Impact of maturity on phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of medicinally important leaves of Ficus carica L

In silico study on antidiabetic and antioxidant activity of bioactive compounds in Ficus carica L

Hyperglycemia is one of the diagnostic issues in diabetes mellitus and is considered as a complex metabolic condition. It has been one of the most prevalent illnesses of the twenty-first century and still rising at an alarming rate across the globe and expected to impact 693 million individuals by 2045. Therefore, it is mandatory to develop more effective and safer treatments to manage diabetes. One of the ways to manage hyperglycemia is through inhibiting carbohydrate digestion and thereby lowering the glucose formation in the human body. The enzyme salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase is responsible for cleaving α-1,4-glucoside bond. Amylase inhibitors can lower blood glucose in diabetics by slowing digestion. Ficus carica is commonly known for its medicinal properties due to its various phytochemicals. In the present study, 10 phytochemicals present in F. carica compounds named, β-carotene, lutein, cyanidin-3-glucoside, gallic acid, luteolin, catechin, kaempferol, vanillic acid, peonidin-3-glucoside, and quercetin hydrate were taken to study their inhibition potential against pancreatic amylase and salivary amylase through molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Further, density functional theory calculations are used to investigate the delocalization of electron density on the molecule as well as study ADME properties of the molecules take. A QSAR model has been developed using the binding energy obtained using molecular docking and thermodynamic parameters from DFT calculations.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

From by-products to new application opportunities: the enhancement of the leaves deriving from the fruit plants for new potential healthy products

In the last decades, the world population and demand for any kind of product have grown exponentially. The rhythm of production to satisfy the request of the population has become unsustainable and the concept of the linear economy, introduced after the Industrial Revolution, has been replaced by a new economic approach, the circular economy. In this new economic model, the concept of "the end of life" is substituted by the concept of restoration, providing a new life to many industrial wastes. Leaves are a by-product of several agricultural cultivations. In recent years, the scientific interest regarding leaf biochemical composition grew, recording that plant leaves may be considered an alternative source of bioactive substances. Plant leaves' main bioactive compounds are similar to those in fruits, i.e., phenolic acids and esters, flavonols, anthocyanins, and procyanidins. Bioactive compounds can positively influence human health; in fact, it is no coincidence that the leaves were used by our ancestors as a natural remedy for various pathological conditions. Therefore, leaves can be exploited to manufacture many products in food (e.g., being incorporated in food formulations as natural antioxidants, or used to create edible coatings or films for food packaging), cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries (e.g., promising ingredients in anti-aging cosmetics such as oils, serums, dermatological creams, bath gels, and other products). This review focuses on the leaves' main bioactive compounds and their beneficial health effects, indicating their applications until today to enhance them as a harvesting by-product and highlight their possible reuse for new potential healthy products.

Tracking the Variations in Trace Elements, Some Nutrients, Phenolics, and Anthocyanins in Grewia asiatica L. (Phalsa) at Different Fruit Development Stages

Grewia asiatica L. (phalsa) is a very prevalent berry in Pakistan and is consumed extensively as raw or in the form of juice. Here, for the first time, we assessed phalsa from Pakistan in terms of variations in macro and micro minerals, nutrients, and bio-active phyto-constituents including total phenolic and anthocyanin contents at different fruit developmental stages. It was found that the sugars in phalsa increased from D1 (small at the initial fruit setting stage) to D6 development stage (fully ripened fruit) where sugars at D5 (near to fully ripe) and D6 stages were many times greater than at D1, D2 (unripe close to full-size completion), D3 (close to semi ripe), and D4 stage (semi ripened and full-size attainment). Total acidity of was declined in all developmental stages, where the D1 stage displayed maximum and D6 with the lowest acidity. Ascorbic acid was decreased from D1 to D2 and then increased gradually from D3 to D5 stages. At the D6 stage, again a steep decline in ascorbic acid was observed. The total phenolics (mg gallic acid equivalents/100g) at stage D6 were higher (136.02 ± 1.17), whereas D1 being the lowermost in total phenolic content (79.89 ± 1.72). For anthocyanins (mg/100g), an increasing pattern of changes was observed in all stages of phalsa fruit where the D1 stage showed lower (13.97 ± 4.84) anthocyanin contents which then increased gradually at stage D2 (67.79 ± 6.73), but increased sharply at D3 (199.66 ± 4.90), D4 (211.02 ± 18.85), D5 (328.41 ±14.96) and D6 (532.30 ± 8.51) stages. A total of four anthocyanins such as cyanidin, delphidine-3-glucoside, pelargonidin, and malvidin in phalsa were identified using HPLC procedures, and a significant > 90 % DPPH inhibition in phalsa was observed at the D5 and D6 development stages. The macro and micro minerals including Ni, Zn, Fe, Ca, Cu, Mg, Na, P, and K contents were decreased from initial (D1) stage to the final (D6) development stage, while only Fe displayed an increasing trend from the initial to final fruit development stages (D1-D6). Conclusively, these findings could be of great interest for patients who are intended to consume phalsa as adjuvant therapy against diabetes and metabolic syndromes and other diseases involving reactive oxygen species with minimum metal toxicity.

Effect of Immature Rubus occidentalis on Postoperative Pain in a Rat Model

Background and Objectives: This study aimed to identify the analgesic properties of immature Rubus occidentalis extract (iROE) using a postoperative-pain rat model. We also aimed to compare the analgesic effects of iROE to those of mature R. occidentalis extract (mROE) and examine the proinflammatory cytokine response and associated underlying mechanisms. Materials and Methods: In adult male Sprague Dawley rats, acute postoperative pain was induced through plantar hind-paw incisions. After the plantar incisions were made, the rats were intraperitoneally administered with normal saline or various doses of iROE and mROE to investigate and compare the analgesic effects of iROE and mROE. The mechanisms underlying iROE-induced analgesia were investigated via post-incisional administration of yohimbine, dexmedetomidine, prazosin, naloxone, atropine, or mecamylamine, followed by iROE. Mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) evaluations with von Frey filaments were carried out at different time points. Serum levels of tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 were measured to assess inflammatory responses. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and linear mixed-effects model (LMEM) analysis were used to analyze the analgesic effect data. Results: The MWTs demonstrated significant increases in iROE in a dose-dependent manner up to 2 h after the plantar incisions were made. An LMEM analysis demonstrated that iROE yielded a significantly greater analgesic effect than mROE, but there was no significant difference between the two according to MANOVA. Dexmedetomidine enhanced the MWT-confirmed iROE response, while yohimbine and naloxone diminished it. Administration of iROE significantly attenuated the post-incisional increases in serum IL-1β and IL-6 levels. Conclusions: The iROE demonstrated analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects in a rat model of incisional pain, which were more pronounced than those associated with mROE. The analgesic activity of iROE may be associated with α₂-adrenergic and opioid receptors.

Insight into the antioxidant activities of ten Fabaceae plant species that are medicinally used by the Aucan Tribal Peoples from the Republic of Suriname (South America)

Fabaceae are associated with a high antioxidant activity (AA) and a high total phenolic (TPC), total flavonoid (TFC), and selenium content (SeC). In this study, the aqueous extracts from ten Fabaceae species that are medicinally used by the Aucan Tribal Peoples from Suriname (South America), were evaluated for AA using a DPPH and a FRAP assay, and for TPC, TFC, and SeC using Folin-Ciocalteu's, an AlCl3 colorimetric, and an azure B-based method. Associations between pairs of these variables were determined by Pearson correlation coefficient. One-way ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey's test was used to evaluate the data for statistically significant differences (p < 0.05). The I. stipularis (bark), C. guyanensis (bark), A. jupunba (twigs), and M. urens (fruit) extracts had the highest DPPH IC50 values (36 - 70 μg/mL) and FRAP values (346 - 573 μM FeE/100 μg) and the highest TPC (25 - 41 GAEq/100 μg), TFC (21 - 39 REq/100 μg), and SeC (4 -17 μg/g). The values for the T. indica (leaf), P. macroloba (bark), M. pigra (whole plant), S. quinquangulata (leaf), A. sensitiva (whole plant), and L. leucocephala (leaf) extracts were > 10-fold lower. AA, TPC, TFC, and SeC correlated well with each other (correlation coefficient ≥ 0.83, p ≤ 0.0030). Thus, AA, TPC, TFC, and SeC may represent important determinants of the health benefits of the former four samples but not of the others. Future studies should focus on the precise contribution of AA, TPC, TFC, and SeC to the therapeutic value of medicinal Fabaceae.

Effects of Maturity and Thermal Treatment on Phenolic Profiles and In Vitro Health-Related Properties of Sacha Inchi Leaves

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) has been adopted as a novel economic crop with well-studied nutritional and bioactive benefits for human health. Sacha inchi seeds and oil have high commercial value but scant research has focused on its leaves. This study investigated and compared phenolic compositions, antioxidant potentials and in vitro health-related properties of both young and mature sacha inchi leaves after freeze-drying and oven-drying processes. Results showed that p-coumaric acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid and gallic acid were predominantly detected in both young and mature leaves that also exhibited similar total phenolic contents (TPCs), while higher TPCs were detected in freeze-dried than in oven-dried leaves. Mature leaves exhibited higher antioxidant potential than young leaves after freeze-drying, while the opposite results were observed for oven-drying. Overall in vitro health-related activities were higher in mature leaves compared to young leaves regardless of the drying process. Knowledge gained from this study can be used to encourage prospective utilization of sacha inchi leaves as a source of health-promoting compounds. This, in turn, will increase the commercial value of the leaves and provide a wider market variety of sacha inchi products.

Rapid Prediction of Fig Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids Using Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy Combined With Partial Least Square Regression

Mid-infrared spectroscopy using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) correction was coupled with partial least square regression (PLSR) for the prediction of phenolic acids and flavonoids in fig (peel and pulp) identified with high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector (HPLC-DAD), with regards to their partitioning between peel and pulp. HPLC-DAD was used to quantify the phenolic compounds (PCs). The FTIR spectra were collected between 4,000 and 450 cm^-1 and the data in the wavenumber range of 1.175-940 cm^-1, where the deformations of O-H, C-O, C-H, and C=C corresponded to flavanol and phenols, were used for the establishment of PLSR models. Nine PLSR models were constructed for peel samples, while six were built for pulp extracts. The results showed a high-throughput accuracy of such an approach to predict the PCs in the powder samples. Significant differences were detected between the models built for the two fruit parts. Thus, for both peel and pulp extracts, the coefficient of determination (R²) ranged from 0.92 to 0.99 and between 0.85 and 0.95 for calibration and cross-validation, respectively, along with a root mean square error (RMSE) values in the range of 0.46-0.9 and 0.23-2.05, respectively. Residual predictive deviation (RPD) values were generally satisfactory, where cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside had the higher level (RPD > 2.5). Similar differences were observed based on the distribution revealed by partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), which showed a remarkable overlapping in the distribution of the samples, which was intense in the pulp extracts. This study suggests the use of FTIR-ATR as a rapid and accurate method for PCs assessment in fresh fig.

Valorization of Fig (Ficus carica L.) Waste Leaves: HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS-DPPH System for Online Screening and Identification of Antioxidant Compounds

Fig (Ficus carica L.) leaves are produced each year and often disposed, resulting in a waste of resources. Fig waste leaves are rich in flavonoids, which have strong antioxidant activity; however, the variety and chemical structure of antioxidants in fig leaves have not been reported in detail. To take full advantage of fig waste leaves, antioxidant capacity of different extracts (petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and water) was evaluated by 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic) acid (ABTS), and ferric-ion-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) methods. The results showed that flavonoids in ethyl acetate extraction had the highest content (83.92 ± 0.01 mg/g), maximum DPPH scavenging activity (IC₅₀ 0.54 mg/mL), highest ABTS scavenging rate (80.28%), and FRAP (3.46 mmol/g). Furthermore, an HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS-DPPH method was developed to identify 11 flavonoids in fig waste leaves. This rapid and efficient method can not only be used for screening the antioxidant components in fig waste leaves, but also can be combined with mass spectrometry to identify the compounds with antioxidant capacity. There are three flavonoids with significant antioxidant capacity, which are 3-O-(rhamnopyranosyl-glucopyranosyl)-7-O-(glucopyranosyl)-quercetin, isoschaftoside, and rutin. The results confirmed that fig waste leaves contain a variety of antioxidant components, which contributed to increase the value of fig waste leaves as antioxidants.

Influence of extraction solvents on the polyphenol contents, compositions, and antioxidant capacities of fig (Ficus carica L.) seeds

Fig seeds are considered to be significantly responsible for the bioactive compounds of fig. In this study, the effects of six different solvents (100% acetone, 100% methanol, 100% ethanol, 50% (v/v) aqueous acetone, 50% (v/v) aqueous methanol and 50% (v/v) aqueous ethanol) with changing polarities on the polyphenol contents and antioxidant capacities of fig seed extracts were investigated. Total polyphenol contents (TPCs), total flavonoid contents (TFCs), antioxidant capacities (DPPH and FRAP assays) and polyphenol compositions of the extracts were evaluated. The results indicated that fig seeds extracted by 50% (v/v) aqueous methanol exhibited the highest TPC (714 mg GAE/kg DM), TFC (312 mg (+)-CE/kg DM), DPPH (41.6%) and FRAP (8504 mg FeSO4/kg DM) values. Also, same extract had the maximum values of chlorogenic acid (131.9 mg/kg DM), (-)-epicatechin (166.4 mg/kg DM) and rutin (50.7 mg/kg DM) (p<0.05). The extractability of syringic acid was determined to be highest with 50% aqueous methanol (8.03 mg/kg DM) and 50% aqueous ethanol (8.13 mg/kg DM) (p>0.05). The psoralen extractability was highest in 50% aqueous acetone (53.0 mg/kg DM) and 50% aqueous ethanol (54.0 mg/kg DM) (p>0.05). High correlations among TPCs, TFCs, antioxidant capacities and individual polyphenols of fig seed extracts were also observed.

The effects of natural compounds on wound healing in Iranian traditional medicine: A comprehensive review

Wounds are physical and anatomical disruption in healthy skin and represent an important healthcare concern around the world. Wound healing is a complex and dynamic cascade of cellular and molecular interactions which include four main phases: hemostasis, inflammatory, proliferative, and remodeling. Therefore, some pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities can play a key role in the process of wound healing. Iranian Traditional Medicine (ITM) has a rich background of practice and a wealth of ancient medicine scientists from the Old Persian days until today. This paper presents and characterizes pure data from original references of ITM about wound remedies and verifies their function by reviewing articles from three databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus), which could be an interesting and comprehensive resource for future researchers interested in traditional medicine (TM) generally and in ITM in particular. Selected natural compounds from the references were divided into 5 groups, including herbs, herbal products, animal products, minerals, and animals. In total, 23 natural compounds with regard to the current state of knowledge and ITM were introduced and verified. The present review will provide better insights into ITM and its extensive experience in topics such as wound healing.

Potential Activity of Aqueous Fig Leaves Extract, Olive Leaves Extract and Their Mixture as Natural Preservatives to Extend the Shelf Life of Pasteurized Buffalo Milk

The aim of this study was to evaluate fig (Ficus carica L.) leaves’ extract (FLE), olive (Olea europaea L.) leaves’ extract (OLE), and their mixture (MLE), to extend the shelf life of pasteurized milk. OLE, FLE, and their mixture MLE (1:1) were added to the pasteurized milk in different concentrations (0.2%, 0.4%, and 0.6%). Several tests were then conducted to determine the activity of these extracts. The antioxidant activity as IC₅₀ was determined by using DPPH radical assay. FLE showed higher IC₅₀ (30.21 µg/mL) compared to the IC₅₀ of OLE (22.43 µg/mL). Phenolic compounds were identified by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The highest antimicrobial activity was obtained with 0.6% concentration. Organoleptic properties indicated that the addition of these extracts did not affect the sensory properties of pasteurized milk. Pasteurized milk treated with 0.6% of FLE, OLE, and MLE has significantly decreased (p ≤ 0.05) lipase and protease activity during the storage period, at 5 °C. The results indicated that extending the shelf life of pasteurized milk from 5 to 16 days was successfully achieved through using 0.6% of FLE, OLE, and MLE. The combination of the two extracts (MLE) provides an efficient and safe method to prolong the shelf life of pasteurized milk, without altering the properties of pasteurized buffalo milk.

Agrobacterium rhizogenes mediated transformation of Ficus carica L. for the efficient production of secondary metabolites

BACKGROUND

Ficus carica L., an ancient source of food and medicines, is rich in valuable nutritional and secondary compounds with antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer effects. The present study is the first attempt to examine hairy root (HR) induction of F. carica (Sabz and Siah) by inoculating the 3-week-old shoots and leaves with different strains of Agrobacterium rhizogenes and also to investigate methyl jasmonate (MeJA) elicitation of HRs to produce a fast and high-yield production method for secondary metabolites.

RESULTS

The maximum transformation rate (100%) was achieved by inoculating the shoots with Agrobacterium rhizogenes strain A7. Siah HRs elicited with 100 and 200 μmol L^-1 MeJA and Sabz HRs with 100 μmol L^-1 MeJA showed the highest total phenolic content. The highest flavonoid content was 3.935 mg QE g^-1 DW in Siah HRs treated with 200 μmol L^-1 MeJA and 2.762 mg QE g^-1 DW in Sabz HRs treated with 300 μmol L^-1 MeJA. The 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capacity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) value of HRs were affected by MeJA treatments. Methyl jasmonate elicitation also significantly enhanced the content of six phenolic acids (gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, coumaric acid, rosmarinic acid, and cinnamic acid) and three flavonoids (rutin, quercetin, and apigenin). Thymol, a monoterpene phenol, was the main HR compound detected in gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the essential oils.

CONCLUSION

Induction of HRs and elicitation of F. carica HRs by MeJA resulted in a significant increase in the production of important phenolic compounds and a significant increase in antioxidant capacity. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Neutralization of a bothropic PLA2-like protein by caftaric acid, a novel potent inhibitor of ophidian myotoxicity

Envenoming by snakebite is an important global health issue that has received little attention, leading the World Health Organization to naming it as neglected tropical disease. Several snakebites present serious local symptoms manifested on victims that may not be efficiently neutralized by serum therapy. Phospholipase A₂-like (PLA₂-like) toxins are present in Viperidae venoms and are responsible for local myotoxic activity. Herein, we investigated the association between BthTX-I toxin and caftaric acid (CFT), a molecule present in plants. CFT neutralized neuromuscular blocking and muscle-damaging activities promoted by BthTX-I. Calorimetric and light-scattering assays demonstrated that CFT inhibitor interacted with dimeric BthTX-I. Bioinformatics simulations indicated that CFT inhibitor binds to the toxin's hydrophobic channel (HCh). According to the current myotoxic mechanism, three different regions of PLA₂-like toxins have specific tasks: protein allosteric activation (HCh), membrane dockage (MDoS), and membrane rupture (MDiS). We propose CFT inhibitor interferes with the allosteric activation, which is related to the conformation change leading to the exposure/alignment of MDoS/MDiS region. This is the first report of a PLA₂-like toxin fully inhibited by a compound that interacts only with its HCh region. Thus, CFT is a novel candidate to complement serum therapy and improve the treatment of snakebite.

Salicylic acid-enhanced biosynthesis of pharmacologically important lignans and neo lignans in cell suspension culture of Linum ussitatsimum L

Linum usitatsimum L. (flax) is a perennial herb with magnitude of medicinal and commercial applications. In the present study, we investigated the effects of salicylic acid (SA) on biosynthesis of lignans (secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) and lariciresinol diglucoside (LDG)) and neolignans (dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol glucoside (DCG) and guaiacylglycerol-β-coniferyl alcohol ether glucoside (GGCG)) in cell cultures of flax. Moderate concentration of SA (50 μM) enhanced biomass accumulation (10.98 g/L dry weight (DW)), total phenolic content (37.81 mg/g DW), and antioxidant potential (87.23%) to two-fold than their respective controls after 72 h of exposure. However, higher levels of total flavonoid content (5.32 mg/g DW) were noted after 48 h of exposure to 50 μM of SA. HPLC analyses revealed that 50 μM SA, significantly enhanced biosynthesis of SDG (7.95 mg/g DW), LDG (7.52 mg/g DW), DCG (54.90 mg/g DW), and GGCG (16.78 mg/g DW), which was almost 2.7, 1.8, 3.88, and 3.98 fold higher than their respective controls after 72 h of exposure time, respectively. These results indicated that moderate concentrations of SA had significant effects on biosynthesis and productivity of lignans and neolignans in cell culture of L. usitatissimum.