, Branchi I, Rivest S. The Intellicage system provides a reproducible and standardized method to assess behavioral changes in cuprizone-induced demyelination mouse model. Behav Brain Res 2020; 400:113039. [PMID: 33279637 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by myelin loss in the brain parenchyma. To mimic the disease, mice are fed a cuprizone-supplemented diet for 5 weeks, which leads to demyelination of white and grey matter regions, with the corpus callosum being the most susceptible to cuprizone intoxication. Although this model is highly exploited, classical behavioural tests showed inconsistent results. OBJECTIVE In our study, we aimed to use the automated system Intellicage to phenotype the behaviour of cuprizone-fed mice. METHODS Mice were continuously monitored during the 5 weeks of intoxication in their home cages, with minimal interference from the experimenter. Mice were assessed for spontaneous activity, fine movements, and impulsivity. RESULTS Consistently, cuprizone-fed mice showed reduced activity and impulsivity throughout the test period. These behavioral results were confirmed by repeating the battery of behavioral tests in a second cohort of cuprizone-fed mice. Our results suggest that the behavioural phenotyping of cuprizone-fed mice using Intellicage is reproducible and sensitive enough to detect changes normally missed in standard behavioral test batteries. CONCLUSION Using a reproducible and standardized method to assess behavioral changes in mice intoxicated with cuprizone is crucial to better understand the disease as well as the functional outcome of treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Cisbani
- CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Boul., Québec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Silvia Poggini
- Center for Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Roma, Italy
| | - Nataly Laflamme
- CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Boul., Québec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Vincent Pons
- CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Boul., Québec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Boul., Québec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada; Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Igor Branchi
- Center for Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Roma, Italy
| | - Serge Rivest
- CHU de Québec Research Center and Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Boul., Québec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada.
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27
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Kaddatz H, Joost S, Nedelcu J, Chrzanowski U, Schmitz C, Gingele S, Gudi V, Stangel M, Zhan J, Santrau E, Greiner T, Frenz J, Müller-Hilke B, Müller M, Amor S, van der Valk P, Kipp M. Cuprizone-induced demyelination triggers a CD8-pronounced T cell recruitment. Glia 2020; 69:925-942. [PMID: 33245604 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The loss of myelinating oligodendrocytes is a key characteristic of many neurological diseases, including Multiple Sclerosis (MS). In progressive MS, where effective treatment options are limited, peripheral immune cells can be found at the site of demyelination and are suggested to play a functional role during disease progression. In this study, we hypothesize that metabolic oligodendrocyte injury, caused by feeding the copper chelator cuprizone, is a potent trigger for peripheral immune cell recruitment into the central nervous system (CNS). We used immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry to evaluate the composition, density, and activation status of infiltrating T lymphocytes in cuprizone-intoxicated mice and post-mortem progressive MS tissues. Our results demonstrate a predominance of CD8+ T cells along with high proliferation rates and cytotoxic granule expression, indicating an antigenic and pro-inflammatory milieu in the CNS of cuprizone-intoxicated mice. Numbers of recruited T cells and the composition of lymphocytic infiltrates in cuprizone-intoxicated mice were found to be comparable to those found in progressive MS lesions. Finally, amelioration of the cuprizone-induced pathology by treating mice with laquinimod significantly reduces the number of recruited T cells. Overall, this study provides strong evidence that toxic demyelination is a sufficient trigger for T cells to infiltrate the demyelinated CNS. Further investigation of the mode of action and functional consequence of T cell recruitment might offer promising new therapeutic approaches for progressive MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Kaddatz
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Sarah Joost
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Julia Nedelcu
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy II, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Uta Chrzanowski
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy II, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Christoph Schmitz
- Institute of Anatomy II, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Gingele
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Viktoria Gudi
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Stangel
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jiangshan Zhan
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Emily Santrau
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Theresa Greiner
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Julia Frenz
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Brigitte Müller-Hilke
- Core Facility for Cell Sorting and Analysing, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Michael Müller
- Core Facility for Cell Sorting and Analysing, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
| | - Sandra Amor
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | | | - Markus Kipp
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Germany
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28
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Sen MK, Almuslehi MSM, Shortland PJ, Coorssen JR, Mahns DA. Revisiting the Pathoetiology of Multiple Sclerosis: Has the Tail Been Wagging the Mouse? Front Immunol 2020; 11:572186. [PMID: 33117365 PMCID: PMC7553052 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.572186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is traditionally considered an autoimmune-mediated demyelinating disease, the pathoetiology of which is unknown. However, the key question remains whether autoimmunity is the initiator of the disease (outside-in) or the consequence of a slow and as yet uncharacterized cytodegeneration (oligodendrocytosis), which leads to a subsequent immune response (inside-out). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis has been used to model the later stages of MS during which the autoimmune involvement predominates. In contrast, the cuprizone (CPZ) model is used to model early stages of the disease during which oligodendrocytosis and demyelination predominate and are hypothesized to precede subsequent immune involvement in MS. Recent studies combining a boost, or protection, to the immune system with disruption of the blood brain barrier have shown CPZ-induced oligodendrocytosis with a subsequent immune response. In this Perspective, we review these recent advances and discuss the likelihood of an inside-out vs. an outside-in pathoetiology of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Mohammed S M Almuslehi
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia.,Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Diyala, Baqubah, Iraq
| | - Peter J Shortland
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Departments of Health Sciences and Biological Sciences, Faculties of Applied Health Sciences and Mathematics & Science, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
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29
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Aquaporin-4 Expression during Toxic and Autoimmune Demyelination. Cells 2020; 9:cells9102187. [PMID: 32998402 PMCID: PMC7601078 DOI: 10.3390/cells9102187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The water channel protein aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is required for a normal rate of water exchange across the blood–brain interface. Following the discovery that AQP4 is a possible autoantigen in neuromyelitis optica, the function of AQP4 in health and disease has become a research focus. While several studies have addressed the expression and function of AQP4 during inflammatory demyelination, relatively little is known about its expression during non-autoimmune-mediated myelin damage. In this study, we used the toxin-induced demyelination model cuprizone as well as a combination of metabolic and autoimmune myelin injury (i.e., Cup/EAE) to investigate AQP4 pathology. We show that during toxin-induced demyelination, diffuse AQP4 expression increases, while polarized AQP4 expression at the astrocyte endfeet decreases. The diffuse increased expression of AQP4 was verified in chronic-active multiple sclerosis lesions. Around inflammatory brain lesions, AQP4 expression dramatically decreased, especially at sites where peripheral immune cells penetrate the brain parenchyma. Humoral immune responses appear not to be involved in this process since no anti-AQP4 antibodies were detected in the serum of the experimental mice. We provide strong evidence that the diffuse increase in anti-AQP4 staining intensity is due to a metabolic injury to the brain, whereas the focal, perivascular loss of anti-AQP4 immunoreactivity is mediated by peripheral immune cells.
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30
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Licht-Mayer S, Campbell GR, Canizares M, Mehta AR, Gane AB, McGill K, Ghosh A, Fullerton A, Menezes N, Dean J, Dunham J, Al-Azki S, Pryce G, Zandee S, Zhao C, Kipp M, Smith KJ, Baker D, Altmann D, Anderton SM, Kap YS, Laman JD, Hart BA', Rodriguez M, Watzlawick R, Schwab JM, Carter R, Morton N, Zagnoni M, Franklin RJM, Mitchell R, Fleetwood-Walker S, Lyons DA, Chandran S, Lassmann H, Trapp BD, Mahad DJ. Enhanced axonal response of mitochondria to demyelination offers neuroprotection: implications for multiple sclerosis. Acta Neuropathol 2020; 140:143-167. [PMID: 32572598 PMCID: PMC7360646 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-020-02179-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Axonal loss is the key pathological substrate of neurological disability in demyelinating disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the consequences of demyelination on neuronal and axonal biology are poorly understood. The abundance of mitochondria in demyelinated axons in MS raises the possibility that increased mitochondrial content serves as a compensatory response to demyelination. Here, we show that upon demyelination mitochondria move from the neuronal cell body to the demyelinated axon, increasing axonal mitochondrial content, which we term the axonal response of mitochondria to demyelination (ARMD). However, following demyelination axons degenerate before the homeostatic ARMD reaches its peak. Enhancement of ARMD, by targeting mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial transport from the cell body to axon, protects acutely demyelinated axons from degeneration. To determine the relevance of ARMD to disease state, we examined MS autopsy tissue and found a positive correlation between mitochondrial content in demyelinated dorsal column axons and cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) deficiency in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neuronal cell bodies. We experimentally demyelinated DRG neuron-specific complex IV deficient mice, as established disease models do not recapitulate complex IV deficiency in neurons, and found that these mice are able to demonstrate ARMD, despite the mitochondrial perturbation. Enhancement of mitochondrial dynamics in complex IV deficient neurons protects the axon upon demyelination. Consequently, increased mobilisation of mitochondria from the neuronal cell body to the axon is a novel neuroprotective strategy for the vulnerable, acutely demyelinated axon. We propose that promoting ARMD is likely to be a crucial preceding step for implementing potential regenerative strategies for demyelinating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Licht-Mayer
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Graham R Campbell
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Marco Canizares
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Arpan R Mehta
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Angus B Gane
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Katie McGill
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Aniket Ghosh
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Alexander Fullerton
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Niels Menezes
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Jasmine Dean
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Jordon Dunham
- Department of Neuroscience, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, OH44195, USA
| | - Sarah Al-Azki
- Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Gareth Pryce
- Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Stephanie Zandee
- Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Chao Zhao
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0AW, UK
| | - Markus Kipp
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Gertrudenstrasse 9, 18057, Rostock, Germany
| | - Kenneth J Smith
- Department of Neuroinflammation, The UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, 1 Wakefield Street, London, WC1N 1PJ, UK
| | - David Baker
- Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Daniel Altmann
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Hammersmith Campus, London, UK
| | - Stephen M Anderton
- Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Yolanda S Kap
- Department of Immunobiology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Jon D Laman
- Department of Immunobiology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
- Dept. Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems and MS Center Noord Nederland (MSCNN), University Medical Center Groningen, University Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Bert A 't Hart
- Department of Immunobiology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
- Dept. Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems and MS Center Noord Nederland (MSCNN), University Medical Center Groningen, University Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department Anatomy and Neuroscience, Amsterdam University Medical Center (V|UMC|), Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Moses Rodriguez
- Department of Neurology and Immunology, Mayo College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, MN55905, USA
| | - Ralf Watzlawick
- Department of Neurosurgery, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jan M Schwab
- Spinal Cord Injury Medicine, Department of Neurology, The Ohio State University, Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, USA
| | - Roderick Carter
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queens Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Nicholas Morton
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queens Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Michele Zagnoni
- Centre for Microsystems and Photonics, Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Robin J M Franklin
- Wellcome Trust-MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, Jeffrey Cheah Biomedical Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0AW, UK
| | - Rory Mitchell
- Centre for Discovery Brain Science, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Sue Fleetwood-Walker
- Centre for Discovery Brain Science, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - David A Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Science, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Hans Lassmann
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University Vienna, Spitalgasse 4, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Bruce D Trapp
- Department of Neuroscience, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, OH44195, USA
| | - Don J Mahad
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.
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31
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Sen MK, Almuslehi MSM, Coorssen JR, Mahns DA, Shortland PJ. Behavioural and histological changes in cuprizone-fed mice. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 87:508-523. [PMID: 32014578 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Feeding cuprizone (CPZ) to mice causes demyelination and reactive gliosis in the central nervous system (CNS), hallmarks of some neurodegenerative diseases like multiple sclerosis. However, relatively little is known regarding the behavioural deficits associated with CPZ-feeding and much of what is known is contradictory. This study investigated whether 37 days oral feeding of 0.2% CPZ to young adult mice evoked sensorimotor behavioural changes. Behavioural tests included measurements of nociceptive withdrawal reflex responses and locomotor tests. Additionally, these were compared to histological analysis of the relevant CNS regions by analysis of neuronal and glial cell components. CPZ-fed mice exhibited more foot slips in walking ladder and beam tests compared to controls. In contrast, no changes in nociceptive thresholds to thermal or mechanical stimuli occurred between groups. Histological analysis showed demyelination throughout the CNS, which was most prominent in white matter tracts in the cerebrum but was also elevated in areas such as the hippocampus, basal ganglia and diencephalon. Profound demyelination and gliosis was seen in the deep cerebellar nuclei and brain stem regions associated with the vestibular system. However, in the spinal cord changes were minimal. No loss of oligodendrocytes, neurons or motoneurons occurred but a significant increase in astrocyte staining ensued throughout the white matter of the spinal cord. The results suggest that CPZ differentially affects oligodendrocytes throughout the CNS and induces subtle motor changes such as ataxia. This is associated with deficits in CNS regions associated with motor and balance functions such as the cerebellum and brain stem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mohammed S M Almuslehi
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia; Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Diyala University, Diyala, Iraq
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Departments of Health Sciences and Biological Sciences, Faculties of Applied Health Sciences and Mathematics & Science, Brock University, Ontario, Canada
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Peter J Shortland
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.
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Sullivan GM, Knutsen AK, Peruzzotti-Jametti L, Korotcov A, Bosomtwi A, Dardzinski BJ, Bernstock JD, Rizzi S, Edenhofer F, Pluchino S, Armstrong RC. Transplantation of induced neural stem cells (iNSCs) into chronically demyelinated corpus callosum ameliorates motor deficits. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2020; 8:84. [PMID: 32517808 PMCID: PMC7285785 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-020-00960-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) causes neurologic disability due to inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Immunosuppressive treatments can modify the disease course but do not effectively promote remyelination or prevent long term neurodegeneration. As a novel approach to mitigate chronic stage pathology, we tested transplantation of mouse induced neural stem cells (iNSCs) into the chronically demyelinated corpus callosum (CC) in adult mice. Male C57BL/6 mice fed 0.3% cuprizone for 12 weeks exhibited CC atrophy with chronic demyelination, astrogliosis, and microglial activation. Syngeneic iNSCs were transplanted into the CC after ending cuprizone and perfused for neuropathology 2 weeks later. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences for magnetization transfer ratio (MTR), diffusion-weighted imaging (T2), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) quantified CC pathology in live mice before and after iNSC transplantation. Each MRI technique detected progressive CC pathology. Mice that received iNSCs had normalized DTI radial diffusivity, and reduced astrogliosis post-imaging. A motor skill task that engages the CC is Miss-step wheel running, which demonstrated functional deficits from cuprizone demyelination. Transplantation of iNSCs resulted in marked recovery of running velocity. Neuropathology after wheel running showed that iNSC grafts significantly increased host oligodendrocytes and proliferating oligodendrocyte progenitors, while modulating axon damage. Transplanted iNSCs differentiated along astrocyte and oligodendrocyte lineages, without myelinating, and many remained neural stem cells. Our findings demonstrate the applicability of neuroimaging and functional assessments for pre-clinical interventional trials during chronic demyelination and detect improved function from iNSC transplantation. Directly reprogramming fibroblasts into iNSCs facilitates the future translation towards exogenous autologous cell therapies.
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The Cuprizone Model: Dos and Do Nots. Cells 2020; 9:cells9040843. [PMID: 32244377 PMCID: PMC7226799 DOI: 10.3390/cells9040843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Various pre-clinical models with different specific features of the disease are available to study MS pathogenesis and to develop new therapeutic options. During the last decade, the model of toxic demyelination induced by cuprizone has become more and more popular, and it has contributed substantially to our understanding of distinct yet important aspects of the MS pathology. Here, we aim to provide a practical guide on how to use the cuprizone model and which pitfalls should be avoided.
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Gomez-Pinedo U, Cuevas JA, Benito-Martín MS, Moreno-Jiménez L, Esteban-Garcia N, Torre-Fuentes L, Matías-Guiu JA, Pytel V, Montero P, Matías-Guiu J. Vitamin D increases remyelination by promoting oligodendrocyte lineage differentiation. Brain Behav 2020; 10:e01498. [PMID: 31837111 PMCID: PMC6955836 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Several experimental studies have suggested the potential remyelinating effects of vitamin D (VitD) supplements regardless of the presence of VitD deficiency. This study aims to analyze neurogenesis in a model of toxic demyelination in order to evaluate the effects of VitD on demyelination and remyelination. MATERIAL AND METHODS We used 24 male Wistar rats that had received surgical lesions to the corpus callosum and were injected with lysolecithin. Rats were divided into three groups: Group 1 included eight rats with lesions to the corpus callosum but not lysolecithin injections (sham group), group 2 included eight rats with lesions to the corpus callosum that were injected with lysolecithin (lysolecithin group), and group 3 included eight rats with lesions that were injected with lysolecithin and received VitD (VitD group). We analyzed neurogenesis both in the subventricular zone and at the lesion site. RESULTS Administration of VitD promotes the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells in the subventricular zone and the migration of these cells to the lesion site in the corpus callosum; these cells subsequently differentiate into oligodendrocyte lineage cells and produce myelin basic protein. This phenomenon was not caused by microglial activation, which was less marked in rats receiving VitD. Megalin expression did not increase at the lesion site, which suggests that VitD is internalized by other mechanisms. CONCLUSION Our results support the hypothesis that regardless of the presence of VitD deficiency, treatment with VitD may contribute to remyelination by promoting the proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulises Gomez-Pinedo
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Adriel Cuevas
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Soledad Benito-Martín
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lidia Moreno-Jiménez
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Noelia Esteban-Garcia
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Torre-Fuentes
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi A Matías-Guiu
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vanesa Pytel
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Paloma Montero
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jorge Matías-Guiu
- Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurosciences, IdISSC, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Guglielmetti C, Boucneau T, Cao P, Van der Linden A, Larson PEZ, Chaumeil MM. Longitudinal evaluation of demyelinated lesions in a multiple sclerosis model using ultrashort echo time magnetization transfer (UTE-MT) imaging. Neuroimage 2019; 208:116415. [PMID: 31811900 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 11/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in myelin integrity are involved in many neurological disorders and demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Although magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the gold standard method to diagnose and monitor MS patients, clinically available MRI protocols show limited specificity for myelin detection, notably in cerebral grey matter areas. Ultrashort echo time (UTE) MRI has shown great promise for direct imaging of lipids and myelin sheaths, and thus holds potential to improve lesion detection. In this study, we used a sequence combining magnetization transfer (MT) with UTE ("UTE-MT", TE = 76 μs) and with short TE ("STE-MT", TE = 3000 μs) to evaluate spatial and temporal changes in brain myelin content in the cuprizone mouse model for MS on a clinical 7 T scanner. During demyelination, UTE-MT ratio (UTE-MTR) and STE-MT ratio (STE-MTR) values were significantly decreased in most white matter and grey matter regions. However, only UTE-MTR detected cortical changes. After remyelination in subcortical and cortical areas, UTE-MTR values remained lower than baseline values, indicating that UTE-MT, but not STE-MT, imaging detected long-lasting changes following a demyelinating event. Next, we evaluated the potential correlations between imaging values and underlying histopathological markers. The strongest correlation was observed between UTE-MTR and percent coverage of myelin basic protein (MBP) immunostaining (r2 = 0.71). A significant, although lower, correlation was observed between STE-MTR and MBP (r2 = 0.48), and no correlation was found between UTE-MTR or STE-MTR and gliosis immunostaining. Interestingly, correlations varied across brain substructures. Altogether, our results demonstrate that UTE-MTR values significantly correlate with myelin content as measured by histopathology, not only in white matter, but also in subcortical and cortical grey matter regions in the cuprizone mouse model for MS. Readily implemented on a clinical 7 T system, this approach thus holds great potential for detecting demyelinating/remyelinating events in both white and grey matter areas in humans. When applied to patients with neurological disorders, including MS patient populations, UTE-MT methods may improve the non-invasive longitudinal monitoring of brain lesions, not only during disease progression but also in response to next generation remyelinating therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Guglielmetti
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Bio-Imaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Tanguy Boucneau
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Peng Cao
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Annemie Van der Linden
- Bio-Imaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Peder E Z Larson
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, Berkeley and University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Myriam M Chaumeil
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, Berkeley and University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Zhang Y, Cai L, Fan K, Fan B, Li N, Gao W, Yang X, Ma J. The Spatial and Temporal Characters of Demyelination and Remyelination in the Cuprizone Animal Model. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 302:2020-2029. [PMID: 31251832 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common central nervous system disease due to demyelination in young adults, and currently, there is no cure. Some experimental animal models were generated to mimic specific aspects of MS pathological characteristics. Among them, the cuprizone (CPZ)-induced mouse demyelination model presents heterogeneous pathologies with both focal and diffuse lesions. Considering that MS is a progressive disease, it is important to study the spatial and temporal characters of de- and remyelination in MS animal models. However, such data especially in some brain regions such as lateral septal area, fimbria of hippocampus, and hippocampus are still lacking. In this study, we investigated the alterations of myelin in these areas in parallel to the changes in corpus callosum using coronal sections. We found that the progression of demyelinating varied in different brain regions in C57BL/6J mice treated with CPZ for 1 to 5 weeks. This result suggests that each brain region has a distinct sensitivity to CPZ intoxication. Interestingly, activated microglia appeared not only in the active demyelinating areas but also in the non-myelinolysis regions. After CPZ withdrawal, significant remyelination was started in corpus callosum as early as 3 days. The completion of remyelination in the entire brain regions took 3 weeks. Our study detailed characterized the dynamics of myelin alterations and microglial status in the brain of the CPZ model. This information is valuable to facilitate further MS studies utilizing the CPZ model. Anat Rec, 302:2020-2029, 2019. © 2019 American Association for Anatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanli Zhang
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116044, China
| | - Lin Cai
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116044, China
| | - Kai Fan
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116044, China
| | - Bin Fan
- General Surgery, Liaoyang Central Hospital, Liaoyang, Liaoning, 111000, China
| | - Ning Li
- General Surgery, Wafangdian Central Hospital, Wafangdian, Liaoning, 116300, China
| | - Wenting Gao
- Institute of Gene Engineered Animal Models for Human Diseases, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116044, China
| | - Xiaohan Yang
- Liaoning provincial key laboratory of brain diseases, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116044, China
| | - Jianmei Ma
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116044, China.,National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Drug-Research and Development (R&D) of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, 116044, China
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Nyamoya S, Steinle J, Chrzanowski U, Kaye J, Schmitz C, Beyer C, Kipp M. Laquinimod Supports Remyelination in Non-Supportive Environments. Cells 2019; 8:cells8111363. [PMID: 31683658 PMCID: PMC6912710 DOI: 10.3390/cells8111363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory demyelination, which is a characteristic of multiple sclerosis lesions, leads to acute functional deficits and, in the long term, to progressive axonal degeneration. While remyelination is believed to protect axons, the endogenous-regenerative processes are often incomplete or even completely fail in many multiple sclerosis patients. Although it is currently unknown why remyelination fails, recurrent demyelination of previously demyelinated white matter areas is one contributing factor. In this study, we investigated whether laquinimod, which has demonstrated protective effects in active multiple sclerosis patients, protects against recurrent demyelination. To address this, male mice were intoxicated with cuprizone for up to eight weeks and treated with either a vehicle solution or laquinimod at the beginning of week 5, where remyelination was ongoing. The brains were harvested and analyzed by immunohistochemistry. At the time-point of laquinimod treatment initiation, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells proliferated and maturated despite ongoing demyelination activity. In the following weeks, myelination recovered in the laquinimod- but not vehicle-treated mice, despite continued cuprizone intoxication. Myelin recovery was paralleled by less severe microgliosis and acute axonal injury. In this study, we were able to demonstrate that laquinimod, which has previously been shown to protect against cuprizone-induced oligodendrocyte degeneration, exerts protective effects during oligodendrocyte progenitor differentiation as well. By this mechanism, laquinimod allows remyelination in non-supportive environments. These results should encourage further clinical studies in progressive multiple sclerosis patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Nyamoya
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany.
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Julia Steinle
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Uta Chrzanowski
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Joel Kaye
- AyalaPharma, VP Research & Nonclinical Development, Rehovot 7670104, Israel.
| | - Christoph Schmitz
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Cordian Beyer
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Markus Kipp
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
- Centre for Transdisciplinary Neurosciences, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany.
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Sepantronium Bromide (YM155), A Small Molecule Survivin Inhibitor, Promotes Apoptosis by Induction of Oxidative Stress, Worsens the Behavioral Deficits and Develops an Early Model of Toxic Demyelination: In Vivo and In-Silico Study. Neurochem Res 2019; 44:2482-2498. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-019-02865-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Stereological Investigation of Regional Brain Volumes after Acute and Chronic Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination. Cells 2019; 8:cells8091024. [PMID: 31484353 PMCID: PMC6770802 DOI: 10.3390/cells8091024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain volume measurement is one of the most frequently used biomarkers to establish neuroprotective effects during pre-clinical multiple sclerosis (MS) studies. Furthermore, whole-brain atrophy estimates in MS correlate more robustly with clinical disability than traditional, lesion-based metrics. However, the underlying mechanisms leading to brain atrophy are poorly understood, partly due to the lack of appropriate animal models to study this aspect of the disease. The purpose of this study was to assess brain volumes and neuro-axonal degeneration after acute and chronic cuprizone-induced demyelination. C57BL/6 male mice were intoxicated with cuprizone for up to 12 weeks. Brain volume, as well as total numbers and densities of neurons, were determined using design-based stereology. After five weeks of cuprizone intoxication, despite severe demyelination, brain volumes were not altered at this time point. After 12 weeks of cuprizone intoxication, a significant volume reduction was found in the corpus callosum and diverse subcortical areas, particularly the internal capsule and the thalamus. Thalamic volume loss was accompanied by glucose hypermetabolism, analyzed by [18F]-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (18F-FDG) positron-emission tomography. This study demonstrates region-specific brain atrophy of different subcortical brain regions after chronic cuprizone-induced demyelination. The chronic cuprizone demyelination model in male mice is, thus, a useful tool to study the underlying mechanisms of subcortical brain atrophy and to investigate the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions.
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Sen MK, Mahns DA, Coorssen JR, Shortland PJ. Behavioural phenotypes in the cuprizone model of central nervous system demyelination. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:23-46. [PMID: 31442519 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The feeding of cuprizone (CPZ) to animals has been extensively used to model the processes of demyelination and remyelination, with many papers adopting a narrative linked to demyelinating conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS), the aetiology of which is unknown. However, no current animal model faithfully replicates the myriad of symptoms seen in the clinical condition of MS. CPZ ingestion causes mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum stress and subsequent apoptosis of oligodendrocytes leads to central nervous system demyelination and glial cell activation. Although there are a wide variety of behavioural tests available for characterizing the functional deficits in animal models of disease, including that of CPZ-induced deficits, they have focused on a narrow subset of outcomes such as motor performance, cognition, and anxiety. The literature has not been systematically reviewed in relation to these or other symptoms associated with clinical MS. This paper reviews these tests and makes recommendations as to which are the most important in order to better understand the role of this model in examining aspects of demyelinating diseases like MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Departments of Health Sciences and Biological Sciences, Faculties of Applied Health Sciences and Mathematics & Science, Brock University, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Peter J Shortland
- Science and Health, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia.
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Imaging in mice and men: Pathophysiological insights into multiple sclerosis from conventional and advanced MRI techniques. Prog Neurobiol 2019; 182:101663. [PMID: 31374243 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.101663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most important tool for diagnosing multiple sclerosis (MS). However, MRI is still unable to precisely quantify the specific pathophysiological processes that underlie imaging findings in MS. Because autopsy and biopsy samples of MS patients are rare and biased towards a chronic burnt-out end or fulminant acute early stage, the only available methods to identify human disease pathology are to apply MRI techniques in combination with subsequent histopathological examination to small animal models of MS and to transfer these insights to MS patients. This review summarizes the existing combined imaging and histopathological studies performed in MS mouse models and humans with MS (in vivo and ex vivo), to promote a better understanding of the pathophysiology that underlies conventional MRI, diffusion tensor and magnetization transfer imaging findings in MS patients. Moreover, it provides a critical view on imaging capabilities and results in MS patients and mouse models and for future studies recommends how to combine those particular MR sequences and parameters whose underlying pathophysiological basis could be partly clarified. Further combined longitudinal in vivo imaging and histopathological studies on rationally selected, appropriate mouse models are required.
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Zinnhardt B, Belloy M, Fricke IB, Orije J, Guglielmetti C, Hermann S, Wagner S, Schäfers M, Van der Linden A, Jacobs AH. Molecular Imaging of Immune Cell Dynamics During De- and Remyelination in the Cuprizone Model of Multiple Sclerosis by [ 18F]DPA-714 PET and MRI. Theranostics 2019; 9:1523-1537. [PMID: 31037121 PMCID: PMC6485187 DOI: 10.7150/thno.32461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Activation and dysregulation of innate, adaptive and resident immune cells in response to damage determine the pathophysiology of demyelinating disorders. Among the plethora of involved cells, microglia/macrophages and astrocytes play an important role in the pathogenesis of demyelinating disorders. The in-depth investigation of the spatio-temporal profile of these cell types in vivo may inform about the exact disease state and localization as well as may allow to monitor therapeutic modulation of the components of the neuroinflammatory response during the course of multiple sclerosis (MS). In this study, we aimed to non-invasively decipher the degree and temporal profile of neuroinflammation (TSPO - [18F]DPA-714 PET) in relation to selected magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) parameters (T2 maps) in the cuprizone (CPZ)-induced model of demyelination. Methods: C57Bl6 (n=30) mice were fed with a standard chow mixed with 0.2% (w/w) CPZ for 4 (n=10; demyelination) and 6 weeks (n=10; spontaneous remyelination). The degree of neuroinflammation at de- and remyelination was assessed by [18F]DPA-714 PET, multi-echo T2 MRI, autoradiography and immunohistochemistry. Results: CPZ-induced brain alterations were confirmed by increase of T2 relaxation times in both white and grey matter after 3 and 5 weeks of CPZ. Peak [18F]DPA-714 was found in the corpus callosum (CC, white matter), the hippocampus (HC, grey matter) and thalamus (grey matter) after 4 weeks of CPZ treatment and declined after 6 weeks of CPZ. Ex vivo autoradiography and dedicated immunofluorescence showed demyelination/remyelination with corresponding increased/decreased TSPO levels in the CC and hippocampus, confirming the spatial distribution of [18F]DPA-714 in vivo. The expression of TSPO microglia and astrocytes is time-dependent in this model. Microglia predominantly express TSPO at demyelination, while the majority of astrocytes express TSPO during remyelination. The combination of PET- and MRI-based imaging biomarkers demonstrated the regional and temporal development of the CPZ model-associated neuroinflammatory response in grey and white matter regions. Conclusions: The combination of [18F]DPA-714 PET and T2 mapping may allow to further elucidate the regional and temporal profile of inflammatory signals depending on the myelination status, although the underlying inflammatory microenvironment changes. A combination of the described imaging biomarkers may facilitate the development of patient-tailored strategies for immunomodulatory and neuro-restorative therapies in MS.
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Vega-Riquer JM, Mendez-Victoriano G, Morales-Luckie RA, Gonzalez-Perez O. Five Decades of Cuprizone, an Updated Model to Replicate Demyelinating Diseases. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:129-141. [PMID: 28714395 PMCID: PMC6343207 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666170717120343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) comprise a group of neurological disorders characterized by progressive (and eventually irreversible) loss of oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths in the white matter tracts. Some of myelin disorders include: Multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, peripheral nerve polyneuropathy and others. To date, the etiology of these disorders is not well known and no effective treatments are currently available against them. Therefore, further research is needed to gain a better understand and treat these patients. To accomplish this goal, it is necessary to have appropriate animal models that closely resemble the pathophysiology and clinical signs of these diseases. Herein, we describe the model of toxic demyelination induced by cuprizone (CPZ), a copper chelator that reduces the cytochrome and monoamine oxidase activity into the brain, produces mitochondrial stress and triggers the local immune response. These biochemical and cellular responses ultimately result in selective loss of oligodendrocytes and microglia accumulation, which conveys to extensive areas of demyelination and gliosis in corpus callosum, superior cerebellar peduncles and cerebral cortex. Remarkably, some aspects of the histological pattern induced by CPZ are similar to those found in multiple sclerosis. CPZ exposure provokes behavioral changes, impairs motor skills and affects mood as that observed in several demyelinating diseases. Upon CPZ removal, the pathological and histological changes gradually revert. Therefore, some authors have postulated that the CPZ model allows to partially mimic the disease relapses observed in some demyelinating diseases. CONCLUSION for five decades, the model of CPZ-induced demyelination is a good experimental approach to study demyelinating diseases that has maintained its validity, and is a suitable pharmacological model for reproducing some key features of demyelinating diseases, including multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Oscar Gonzalez-Perez
- Address correspondence to this author at the Facultad de Psicologia, Universidad de Colima, Colima, COL 28040, Mexico; Tel: +52 (312) 3161091; E-mail: :
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Olmstead TA, Chiarelli PA, Griggs DJ, McClintic AM, Myroniv AN, Mourad PD. Transcranial and pulsed focused ultrasound that activates brain can accelerate remyelination in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. J Ther Ultrasound 2018; 6:11. [PMID: 30555696 PMCID: PMC6287362 DOI: 10.1186/s40349-018-0119-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis (MS) impacts approximately 400,000 in the United States and is the leading cause of disability among young to middle aged people in the developed world. Characteristic of this disease, myelin within generally focal volumes of brain tissue wastes away under an autoimmune assault, either inexorably or through a cycle of demyelination and remyelination. This centrally located damage produces central and peripheral symptoms tied to the portion of brain within the MS lesion site. Interestingly, Gibson and colleagues noted that optical activation of transgenically tagged central neurons increased the thickness of the myelin sheath around those neurons. Since ultrasound, delivered transcranially, can also activate brain focally, we hypothesized that ultrasound stimulation that followed the temporal pattern of Gibson et al. applied to MS lesions in a mouse model might either decelerate the demyelination phase or accelerate its remyelination phase. METHODS We created a temporal pattern of ultrasound delivery that conformed to that of Gibson et al. and capable of activating mouse brain. We then applied ultrasound, transcranially, following that temporal pattern to separate cohorts of a mouse model of multiple sclerosis, using three different ultrasound carrier frequencies (0.625 MHz, 1.09 MHz, 2.0 MHz), during each of the demyelinating and remyelinating phases. After identifying the most promising protocol and MS brain state through qualitative analysis of myelin content, we performed additional studies for that condition then assayed for change in myelin content via quantitative analysis. RESULTS We identified one ultrasound protocol that significantly accelerated remyelination, without damage, as demonstrated with histological analysis. CONCLUSION MRI-guided focused ultrasound systems exist that can, in principle, deliver the ultrasound protocol we successfully tested here. In addition, MRI, as the clinical gold standard, can readily identify MS lesions. Given the relatively low intensity values of our ultrasound protocol - close to FDA limits - we anticipate that future success with this approach to MS therapy as tested using more realistic MS mouse models may one day translate to clinical trials that help address this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. A. Olmstead
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - P. A. Chiarelli
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - D. J. Griggs
- Division of Engineering and Mathematics, University of Washington, Bothell, WA 98011 USA
| | - A. M. McClintic
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - A. N. Myroniv
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - P. D. Mourad
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
- Division of Engineering and Mathematics, University of Washington, Bothell, WA 98011 USA
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Wies Mancini VSB, Pasquini JM, Correale JD, Pasquini LA. Microglial modulation through colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor inhibition attenuates demyelination. Glia 2018; 67:291-308. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Sofía Berenice Wies Mancini
- Department of Biological Chemistry; Institute of Chemistry and Biological Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB), School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires and National Research Council (CONICET); Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Juana María Pasquini
- Department of Biological Chemistry; Institute of Chemistry and Biological Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB), School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires and National Research Council (CONICET); Buenos Aires Argentina
| | | | - Laura Andrea Pasquini
- Department of Biological Chemistry; Institute of Chemistry and Biological Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB), School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires and National Research Council (CONICET); Buenos Aires Argentina
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Radecki DZ, Johnson EL, Brown AK, Meshkin NT, Perrine SA, Gow A. Corticohippocampal Dysfunction In The OBiden Mouse Model Of Primary Oligodendrogliopathy. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16116. [PMID: 30382234 PMCID: PMC6208344 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-34414-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite concerted efforts over decades, the etiology of multiple sclerosis (MS) remains unclear. Autoimmunity, environmental-challenges, molecular mimicry and viral hypotheses have proven equivocal because early-stage disease is typically presymptomatic. Indeed, most animal models of MS also lack defined etiologies. We have developed a novel adult-onset oligodendrogliopathy using a delineated metabolic stress etiology in myelinating cells, and our central question is, “how much of the pathobiology of MS can be recapitulated in this model?” The analyses described herein demonstrate that innate immune activation, glial scarring, cortical and hippocampal damage with accompanying electrophysiological, behavioral and memory deficits naturally emerge from disease progression. Molecular analyses reveal neurofilament changes in normal-appearing gray matter that parallel those in cortical samples from MS patients with progressive disease. Finally, axon initial segments of deep layer pyramidal neurons are perturbed in entorhinal/frontal cortex and hippocampus from OBiden mice, and computational modeling provides insight into vulnerabilities of action potential generation during demyelination and early remyelination. We integrate these findings into a working model of corticohippocampal circuit dysfunction to predict how myelin damage might eventually lead to cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Z Radecki
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.,Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Elizabeth L Johnson
- Institute of Gerontology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA.,Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Ashley K Brown
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Nicholas T Meshkin
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Shane A Perrine
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Alexander Gow
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA. .,Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA. .,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
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Klein B, Mrowetz H, Barker CM, Lange S, Rivera FJ, Aigner L. Age Influences Microglial Activation After Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:278. [PMID: 30297998 PMCID: PMC6160739 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory CNS disease, which causes demyelinated lesions and damages white and gray matter regions. Aging is a significant factor in the progression of MS, and microglia, the immune cells of the CNS tissue, play an important role in all disease stages. During aging, microglia are functionally altered. These age-related changes probably already begin early and might influence the progression of CNS pathologies. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether microglia in the middle-aged CNS already react differently to demyelination. For this purpose, several microglia markers (ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1), P2RY12, F4/80, CD68, major histocompatibility complex II (MHCII), macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (Marco), Translocator protein 18 kD (TSPO), CD206, and CD163) were analyzed in the acute cuprizone demyelination model in young (2-month-old) and middle-aged (10-month-old) mice. In addition, microglial proliferation was quantified using double-labeling with proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), which was injected with the onset of remyelination. To compare age-related microglial changes during de- and remyelination in both gray and white matter, the hilus of the dorsal hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) and the splenium of the corpus callosum (CC) were analyzed in parallel. Age-related changes in microglia of healthy controls were more pronounced in the analyzed gray matter region (higher levels of F4/80 and Marco as well as lower expression of CD68 in middle-aged mice). During de- and remyelination, a stronger increase of the microglial markers Iba-1, CD68 and TSPO was observed in the splenium of the younger groups. There was a significant reduction of P2RY12 during demyelination, however, this was age- and region-dependent. The induction of the anti-inflammatory markers CD206 and CD163 was stronger in the middle-aged group, but also differed between the two analyzed regions. De- and remyelination led to a significant increase in PCNA+ microglia only in young groups within the white matter region. The number of BrdU+ microglia was not changed during de- or remyelination. These results clearly show that microglia are already altered during middle-age and also react differently to CNS demyelination, however, this is highly region-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Klein
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Heike Mrowetz
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Conor Michael Barker
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Simona Lange
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Francisco J Rivera
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuroregeneration, Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on the Nervous System (CISNe), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Ludwig Aigner
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Bölcskei K, Kriszta G, Sághy É, Payrits M, Sipos É, Vranesics A, Berente Z, Ábrahám H, Ács P, Komoly S, Pintér E. Behavioural alterations and morphological changes are attenuated by the lack of TRPA1 receptors in the cuprizone-induced demyelination model in mice. J Neuroimmunol 2018; 320:1-10. [PMID: 29759134 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
We have recently reported that the Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) receptor deficiency significantly attenuated cuprizone-induced demyelination by reducing the apoptosis of mature oligodendrocytes. The aim of the present study was to gather additional data on the role of TRPA1 by investigating the time course of behavioural alterations and morphological changes in cuprizone-treated TRPA1 receptor gene-deficient mice. Demyelination was induced by feeding male wild-type (WT) and TRPA1 gene-deleted (TRPA1 KO) mice with 0.2% cuprizone for 6 weeks. Behavioural tests were performed once per week to follow cuprizone-induced functional changes. Mechanonociceptive thresholds were investigated by a dynamic plantar aesthesiometer and von Frey filaments. Motor performance was assessed by accelerating RotaRod and horizontal grid tests. For the study of spontaneous activity, the open field test was used. The time course of corpus callosum demyelination was also followed weekly by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Histological analysis of myelin loss was performed with Luxol Fast Blue (LFB) staining at week 3 and electron microscopy (EM) at week 6. Astrocyte and microglia accumulation at week 3 was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Cuprizone treatment induced no changes in mechanonociception or motor performance. In the open arena, cuprizone-treated mice spent more time with locomotion, their mean velocity was significantly higher and the distance they travelled was longer than untreated mice. No statistical difference was detected between WT and TRPA1 KO mice in these parameters. On the other hand, significantly increased rearing behaviour was induced in WT mice compared to TRPA1 KO animals. Morphological changes detected with MRI, LFB, IHC and EM analysis revealed reduced damage of the myelin and attenuated accumulation of astrocytes and microglia in cuprizone-treated TRPA1 KO animals, at each examined time point. Our recent data further suggest that inhibition of TRPA1 receptors could be a promising therapeutic approach to limit central nervous system damage in demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kata Bölcskei
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Kriszta
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary; Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Éva Sághy
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Maja Payrits
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Éva Sipos
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Anett Vranesics
- Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Berente
- Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Hajnalka Ábrahám
- Department of Medical Biology and Central Electron Microscopy Laboratory, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Péter Ács
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Sámuel Komoly
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Erika Pintér
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
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Bjelobaba I, Begovic-Kupresanin V, Pekovic S, Lavrnja I. Animal models of multiple sclerosis: Focus on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurosci Res 2018; 96:1021-1042. [PMID: 29446144 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) that affects more than two million people worldwide. Several animal models resemble MS pathology; the most employed are experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and toxin- and/or virus-induced demyelination. In this review we will summarize our knowledge on the utility of different animal models in MS research. Although animal models cannot replicate the complexity and heterogeneity of the MS pathology, they have proved to be useful for the development of several drugs approved for treatment of MS patients. This review focuses on EAE because it represents both clinical and pathological features of MS. During the past decades, EAE has been effective in illuminating various pathological processes that occur during MS, including inflammation, CNS penetration, demyelination, axonopathy, and neuron loss mediated by immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Bjelobaba
- Institute for Biological Research "Sinisa Stankovic," Department of Neurobiology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Sanja Pekovic
- Institute for Biological Research "Sinisa Stankovic," Department of Neurobiology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Irena Lavrnja
- Institute for Biological Research "Sinisa Stankovic," Department of Neurobiology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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Sanadgol N, Golab F, Askari H, Moradi F, Ajdary M, Mehdizadeh M. Alpha-lipoic acid mitigates toxic-induced demyelination in the corpus callosum by lessening of oxidative stress and stimulation of polydendrocytes proliferation. Metab Brain Dis 2018; 33:27-37. [PMID: 29022246 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-017-0099-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS), is a disease that degenerates myelin in central nervous system (CNS). Reactive oxygen species (ROSs) are toxic metabolites, and accumulating data indicate that ROSs-mediated apoptosis of oligodendrocytes (OLGs) plays a major role in the pathogenesis of MS under oxidative stress conditions. In this study, we investigated the role of endogenous antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) as ROSs scavenger in the OLGs loss and myelin degeneration during cuprizone (cup)-induced demyelination in the experimental model of MS. Our results have shown that ALA treatment significantly increased population of mature OLGs (MOG+ cells), as well as decreased oxidative stress (ROSs, COX-2 and PGE2) and apoptosis mediators (caspase-3 and Bax/Bcl2 ratio) in corpus callosum (CC). Surprisingly, ALA significantly stimulates population of NG2 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan positive glia (NG2+ cells or polydendrocytes), from week 4 afterward. Accordingly ALA could prevents apoptosis, delays demyelination and recruits OLGs survival and regeneration mechanisms in CC. We conclude that ALA has protective effects against toxic demyelination via reduction of redox signaling, and alleviation of polydendrocytes vulnerability to excitotoxic challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nima Sanadgol
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran
| | - Fereshteh Golab
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Science, P.O. Box 14665-354, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hassan Askari
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Moradi
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Marziyeh Ajdary
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Science, P.O. Box 14665-354, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Mehdizadeh
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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