Fyn Kinase Activity and Its Role in Neurodegenerative Disease Pathology: a Potential Universal Target?

PrP meets alpha-synuclein: Molecular mechanisms and implications for disease

The discovery of prions has challenged dogmas and has revolutionized our understanding of protein-misfolding diseases. The concept of self-propagation via protein conformational changes, originally discovered for the prion protein (PrP), also applies to other proteins that exhibit similar behavior, such as alpha-synuclein (aSyn), a central player in Parkinson's disease and in other synucleinopathies. aSyn pathology appears to spread from one cell to another during disease progression, and involves the misfolding and aggregation of aSyn. How the transfer of aSyn between cells occurs is still being studied, but one important hypothesis involves receptor-mediated transport. Interestingly, recent studies indicate that the cellular prion protein (PrPC) may play a crucial role in this process. PrPC has been shown to act as a receptor/sensor for protein aggregates in different neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the interaction between aSyn and PrPC and discuss its role in synucleinopathies. We examine the properties of PrP and aSyn, including their structure, function, and aggregation. Additionally, we discuss the current understanding of PrPC's role as a receptor/sensor for aSyn aggregates and identify remaining unanswered questions in this area of research. Ultimately, we posit that exploring the interaction between aSyn and PrPC may offer potential treatment options for synucleinopathies.

Co-administration of Ceratonia siliqua extract nanoparticles promotes the oral bioavailability and neurotherapeutic efficacy of donepezil in a dementia model

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to assess the herb-drug interactions between crude/silver nanoparticle (SNP)-loaded carob extract (Car, NCar, respectively) and donepezil-HCl (DPZ) and their impact on neurotherapeutic outcomes in a dementia model.

METHODS

Carob pods were subjected to ethanol extraction, and their phytoconstituents were chromatographically analysed. SNP-loaded extract was synthesized and characterized, and dementia-like symptoms were induced in Wistar rats by repeated dosing with 175 mg/kg AlCl3 for 60 days, after which the animals were treated with Car, NCar, DPZ, and combinations of Car/NCar-DPZ for 30 days. The effect of carob formulations on DPZ bioavailability was in-silico profiled and the herb-drug interactions were mathematically assessed as combination indices.

RESULTS

Different formulations significantly improved cognitive/spatial memory functions, restored dysregulated brain redox and cholinergic functions, and markedly inhibited cholinesterase, as reflected by the reduction/absence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. In silico profiling of the major phytoconstituents revealed their non-P-glycoprotein substrate nature and CYP3A4, 2C19, and 2C9 inhibition, which might have improved the oral bioavailability of DPZ. The combination index calculations revealed strong synergy between DPZ and both carob formulations, with the strongest effect exhibited by the DPZ/NCar combination.

CONCLUSION

The co-administration of carob extract/SNPs represents a promising approach for enhancing the neurotherapeutic efficacy of DPZ.

A Diagnostic Model for Parkinson's Disease Based on Anoikis-Related Genes

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease, and its pathological mechanisms are thought to be closely linked to apoptosis. Anoikis, a specific type of apoptosis, has recently been suggested to play a role in the progression of Parkinson's disease; however, the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. To explore the potential mechanisms involved in PD, we selected genes from the GSE28894 dataset and compared their expression in PD patients and healthy controls to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and selected anoikis-related genes (ANRGs) from the DEGs. Furthermore, the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression approach and multivariate logistic regression highlighted five key genes-GSK3B, PCNA, CDC42, DAPK2, and SRC-as biomarker candidates. Subsequently, we developed a nomogram model incorporating these 5 genes along with age and sex to predict and diagnose PD. To evaluate the model's coherence, clinical applicability, and distinguishability, we utilized receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, the C-index, and calibration curves and validated it in both the GSE20295 dataset and our center's external clinical data. In addition, we confirmed the differential expression of the 5 model genes in human blood samples through qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Our constructed anoikis-related PD diagnostic model exhibits satisfactory predictive accuracy and offers novel insights into both diagnosis and treatment strategies for Parkinson's disease while facilitating its implementation in clinical practice.

A reduced proteomic signature in critically ill Covid-19 patients determined with plasma antibody micro-array and machine learning

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 is a complex, multi-system disease with varying severity and symptoms. Identifying changes in critically ill COVID-19 patients' proteomes enables a better understanding of markers associated with susceptibility, symptoms, and treatment. We performed plasma antibody microarray and machine learning analyses to identify novel proteins of COVID-19.

METHODS

A case-control study comparing the concentration of 2000 plasma proteins in age- and sex-matched COVID-19 inpatients, non-COVID-19 sepsis controls, and healthy control subjects. Machine learning was used to identify a unique proteome signature in COVID-19 patients. Protein expression was correlated with clinically relevant variables and analyzed for temporal changes over hospitalization days 1, 3, 7, and 10. Expert-curated protein expression information was analyzed with Natural language processing (NLP) to determine organ- and cell-specific expression.

RESULTS

Machine learning identified a 28-protein model that accurately differentiated COVID-19 patients from ICU non-COVID-19 patients (accuracy = 0.89, AUC = 1.00, F1 = 0.89) and healthy controls (accuracy = 0.89, AUC = 1.00, F1 = 0.88). An optimal nine-protein model (PF4V1, NUCB1, CrkL, SerpinD1, Fen1, GATA-4, ProSAAS, PARK7, and NET1) maintained high classification ability. Specific proteins correlated with hemoglobin, coagulation factors, hypertension, and high-flow nasal cannula intervention (P < 0.01). Time-course analysis of the 28 leading proteins demonstrated no significant temporal changes within the COVID-19 cohort. NLP analysis identified multi-system expression of the key proteins, with the digestive and nervous systems being the leading systems.

CONCLUSIONS

The plasma proteome of critically ill COVID-19 patients was distinguishable from that of non-COVID-19 sepsis controls and healthy control subjects. The leading 28 proteins and their subset of 9 proteins yielded accurate classification models and are expressed in multiple organ systems. The identified COVID-19 proteomic signature helps elucidate COVID-19 pathophysiology and may guide future COVID-19 treatment development.

Computational discovery of novel FYN kinase inhibitors: a cheminformatics and machine learning-driven approach to targeted cancer and neurodegenerative therapy

In this study, we explored the potential of novel inhibitors for FYN kinase, a critical target in cancer and neurodegenerative disorders, by integrating advanced cheminformatics, machine learning, and molecular simulation techniques. Our approach involved analyzing key interactions for FYN inhibition using established multi-kinase inhibitors such as Staurosporine, Dasatinib, and Saracatinib. We utilized ECFP4 circular fingerprints and the t-SNE machine learning algorithm to compare molecular similarities between FDA-approved drugs and known clinical trial inhibitors. This led to the identification of potential inhibitors, including Afatinib, Copanlisib, and Vandetanib. Using the DrugSpaceX platform, we generated a vast library of 72,196 analogues from these leads, which after careful refinement, resulted in 6008 promising candidates. Subsequent clustering identified 48 analogues with significant similarity to known inhibitors. Notably, two candidates derived from Vandetanib, DE27123047 and DE27123035, exhibited strong docking affinities and stable binding in molecular dynamics simulations. These candidates showed high potential as effective FYN kinase inhibitors, as evidenced by MMGBSA calculations and MCE-18 scores exceeding 50. Additionally, our exploration into their molecular architecture revealed potential modification sites on the quinazolin-4-amine scaffold, suggesting opportunities for strategic alterations to enhance activity and optimize ADME properties. Our research is a pioneering effort in drug discovery, unveiling novel candidates for FYN inhibition and demonstrating the efficacy of a multi-layered computational strategy. The molecular insights gained provide a pathway for strategic refinements and future experimental validations, setting a new direction in targeted drug development against diseases involving FYN kinase.

Regulation of Src family kinases by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in heterologous cells and neurons

Five muscarinic acetylcholine (mACh) receptor subtypes are divided into two classes: the M1 class (M1, M3, and M5) and the M2 class (M2 and M4). The former is coupled to Gq proteins, while the latter is coupled to Gi/o proteins. Accumulating evidence indicates that mACh receptors play a significant role in the regulation of the Src family kinase (SFK), a subfamily of non-receptor tyrosine kinases. mACh receptors exert their roles in a subtype-dependent fashion and preferentially target Src and Fyn, two members of SFKs that are expressed in the brain and enriched at synaptic sites. While the M1 receptor positively modulates SFK activity, the M4 receptor inhibits it. By modulating SFKs, mACh receptors are actively involved in the regulation of expression and function of a variety of receptors, structural proteins, and signaling molecules. In particular, the M4 receptor and the dopamine D1 receptor are coexpressed in striatonigral projection neurons of the striatum. Gi/o-coupled M4 and Gq-coupled D1 receptors antagonistically regulate SFK activity, thereby forming a dynamic balance controlling glutamate receptor activity, excitability of neurons, and synaptic plasticity. In summary, mACh receptors play a crucial role in regulating SFK activity in heterologous cells and neurons.

Huannao Yicong decoction ameliorates cognitive deficits in APP/PS1/tau triple transgenic mice by interfering with neurotoxic interaction of Aβ-tau

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Huannao Yicong decoction (HYD) has been used in the study of AD for many years, which consists of Polygonum multiflorum Thunb., Panax ginseng C.A.Mey., Acorus gramineus Aiton, Coptis chinensis Franch., and Conioselinum acuminatum (Franch.) Lavrova. Previous studies have found that HYD could reduce β-Amyloid (Aβ) deposition and tau hyperphosphorylation which are the two critical pathological factors of AD. However, the mechanism of the neurotoxic interaction between Aβ and tau in AD remains unclear. Thus, the underlying mechanisms for HYD improving cognitive function of AD by interfering with the neurotoxic interaction between Aβ and tau remain to be explored.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this study is to clarify the specific mechanisms of HYD on interfering with the neurotoxic interaction between Aβ and tau of AD both in vivo and in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

APP/PS1/tau triple transgenic mice were randomly divided into 4 groups, namely model group, memantine group, HYD low-dose group (HYD-L), and HYD high-dose group (HYD-H) with 28 mice in each group, while 28 C57BL/6J mice as the control group. Gavage was applied to all the mice daily for 24 weeks. SH-SY5Y model cells overexpressing Aβ and tau proteins as the intervention object in vitro experiments. Morris water maze was used to observe the learning and memory ability of APP/PS1/tau mice. Aβ deposition was detected by immunohistochemistry, and the levels of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) were observed by silver staining and the levels of phosphorylated tau proteins were detected by Western blot. The GSK-3β and CDK-5 mRNA expression were detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Besides, the levels of PSD95, GluR1, NR2A, and NR2B were detected by Western blot. Meanwhile, cell experiments were performed to further verify the effect of HYD on tau phosphorylation related kinases (GSK-3β, CDK-5, and PP2A), which further to clarify the mechanism of HYD intervention on the neurotoxic interaction between Aβ and tau.

RESULTS

HYD improved the learning and memory ability of APP/PS1/tau mice. HYD decreased the levels of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 and inhibited tau hyperphosphorylation, which reduced Aβ deposition and NFTs forming. In addition, HYD inhibited the activity of kinases GSK-3β and CDK-5, and enhancing the activity of kinase PP2A. Moreover, HYD inhibited the overexpression of NR2A and NR2B, and increased the expression of GluR1 and postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD95).

CONCLUSIONS

HYD can improve the cognitive deficits by interfering with the neurotoxic interaction between Aβ and tau. In addition, HYD can inhibit the overactivation of NMDARs and increase the levels of GluR1 and PSD95, which may play a role in alleviating neuronal excitotoxicity and improving synaptic function.

Anatomical distribution of Fyn kinase in the human brain in Parkinson's disease

INTRODUCTION

Fyn kinase is an Src family kinase (SFK) widely expressed in many tissues, including the CNS. Recently, Fyn kinase activation has been associated with pathological mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative diseases and, as such, the role of Fyn dysfunction is under investigation. In particular, Fyn is implicated as a major upstream regulator of neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease (PD). Chronic neuroinflammation has been observed not just in the substantia nigra (SN), but also in several key regions of the brain, with disruption associated with symptoms presentation in PD. This study aimed to characterise the anatomical distribution of Fyn in key brain regions affected in PD, namely the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, striatum and SN.

METHODS

Fresh and fixed post-mortem PD brain samples (n = 10) were collected and compared with neurologically healthy age-matched controls (n = 7) to assess markers of Fyn activity and neuroinflammation.

RESULTS

Increased Fyn phosphorylation was observed in SN and striatum of post-mortem samples from PD patients compared with controls. No such increase was observed in the prefrontal cortex or hippocampus. In contrast with previous findings, no increase in microglial activation or astrocyte reactivity was observed in PD brains across regions.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these results indicate that Fyn dysfunction may be involved in the pathological processes observed in PD; however, this appears to be independent of inflammatory mechanisms. Further investigations are required to elucidate if increased Fyn activity is a potential cause or consequence of pathological processing in PD.

Exploring the benefits of in-diet versus repeated oral dosing of saracatinib (AZD0530) in chronic studies: insights into pharmacokinetics and animal welfare

Saracatinib/AZD0530 (SAR), a Src tyrosine kinase inhibitor, mitigates seizure-induced brain pathology in epilepsy models upon repeated oral dosing. However, repeated dosing is stressful and can be challenging in some seizing animals. To overcome this issue, we have incorporated SAR-in-Diet and compared serum pharmacokinetics (PK) and brain concentrations with conventional repeated oral dosing. Saracatinib in solution or in-diet was stable at room temperature for >4 weeks (97 ± 1.56%). Adult Sprague Dawley rats on SAR-in-Diet consumed ~1.7 g/day less compared to regular diet (16.82 ± 0.6 vs. 18.50 ± 0.5 g/day), but the weight gain/day was unaffected (2.63 ± 0.5 g/day vs. 2.83 ± 0.2 g/day). Importantly, we achieved the anticipated SAR dose range from 2.5-18.7 mg/kg of rat in response to varying concentrations of SAR-in-Diet from 54 to 260 ppm of feed, respectively. There was a strong and significant correlation between SAR-in-Diet dose (mg/kg) and serum saracatinib concentrations (ng/ml). Serum concentrations also did not vary significantly between SAR-in-Diet and repeated oral dosing. The hippocampal saracatinib concentrations derived from SAR-in-Diet treatment were higher than those derived after repeated oral dosing (day 3, 546.8 ± 219.7 ng/g vs. 238.6 ± 143 ng/g; day 7, 300.7 ± 43.4 ng/g vs. 271.1 ± 62.33 ng/g). Saracatinib stability at room temperature and high serum and hippocampal concentrations in animals fed on SAR-in-Diet are useful to titer the saracatinib dose for future animal disease models. Overall, test drugs in the diet is an experimental approach that addresses issues related to handling stress-induced variables in animal experiments.

The committed oligodendrocyte precursor cell, a newly-defined intermediate progenitor cell type in oligodendroglial lineage

In the central nervous system, oligodendrocytes (OLs) produce myelin sheaths that provide trophic support to neuronal axons and increase the propagation speed of action potential. OLs are constantly generated from OL precursor cells (OPCs) throughout life span. The production of myelinating OLs consists of three canonical stages: OPCs, newly-formed OLs (NFOs), and mature myelinating OLs. Recently, single-cell RNA transcriptomic analyses identified a new population of oligodendroglial cells, namely differentiation committed OPCs (COPs). COPs represent a critical intermediate population between OPCs and NFOs, as revealed by specific expression of G-protein coupled receptor 17 (GPR17). The dysregulation of COPs leads to the remyelination failure in demyelinating diseases and impairs the replacement of lost myelin sheaths due to aging. Hence, understanding the development of COPs and their underlying regulatory network will be helpful in establishing new strategies for promoting myelin repair in demyelinating diseases. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the development and functions of COPs under both physiological and pathological conditions. Overall, COPs function as "checkpoints" to prevent inappropriate precocious OL differentiation and myelination through expressing distinct regulatory factors. Deepening our understanding of COPs may not only advance our knowledge of how OL lineage progresses during development, but also open the door to new treatments for demyelinating diseases.

Pluripotential GluN1 (NMDA NR1): Functional Significance in Cellular Nuclei in Pain/Nociception

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors function as plasma membrane ionic channels and take part in very tightly controlled cellular processes activating neurogenic and inflammatory pathways. In particular, the NR1 subunit (new terminology: GluN1) is required for many neuronal and non-neuronal cell functions, including plasticity, survival, and differentiation. Physiologic levels of glutamate agonists and NMDA receptor activation are required for normal neuronal functions such as neuronal development, learning, and memory. When glutamate receptor agonists are present in excess, binding to NMDA receptors produces neuronal/CNS/PNS long-term potentiation, conditions of acute pain, ongoing severe intractable pain, and potential excitotoxicity and pathology. The GluNR1 subunit (116 kD) is necessary as the anchor component directing ion channel heterodimer formation, cellular trafficking, and the nuclear localization that directs functionally specific heterodimer formation, cellular trafficking, and nuclear functions. Emerging studies report the relevance of GluN1 subunit composition and specifically that nuclear GluN1 has major physiologic potential in tissue and/or subnuclear functioning assignments. The shift of the GluN1 subunit from a surface cell membrane to nuclear localization assigns the GluN1 promoter immediate early gene behavior with access to nuclear and potentially nucleolar functions. The present narrative review addresses the nuclear translocation of GluN1, focusing particularly on examples of the role of GluN1 in nociceptive processes.

Single-nucleus transcriptome analysis reveals transcriptional profiles of circadian clock and pain related genes in human and mouse trigeminal ganglion

Introduction

Clinical studies have revealed the existence of circadian rhythms in pain intensity and treatment response for chronic pain, including orofacial pain. The circadian clock genes in the peripheral ganglia are involved in pain information transmission by modulating the synthesis of pain mediators. However, the expression and distribution of clock genes and pain-related genes in different cell types within the trigeminal ganglion, the primary station of orofacial sensory transmission, are not yet fully understood.

Methods

In this study, data from the normal trigeminal ganglion in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were used to identify cell types and neuron subtypes within the human and mouse trigeminal ganglion by single nucleus RNA sequencing analysis. In the subsequent analyses, the distribution of the core clock genes, pain-related genes, and melatonin and opioid-related genes was assessed in various cell clusters and neuron subtypes within the human and mouse trigeminal ganglion. Furthermore, the statistical analysis was used to compare the differences in the expression of pain-related genes in the neuron subtypes of trigeminal ganglion.

Results

The present study provides comprehensive transcriptional profiles of core clock genes, pain-related genes, melatonin-related genes, and opioid-related genes in different cell types and neuron subtypes within the mouse and human trigeminal ganglion. A comparative analysis of the distribution and expression of the aforementioned genes was conducted between human and mouse trigeminal ganglion to investigate species differences.

Discussion

Overall, the results of this study serve as a primary and valuable resource for exploring the molecular mechanisms underlying oral facial pain and pain rhythms.

Peptide aptamer targeting Aβ-PrP-Fyn axis reduces Alzheimer's disease pathologies in 5XFAD transgenic mouse model

Currently, no effective therapeutics exist for the treatment of incurable neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The cellular prion protein (PrP^C) acts as a high-affinity receptor for amyloid beta oligomers (AβO), a main neurotoxic species mediating AD pathology. The interaction of AβO with PrP^C subsequently activates Fyn tyrosine kinase and neuroinflammation. Herein, we used our previously developed peptide aptamer 8 (PA8) binding to PrP^C as a therapeutic to target the AβO-PrP-Fyn axis and prevent its associated pathologies. Our in vitro results indicated that PA8 prevents the binding of AβO with PrP^C and reduces AβO-induced neurotoxicity in mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells and primary hippocampal neurons. Next, we performed in vivo experiments using the transgenic 5XFAD mouse model of AD. The 5XFAD mice were treated with PA8 and its scaffold protein thioredoxin A (Trx) at a 14.4 µg/day dosage for 12 weeks by intraventricular infusion through Alzet^® osmotic pumps. We observed that treatment with PA8 improves learning and memory functions of 5XFAD mice as compared to Trx-treated 5XFAD mice. We found that PA8 treatment significantly reduces AβO levels and Aβ plaques in the brain tissue of 5XFAD mice. Interestingly, PA8 significantly reduces AβO-PrP interaction and its downstream signaling such as phosphorylation of Fyn kinase, reactive gliosis as well as apoptotic neurodegeneration in the 5XFAD mice compared to Trx-treated 5XFAD mice. Collectively, our results demonstrate that treatment with PA8 targeting the AβO-PrP-Fyn axis is a promising and novel approach to prevent and treat AD.

Role of Fyn in hematological malignancies

BACKGROUND

Tyrosine kinase Fyn is a member of the Src family of kinases. In addition to the wild type, three mRNA splice isoforms of Fyn have been identified; Fyn-B, Fyn-T, and Fyn-C. Fyn-T is highly expressed in T lymphocytes, and its expression level is significantly higher in mature T cells than in immature T cells. The abnormal expression of Fyn is closely related to the metabolism, proliferation, and migration of tumor cells. Recent studies have shown that Fyn is expressed in a variety of tumor tissues, and its expression and function vary among different tumors. In some tumors, Fyn acts as a pro-oncogene to promote tumor proliferation and metastasis. Moreover, Fyn mutations have been detected in many hematological tumors in recent years, suggesting a critical regulatory role of Fyn in the development of malignancies.

METHODS

This review analyzed the relevant literature in PubMed and other databases.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to systemically review recent research findings on various aspects of Fyn in the pathogenesis and treatment of different types of hematological malignancies and suggests possible future research directions for targeted tumor therapy.

CONCLUSION

Fyn could be a novel prognostic marker and therapeutic target. Treatment option targeting Fyn might be beneficial for future studies.

Identification of immune signatures in Parkinson's disease based on co-expression networks

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease in middle-aged and elderly people, and there is less research on the relationship between immunity and PD. In this study, the protein-protein interaction networks (PPI) data, 2747 human immune-related genes (HIRGs), 2078 PD-related genes (PDRGs), and PD-related datasets (GSE49036 and GSE20292) were downloaded from the Human Protein Reference Database (HPRD), Amigo 2, DisGeNET, and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases, respectively. An immune- or PD-directed neighbor co-expressed network construction (IOPDNC) was drawn based on the GSE49036 dataset and HPRD database. Furthermore, a PD-directed neighbor co-expressed network was constructed. Modular clustering analysis was performed on the genes of the gene interaction network obtained in the first step to obtain the central core genes using the GraphWeb online website. The modules with the top 5 functional scores and the number of core genes greater than six were selected as PD-related gene modules. The Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses of different module genes were performed. The single sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (ssGSEA) algorithm was used to calculate the immune cell infiltration of the PD and the normal samples. The quantitative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR) was performed to investigate the expression of module genes. An IOPDNC and PD-directed neighbor co-expressed network (PDNC network) were constructed. Furthermore, a total of 5 immune-PD modules were identified which could distinguish between PD and normal samples, and these module genes were strongly related to PD in protein interaction level or gene expression level. In addition, functional analysis indicated that module genes were involved in various neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer disease, Huntington disease, Parkinson disease, and Long-term depression. In addition, the genes of the 6 modules were significantly associated with these 4 differential immune cells (aDC cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, and Th2 cells). Finally, the result of qRT-PCR manifested that the expression of 6 module genes was significantly higher in normal samples than in PD samples. In our study, the immune-related genes were found to be strongly related to PD and might play key roles in PD.

Fyn Signaling in Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury: Potential and Therapeutic Implications

Ischemic stroke caused by arterial occlusion is the most common type of stroke and is one of the leading causes of disability and death, with the incidence increasing each year. Fyn is a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase belonging to the Src family of kinases (SFKs), which is related to many normal and pathological processes of the nervous system, including neurodevelopment and disease progression. In recent years, more and more evidence suggests that Fyn may be closely related to cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, including energy metabolism disorders, excitatory neurotoxicity, intracellular calcium homeostasis, free radical production, and the activation of apoptotic genes. This paper reviews the role of Fyn in the pathological process of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, including neuroexcitotoxicity and neuroinflammation, to explore how Fyn affects specific signal cascades and leads to cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. In addition, Fyn also promotes the production of superoxide and endogenous NO, so as to quickly react to produce peroxynitrite, which may also mediate cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury, which is discussed in this paper. Finally, we revealed the treatment methods related to Fyn inhibitors and discussed its potential as a clinical treatment for ischemic stroke.

Recent Progress in Fluorescent Chemosensors for Protein Kinases

Protein kinases are involved in almost all biological activities. The activities of different kinases reflect the normal or abnormal status of the human body. Therefore, detecting the activities of different kinases is important for disease diagnosis and drug discovery. Fluorescent probes offer opportunities for studying kinase behaviors at different times and spatial locations. In this review, we summarize different kinds of fluorescent chemosensors that have been used to detect the activities of many different kinases.

Viral Proteins with PxxP and PY Motifs May Play a Role in Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a debilitating disease that arises from immune system attacks to the protective myelin sheath that covers nerve fibers and ensures optimal communication between brain and body. Although the cause of MS is unknown, a number of factors, which include viruses, have been identified as increasing the risk of displaying MS symptoms. Specifically, the ubiquitous and highly prevalent Epstein–Barr virus, human herpesvirus 6, cytomegalovirus, varicella–zoster virus, and other viruses have been identified as potential triggering agents. In this review, we examine the specific role of proline-rich proteins encoded by these viruses and their potential role in MS at a molecular level.